Soil Mechanics Book Print Feb2555

1.
version MS word 2003 MS word 2010

ii

2554
e
n
w
wL
wP
wS
IP
S
Ko
i
icr
mv
icr
q
Effective normal stress

Shear stress
Void ratio
Porosity
Water content
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Shrinkage limit
Plasticity index
Degree of saturation
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
Hydraulic gradient
Critical hydraulic gradient
Coefficient of volume compressibility
Critical hydraulic gradient
Load, flow rate
Flow volume
1.1 ........................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 ................................................................................................................ 7
1.3 ..........................................................................................................................9
1.4 .....................................................................10
1.5 ...................................................................12
1.6 SOIL MECHANICS ?.................................................................................................................14
1.7 SOIL MECHANICS IN SUMMARY...........................................................................................................15
1.8 .......................................................................................................15
1.9 ............................................................................................16
1.10 SOIL STRENGTH COMPRESSIBILITY THE IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS (CLAYTON, MILITITSKY
ET AL. 1993)...............................................................................................................................................16
2
2.1 ...................................................................................................................................................19
2.2 ROCK CYCLE .......................................................................................................................................20
2.3 ......................................................................................................................................21
2.4 SOIL FORMATION.................................................................................................................................23
2.5 (CLAY MINERAL) ....................................................................................30
2.6 ADSORBED WATER ......................................................................................36
2.7 SOIL STRUCTURE SOIL STRUCTURE ...................................................................................................40
2.8 ......................................................................................................................................42
19
43
3.1 ........................................................................................................................................43
3.2 .............................................................................................................................44
3.3 ................................48
3.4 INDEX PROPERTIES ........................................................62
3.5 ATTERBERG LIMITS (LIQUID LIMIT, PLASTIC LIMIT, PLASTICITY INDEX) .........................................64
3.6 .......................................................................................................................................71
3.7 ......................................................................................................................................78
4
81
4.1 ........................................................................................................................................81
4.2 ..............................................................................................82
4.3 (SOIL FILTERS) ..........................................................................................92
4.4 ...........................................................................94
4.5 (LAMBE AND WHITMAN 1928) .................................95
4.6 UNIFIELD SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM ..................................................97
4.7 AASHTO ........................................................................................................100
4.8 ....................................................................................................................................105
5 PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE
108
5.1 ......................................................................................................................................108
5.2 PRESSURE AND HEAD ........................................................................................................................109
5.3 (DARCYS LAW) ..........................................................................................................111
5.4 K ? .......................................................................................................114
5.5 (FLOW THROUGH A LAYERED SOIL) ...........121
5.6 (SEEPAGE THEORY) ..................................................................................................128
5.7 FLOW NET ()............................................................................................................130
5.8 (CALCULATION OF SEEPAGE QUANTITIES) ............................134
5.9 SEEPAGE FORCE .................................................................................................................................142
5.10 FLOW NET ANISOTROPIC TRANSFORMED SECTION .....................152
5.11 .................................................................154
5.12 FINITE DIFFERENCE .................................................158
ii
5.13 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD ..........................................159

5.14 ..................................................................................................................................163
6
169
6.1 ......................................................................................................................................169
6.2 .........................................................................................................................169
6.3 (EFFECTIVE STRESS) ....................................................................................174
6.4 ........................................................................................................................175
6.5 CAPILLARY ....................................................................................................................178
6.6 ..............................................................................................179
6.7 ..........................................................................................183
6.8 (STRESS FROM EXTERMAL APPLIED LOAD)
BOUSSINESQS EQUATION .......................................................................................................................185
6.9 FLEXIBLE ......................................................................199
6.10 .....................................................................................................205
6.11 MOHRS CIRCLE ........................................................................................207
6.12 ................................................................................................216
6.13 ..................................................................................................................................218
7 (CONSOLIDATION)
225
7.1 ........................................................................229
7.2 - ........................................................................232
7.3 CONSOLIDATION TEST ( ) ....................................................................234
7.4 ................................................................................................239
7.5 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION ..........................................................245
7.6 ...................................................................247
7.7 1 TERZAGHI ....................................................................................252
7.8 (PRE-COMPRESSION, PRE-LOADING) ........276
7.9 EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE AND FOUNDATION SIZE (AZIZI) .....................................................................279
7.10 FIELD COMPRESSION CURVE ...........................................................281
7.11 ..................................................................................................................................283
8
288
iii
8.1 .....................................................................................290
8.2 MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERIA ..............................................................................................295
8.3 (FAILURE ENVELOPE) OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAY ................299
8.4 ................................301
8.1 ...................................................................................................................303
8.2 ................................................................................................................314
8.3 (USACE 1990) ........................................................315
8.4 ..................................................................................316
8.1 ....................................................................317
8.2 OCR PEAK STRENGTH ............................................................................319
8.3 CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL ......................................................................320
8.4 AXISYMMETRIC ...........................................320
8.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (UC TEST) ...........................................................................................322
8.6 UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (UU TEST) .....................................................................................323
8.7 MOHR-COULOMB ...............................................................................329
8.8 MOHRS CIRCLE POLE METHOD ...................................332
8.9 DIRECT SHEAR .........................................................335
8.10 UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED AND OVER CONSOLIDATED SOIL341
8.11 ..................................................................................................................................345

348
350
351
352
iv
1

( 1-1 1-2) ,
, ,
,

1-1
1-2
1.1

1-3

1-3 (
)
1.2

1-6

1-4 2
1-5
1-6
1.3

( 1-7)
1-8
1-7
1-8 -
1.4

10

1-9 1-10

1-9
11
1-10
1.5

,
, ,

, ,
,
1-11
1-12
12
1-11 17
2540 ( )
1-12 -
13
1.6 Soil mechanics ?

Soil mechanics Mechanics Hydraulic

1. ?
2.
Any unconsolidated materials that can be
3.
excavated and handled with pick and shovel.
4.
5.
6. ( )
7.
Highway engineering,
Foundation Engineering, Earth structure

( 1-13)
14
SLAPPE BODEM
K
EVENSGEVAARLIJ
VER BOD EN
ANG
TOEG
4 6 1 W E TB.
ART
1-13 (CUR_Rport_162 1996)
1.7 Soil mechanics in summary

( )
()
,

1.8

Continuum
(normal stress) (shear stress)

structural mechanics

15
1.9

( )
Non-saturated Un-saturated

(interlocking) (structure)
(inter-particle friction)

( ) (
) ( u ) Terzaghi 1936
1.10 Soil strength compressibility the importance of effective stress (Clayton, Milititsky
et al. 1993)

1

1-14

1
Any unconsolidated materials that can be excavated and handled with pick and shovel.
16
1-14 (
)

(
)
(interlock)
- (electro-chemical) Van der
Walls

(Seta) 1
1-15 2
2 40.8
8
1
Kellar Autumn et. al. (2002), Evidence for van der Waals adhesion in gecko setae, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America
2
journal Nature v. 405: 681-685
17
(a)
(b)
(c)
1-15 (Seta) (a) , (b) 400 , (c) 1500

1-16 20,000
18
2.1
(aggregate4) (cemented)

2-1
5.a cluster of soil granules not larger than a small crumb. 6.any of various loose, particulate materials, as sand, gravel, or pebbles, added to a
cementing agent to make concrete, plaster, etc.aggregate. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved November 04, 2007, from
Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aggregate

The way the soil deposits were formed
The nature of the soils found in the soil deposits

2.2 Rock Cycle
Me
tam
orp
h is

(Igneous Rock)
(Sedimentary Rock)
(Metamorphic Rock)
Rock cycle
C
cr o o l
ys i n
ta g a
lls n
at d
io
n
Me
2-2
(Igneous Rock)
20
ltin
(Magma)
(Sedimentary Rock)

(Metamorphic Rock)
,

2.3

Weathering
Weathering (Disintegration) (Decomposition)

( 2-3) ( 130
) ( 180 )

21
2-3
5
2.3.1 (Mechanical Weathering)

(Cohesionless Soil)
Temperature change -
22
2-4
Erosion
Abrasion -

2.3.2 (Chemical Weathering)
Oxidation- Ion Oxygen
Carbonation - + Carbondioxide -> Carbonic Acid

Leaching -

Hydration -

2.4 Soil Formation

2
23
2.4.1 Residual Soil

(Ferrous) (Laterite)
50%
50-90%
90%
2-5 (Residual Soil) (Ruxton et al., 1957)
2.4.2 Sediment Soils (Transported Soils)

24
ne
Shore li
ent
m
n
o
envir
River
environment
Lake
environment
Glacial
environment
Dry lake
Delta plain
Tidal flat
and marsh
D
e n v e se r t
i ro n
me n
Alluvial fan
Beach
Dunes
2-6
Alluvium Alluvial

25
2-7
Alluvial
2-8
Marine Marine Clay

Marine Clay
26

Marine clay

2-9
400
( 2-10 2-11)
10 20
North
South
Singburi
Angthong
Ayuthaya
Bangkok
Pathumthani
Gulf of
Thailand
0
Bangkok
50
50
Phrapradaeng
100
100
Nakhonluang
150
150
Depth (m)
Nonthaburi
200
200
250
250
Samkok
Bed Rodck
300
300
350
350
Phayathai
400
450
400
450
Thonburi
500
500
Paknam
550
Bed Rodck
550
2-9 (Balasubramaniam and Brenner 1981)
Terrestrial deposits
+10
Assumed marine/terrestrial break
.)
0
Marine clay
-10
Pockets of soft clay (Eide, 1967)
-20
-30
Sand
-40
Clay
-50
-60
Sand
Soil data from NEDECO (1965)

140
120
100
Yellow, red and brown

mottled, stiff clay
80
60
40
20
2-10 (NEDECO, 1965)

27

+10
0
Grey fine sand
Grey, soft silty clay
Sand lenses
.)
-10
-20
-30
Grey brown, very stiff, silty clay
Brown, stiff, silty clay
Brown sandy clay

Yellow and grey, medium sand
Sand layers
Brown, very stiff, silty clay
-40
Yellow brown, stiff, silty clay
?
Brown, stiff clay
Yellow brown, hard clay

Brown and yellow sand
-50
Brown sand
Brown hard clay
-60
Soil data from COX (1968), CHAI et al. (1963) and N.G.I. (1967)
2-11 -
Lacustrine
2-12
28
Brown, stiff clay
Gracial Drift
2-13
Aeolian Loess (Silt)

Silty Clay 0.06 . Strength Strength

2-14
29
2-15
(fine grained soil) (coarse

grained soil)

2.5 (Clay Mineral)

(Chemical Weathering)
0.002 (Flat plates),
(Needles) , (tubes) (rods)

15 X-ray
diffraction Aluminum silicates
silica tetrahedron alumina tetrahedron
2.5.1 Silica Tetrahedron
Tetrahedron oxygen 4 Silicon 1
Silica Sheet
30
Silicon
Oxygen
(a)
(b)
2-16 Silica tetrahedron (a) (b) Silica

sheet (Das 1995)
2.5.2 Alumina Octahedron

Octahedron hydroxyl 6 Aluminum 1 Anluminum
hydroxyl octahedral sheets ( Gibbsite sheet)
Aluminum Magnesium Octahedron unit Brucite sheet
Aluminum
Oxygen or Hydroxyl
(a)
(b)
2-17 Alumina Tetrahedron (a) (b)

Alumina sheet (Das 1995)
Basic sheet structure bonding

31

Silica sheet
Silica sheet
Alumina sheet
Alumina sheet
+
Potassium ions
Loosely held
water and
exchangeable
metallic ions
Alumina sheet
Silica sheet
Hydrogen
bonds
10 A
7.2 A
(a) Kaolinite
Variable from 9.6 A

to complete
seperation
(b) Illite
(c) Montmorillonite
2-18 (a) (b) (c)
(Kaolinite)
Kaolinite (EKA) Kaolinite Aluminosilicates
China Clay Kao-Lin Kaolin

Feldspar Hydrothermal
(soft matrix)
Feldspar Kaolinite Kaolinite

Kaolinite Silica tetrahedron 1 Alumina
Octahedron 1 Hydrogen bonding Kaolinite
100
(illite)
Alumina octahedral 1 Silica tetrahedron 2
2-15 Octahedral sheet Magnesium Aluminum
Tetrahedron sheet Aluminum Silicon
Potassium
(Non-exchangeable)
32
2-19 Kaolinite 6 ( 3333 )
(Montmorillonite)
Illite Magnesium Aluminum
Octahedral sheet Exchangeable Cation
(Unstable) Montmorillonite
Bentonite

2-20 Shear Strength
33
Undisturbed
Su
( Su )t
Remoulded
( Su ) r
2-21 Thixotropy Thixotropy
140
Thixotropic regain (%)
Bentonite
40
Illite
Kaolinite
Time
2-22 3
hydrostatic
Filter cake
2-23
34
. .

2-24 2 3
X-ray diffraction Calcium montmorillonite
2-24 . .
Calcium montmorillonite
Lin (Counts)
Quartz
Red clay
Montmorillonite
White clay
10
20
30
40
50
60
2-Theta scale
2-25 X-ray diffraction Montmorillonite

35

2-26
Desiccation cracks
Open tension cracks
Zone of seasonal
ground water fluctuation
Pipers supported
by friction
Soil expands
when wet
Slab and wall

cracks
Desiccation cracks
Pier drops no adhesion
2-26
2.6 adsorbed water

1cm1cm1cm (
) 1cm3 6cm2
1mm1mm1mm
60cm2
0.01m2/g
montmorillonite 1000m2/g
10 20 m2/g
36
65 100 m2/g
=1
= 1 cm3
= 6 cm2
= 1000
= 1 cm3
= 60 cm2
2-27 (a) 1cm1cm1cm (b)

1mm1mm1mm 1000

(specific surface)
2-1
()
Montmorillonite
Illite
Kaolinite
0.01
1000
65 100
10 20
2-1

Montmorillonite

37
2-28 Pyramidal diagentic quartz overgrowth on a sand grain with associated Kaolinite platelets
(www.geos.ed.ac.uk)
ion
()

(Cation) K+, Na+, Ca2+, Al3+

(Polar molecule)

Oxygen
O
0.97 A
H
105
1.54 A
Symbol
Hydrogen
2-29 (Polar molecule)

38
2
Random water
Water in this zone

is adsorbed water
(water attracted
and bound to clay
particle)
Clay particle (not to scale)
Limits of
diffuse
double layer
Random water
Water molucule
Cation
2-30 Adsorbed water and cations in diffuse double layer surrounding clay particle.
Diffuse double layer

Adsorbed water

( )

0.005
110

Capillary

39
2-31 (Head 1980)
Double-layer water
200 A
Adsorbed water
Kaolinite
10 A
Double-layer
water
400 A
Montmorillonite
1000 A
200 A
Adsorbed water
400 A
2-32 Double-layer water
2.7 Soil Structure Soil Structure

2.7.1 (Cohesionless soil)
0.074mm (Non
plastic silt) 2
-
2-33
40

(Honeycombed)

2-34
2.7.2 (Cohesive soil)

0.074mm (Clay)
(Plastic silt) 2
Dispersed
Flocculated
2-35 Flocculated Dispersed
Dispersed

Flocculated
41
Dispersed

Tunnel
2-36

(homogeneous) 32
2533 2
2 10
300 150 (
-)
2.8
1.
2.
3.

111
0.10.10.01
42
3.1

index properties

Atterberg limit

3.2
(Soil Mass) 3

1
Va
Weight
Volume
Ww
VW
WS
VS
3-1
3-1 V
( )
V Vs Vv
V s V w Va
Vs
Vv ( )
Vw
Va
3-1
W Ws Ww
Ws
Ww
44
3.2.1
(void ratio, e )

e
Vv
Vs
(3.1)
(porosity, n )
Vv
V
(3.2)
(degree of saturation, S )
S = 100
S = 0

S
Vw
Vs
3.1
45
(3.3)
Void ratio Porosity

Vv eVs
Vv
Vv V s
Vv / Vv
Vv / Vv (Vs / Vv )
e
1 e
(Moisture content or water content, w )

water content

water content
w
Ww
Ws
(Total unit weight, t )
W
V
( Ws ), Moisture content ( w )
( V )
Ws Ww
V
W (1 Ww / Ws )
s
V
W (1 w)
s
V
(Dry unit weight, d )

d
Ws
V
1 w
(Specific gravity, Gs )
4C
46
3
Gs
s
w
Ws
V w
2.6-2.9
(quartz)
2.65
2.66-2.90

2.65
2.0
1
3-1
Mineral
Gs (g/cm 3 )
Quartz
Kaolinite
Illite
Montmorillonite
Peat
2.65
2.60
2.80
2.65 - 2.80
1.0 1.2
3-2
Gs
Quart Sand
Silt
Clay
Chalk
Loess
Peat
2.64-2.66
2.65-2.73
2.66-2.90
2.67-2.75
2.68-2.73
1.30-1.90
47
3.3

Weight
Volume
Water
e w
e w s
s
Solid
3-2 ()
t
t
e w s (e Gs ) w
1 e
1 e
d
d
s
1 e
Gs w
1 e

t e Gs
d
Gs
d
t Gs
e Gs
void ratio water content

w
e w e
s Gs

48
3
d
t
1 w
(compaction test)

0
(Relative density)
( 0.075 )
Dr
emax e
emax emin

emax
emin
Dr 1
Dr 0
e

3-12 (a) 3-12 (b)
Void ratio Porosity
3-3
49

3-3
Void ratio, e
Porosity, n
Density,
emax 0.91
emin 0.35
nmax 26%
nmin 48%
min
max
3-4
Relative density
(%)
0-15
15-50
50-70
70-85
85-100
Description of soil
deposit
Very Loose
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very Dense
void
ratio
e
Gs w
1
d
1 1

d (min) d
Dr
1 1
d
(min)
d (max)

d d (min) d (max)
Dr
d (max) d (min) d
d (min)
d (max)

50
(3.4)
d (min)
0.5 1
1
d (min)
Ws
Vm
Ws
(1 )
d (max)
2 3600
0.025
Vm
d (max)
Ws
V
3.1
water content = 27% 1.97 t/m2
a) , b) void ratio, c) specific gravity
1 m3
Weight
Volume
Ww
w
Water
W w 0 . 27W s
1 m3
Ws
G s w
Solid
3-4
Ww 0.27Ws
Ww
0.27
Ws
51
Ws

1.97
Ws Ww
1.97
1 m3
Ws 0.27Ws 1.97
Ws 1.55 t/m
a) Dry density
Ww
V
1.55
1m 3
1.55t/m 3
b) Void ratio
Vv
Ww
w
0.27(1.55)
0.42m 3
3
1m
Vs V-Vv
1.0 0.42 0.58m 3
e
Vv
Vs
0.42
0.724
0.58
c) Specific gravity
Vs
Ws
0.58
Gs w
Gs
1.55
2.67
0.581.0
3.2
Water content 14.7% 0.1mx0.1mx0.1m 18.4 N
a) Unit weight, b) Void ratio, c) Degree of saturation
52
3
Volume
Weight
Air
Vv
0.001
m3
Water
0.147 Ws
18.4 N
Vs
Solid
Ws
3-5
a)
Ws 0.147W s 18.4
Ws 16.04 N
Ww (16.04)(0.147) 2.36 N
18.4
18.4 kN/m 3
3
0.001m
Vs
Ws
Gs w
b) Void ratio
16.04
6.011 10 4 m 3
(2.72)(9.81)(100)
Vv 0.001 Vs
0.001 6.011104 3.989 104 m3

e
Vv 3.989 10 4
Vs 6.01110 4
c) Degree of saturation
Vw
Ww
2.36
2.406 10 4 m 3
(9.81)(100)
Vw 2.406 10 4
100 60.3%
S
Vv 3.989 10 4
53
3.3
void ratio ( S 100% )
a) Unit weight, b) Water content, c) Unit weight water content
Weight
Volume
Vv = 3.989x10-4
m3
Water
Ww = wVv=
3.913 N
Solid
Ws = 16.04 N
0.001
m3
Vs = 6.011x10-4
m3
3-6
a) Unit weight
Ww wVw
(9.81)(1000)(3.989 104 ) 3.913 N
Wt 16.04 3.913
19.95 kN/m3
V
0.001m3
Ww 3.913
(100) 24.4%
Ws 16.04
b) Water content
c) Unit weight water content = 0

16.04
16.04 kN/m3
0.001
3.4
porosity, n 0.47 water content, w 0.33 Specific gravity,
a) unit weight, b) dry unit weight, c) void ratio, d) degree of saturation
54
Gs 2.68
3
Volume
Weight
Air
0.47 m3
1.0 m3
Water
0.53 m3
Solid
0.33 Ws
Ws
3-7

Vv (1.0)(0.47) 0.47 m3
Vs V Vv
1.0 0.47 0.53 m3

Ws (Gs w )Vs
(2.68)(9.81)(0.53) 13.93 kN

Ww wWs
(0.33)(13.93) 4.6 kN
a) Unit weight
t
(13.93 4.6)
18.53 kN/m 3
3
1m
13.93
13.93 kN/m 3
1.0 m 3
Vv 0.47
0.887
Vs 0.53
b) Dry unit weight

d
c) Void ratio
e
d) Degree of saturation
55
Vw 0.47
100 100%
Vs 0.47
3.5
2290 1.15 10 3 m3
2035 Gs 2.68
a) Unit weight, b) Water content, c) Void ratio, d) Porosity, e) Degree of saturation
Volume
Weight
Air
1.15x10-3
m3
Ww
w
Water
0.255 kg
2.290 kg
Ws
G s w
Solid
2.035 kg
3-8
Vw
Vs
Ww
w
0.255
2.55 10 4 m 3
1000
Ws
w Gs
2.035
7.593 10 4 m3
(1000)(2.68)
Vv V Vs
(1.15 103 ) (7.593 104 ) 3.927 104 m3
a) Unit weight
t
2.29
1.99 t/m3
3
3
1.15 10 m
56
b) water content
w
Ww 0.255
100 12.5%
Ws 2.035
c) Void ratio
e
Vv
Vs
3.927 10 4
0.517
7.593 10 4
c) Porosity
n
Vv
V
3.927 10 4
0.34
1.15 10 3
Vw
Vv
d) Degree of saturation
S
2.55 10 4
100 64.9%
3.927 10 4
3.6
19.1 kN/m3 Water content 9.5%
a) (Void ratio)
b) Degree of saturation
c) void ratio water content
( Gs = 2.7)
(a) e=0.518, (b) S=49.47% (c) t=20.79kN/m3, w=19.2%
57

Va
Vv
0.095Ws
Vw
0.095Ws
Vs
Ws
Ws
Gs w
3-9
1 Ws
V
Va
0.095Ws
W
t
Ws
W 0.095Ws Wa
s
Gs w
19.1
1
1 0.095
0.095
Ws
Ws
19.1
9.81 2.7 9.81
Va
Va (9.891 10 3 )Ws
2
W s
a) void ratio
Vv Va Vw
(9.891 10 3 )Ws
0.095Ws
9.81
(1.957 10 2 )Ws
1.957 10 2 Ws
0.518
Ws /(( 2.7)(9.81)
Vw
Vv
b) Degree of saturation
0.095Ws / 9.81
100 49.48%
1.957 10 2 Ws
58
c) S 100%
Vw
1
Vv
V w Vv
Ww wVw
Vw 1.957 10 2 Ws
V
Ws
Vs
Ws
Gs w
3-10
wVw Ws
Vs Vw
(9.81 1.957 10 2 Ws ) Ws
Ws /(( 2.7)(9.81)) 1.957 10 2 Ws
20.79kN/m 3
(9.81)(1.957 10 2 Ws )
100 19.2%
Ws
3.7
( S 100% )
Gs 2.7
= 5N
59
= 4N
(a) water content, (b) void ratio, (c) bulk unit weight, (d) dry unit weight
(a) w=25%, (b) e=0.675, (c) t=19.76kN/m3, (d) d=15.81kN/m3

Ww 1N
Vw
Ww
W 5N
Ws 4 N
Vs
Ws
Gs w
3-11

(a) water content
w
Ww
Ws
1
100 25%
4
(b) void ratio

e
Vw
Vs
1 / 9.81
0.675
4 /(( 2.7)(9.81))
(c) bulk unit weight

t
5
19.76 kN/m 3
4 /(( 2.7)(9.81)) 1 / 9.81
(d) dry unit weight

d
4
15.81 kN/m 3
4 /(( 2.7)(9.81)) 1 / 9.81
60
3.8
maximum void ratio, emax 0.78 minimum
void ratio, emax 0.43
65% ( Gs 2.67 )
: d=16.90 kN/m3

Vv Va void ratio
Va Vv eVs
Wa 0
V
W
Ws
Vs
Dr
emax e
emax emin
void ratio 65
e emax Dr emax emin
0.78
65
0.78 0.43
100
0.55
Gs wVs
Vs eV s
2.67 9.81 Vs
16.90 kN/m 3
Vs 0.55Vs
61
3.4 Index properties
Stress
Stress
Stress

Plastic state

( )
( )

( ) (ductile)

Liquid state

Solid state
Strain
Strain
3-12
62
Strain
3
Liquid
Limit, wLL
Plastic
Limit, wPL
Volume
Shrinkage
Limit, wSL
dry soil
hard
stiff
Liquid
Plastic
Semi-solid or
Semi-plastic solid
Solid
firm
soft
very soft
thick
slurry
thin
slurry
suspension
Moisture content
3-13 Atterberg limit Stress-strain diagram

(Liquid limit) 1.7 kN/m 2
(Plastic
limit)
.
(Shrinkage limit)
63
3.5 Atterberg Limits (Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Plasticity index)

3.5.1 Liquid limit
3.5.1.1 Liquid limit Cone penetration
Dial
gauge
25
20
30
Soil
sample
Liquid limit, wLL
15
50
60
65
70
, w (%)
3-14 Liquid limit Cone penetration
Liquid limit Plastic limit

0.425

20
3.5.1.2 Liquid limit Casagrande method
Casagrande (kah-sah grahn-dey)6
2
10 .
13
casa grande. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved June 06, 2007, from Dictionary.com website:
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/casa grande
64
3-15
r = 54 mm
11 mm
50 mm
8 mm
2 mm
Liquid limit
11 mm
8 mm
2 mm
3-16 Liquid limit
Liquid limit 25
13
65

95
, w (%)
90
85
Liquid limit, wLL
80
75
70
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
3-17 Liquid limit Casagrande cup
Liquid limit
Cone test
300
Liquid limit
Cone test
Casagrande test
200
Liquid limit
Cone test
Casagrande test
300
400
100
0
0
100
200
Liquid limit
500
Casagrande test
3-18 Liquid limit Cone test Casagrande test
3.5.2 Plastic limit

(Moisture contents) . 3.2 .

66
3-19
3.5.3 Plasticity index

Liquid limit Plastic limit water content
Plasticity index, I p
I p wLL wPL
3.5.4 Plasticity chart

Casagrande Liquid limit Plasticity index Clay Silt

90
80
Plasticity index (%)
70
Gumbo Clay
(Miss., Ark., Texas
60
e
Lin
50
40
Clay
(Venezuela)
o
Ka
30
10
10
20
ga
Or
nic
t
Sil
an
la
dC
y(
as
W
s
Flu
hin
e
gM
ad
.)
ar
ow
s,
.)
L.I
Natural State
Organic Silt and Clay (Panama)

Kaolin (Mica, Wash.)
Dried
Micaceous Sandy Silt (Cartersville, Ga.)
0
0
y
-T
lay
a,
C
S.
h.,
Organic clay
(New London, Conn.)
Glacial Clays
(Boston, Detroit,
Chicago, and
Canada)
20
lin
C
pe
er
(V
"
"A
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Liquid limit (%)
3-20 Liquid limit Plasticity index

67
Plasticity index Liquid limit

Silt Clay
PI 0.7(LL 20) A-Line
(Clay) Liquid limit Plasticity index A-Line
(Silt) Organic silt Organic clay A-Line
Liquid limit 50 (High plasticity)
Liquid limit 50 (Low plasticity)
Liquid limit, LL
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
70
LL = 50
Plasticity index, PI
60
Inorganic Clays
of High
Plasticity
50
LL = 30
40
Inorganic
Clays of
Medium
Plasticity
30
10
Inorganic Silts of
High Compressibility
and Organic Clays
Inorganic
Clays of Low
Plasticity
20
Li
IP
A"
e"
0)
-2
LL
3(
0.7
Cohesionless
Soils
0
Inorganic Silts of Medium
Compressibility and
Organic Silts
Inorganic Silts of Low

Compressibility
3-21 Plasticity chart Casagrande
3.5.5 Activity
Plasticity index
2
Skempton Activity
Activity
Plasticity index
Percent of clay size particle (less than 0.002 )
68
(3.5)
3
100
Shellhaven clay
A = 1.33
80
Plasticity index, Ip
London clay
A = 0.95
60
Weald clay
A = 0.63
40
Horten clay
A = 0.42
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percentage of clay-size fraction (<2 m)
3-22 Plasticity index 2

3-5 Activity
Group
Description
Inactive
Activity
< 0.75
Normal
0.75 1.25
Active
1.25 2.0
Highly active
> 2.0
Typical value
Soil/mineral
Kaolinite
Lias Clay
Glacial Clays
Illite
Weald Clay
Oxford, London Clay
Gault Clay
Calcium Montmorillonite
Organic Alluvial Clay
Sodium Montmorillonite
(Bentonite)
Activity
0.4
0.4-0.6
0.5-.0.7
0.9
0.6-0.8
0.8-1.0
0.8-1.25
1.5
1.2-1.7
7
Activity Activity
3-6
69

3-6 BRE Digest 240, 1980 ( (Barnes 2000))
> 35
22-48
12-32
<18
Clay fraction (%)

>95

60-95
30-60
<30
3-7 NHBC 1992 ( (Barnes 2000))
Plasticity index (%) (m)

>40
1.0
20-40
0.9
10-20
0.75
Activity
2 80 ( 3-23) Plasticity index 122
Activity 122/80 = 1.53 Active
Calcium montmorillonite
Ca++ Na+, Mg++ K+
100
Percent Finer
80
60
40
20
White clay
0
10.000
1.000
0.100
0.010
0.001
Particle diameter (mm)
3-23
70
0.000
3.6

3.6.1
3.6.1.1

E
( N blows)( N layer )(Whammer )( H drop)

Vmold
Joule kg-m/s = N-m

1J = 1 N-m
E
(25)(3)(2.5)(9.81))(0.305)
0.25 (0.1016 2 )(0.1164)
594.4 kN - m/m 3
594.4 kJ/m3
71

3-8
3
25 1
= 592.5kJ/m3
10.16 mm
11.64 mm
5
25 1
= 2693.3kJ/m3
10.16 mm
305 mm
3 = 25
Modified Proctor test

101.6mm
116.4 mm
4.54kg
457.2mm
457.2 mm
Standard Proctor test

101.6mm
116.4 mm
2.5kg
305mm
5 = 25
4 = 25
3 = 25
2 = 25
2.5 kg
1= 25
2 = 25
4.54 kg
1= 25
Energy = 592.5 kJ/m3
Energy = 2693.3 kJ/m3
3-24 Standard Modified

Standard Proctor Modified
Proctor

moisture content
5 6
72

, maximum dry density, d (max)
(Optimum moisture content, wopt
3-25
3-26
73

2.00
1.90
Dry density (kN/m3 )
Zero air void

curve
d (max)
Gs w
wGs
1
S
S=
10
1.80
S=
80
1.70
0%
1.60
Optimum
moisture content
1.50
8
13
18
23
Moisture content (%)
3-27
Zero air void curve

3-27 18 (
) ( Gs 2.7 S 1.0 )
d
(2.7)(1.0)
1.82 t/m3
1 (0.18)(2.7) / 1
18
( )
1.82
74
3
19.85
Sandy Clay
Liquid limit = 31
Plastic limit = 26
19.00
30
a ir
ro
Ze
50
vo
id
cu
18.00
rve
.7)
=2
(G s
25
17.00
20
16.00
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Moisture content, w (%)
24
3-28
Dry unit weight, d (kN/m3)
18.5
18.0
17.5
17.0
16.5
16.0
5
10
15
Moisture content, w (%)
3-29
75
20
(, et al. 2550)

WH-00
WH-25
WH-50
WH-75
WH-100
dry density (kN/m2)
16
d
14
G s w
wG s
1
S
12
S =100%
10
S =80%
8
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
water content, percent
3-30
(, et al. 2550)
3.6.1.2

76
3-31

95

77

2.00
100%(d)max
Dry density (t/m3)
1.90
95%(d)max
1.80
1.70
1.60
Optimum moisture
content
1.50
8
13
18
23
Moisture content (%)
3-32 95
3.7
1. e 0.75 Gs 2.7 2
(a) ( S 100% )
Ans: (a) w 28% , (b) t 18.9 kN/m3
(b)
2. sat / t
Ans: sat / t 1.1
e 1.0 , w 25% Gs 2.7
3. 100 100
1320 1075
Gs 2.7 (a) water content, (b) Void ratio, (c) degree of saturation, (d) total unit weight, (e)
dry unit weight
Ans: (a) w 22.8% , (b) e 0.97 , (c) S 63.3% , (d) t 16.8 kN/m3 , (e) d 13.7kN/m3
3. 38mm 76mm 168.0 130.5
Degree of saturation
4.
78
3
(%)
( kN/m3 )
11
13
16
21
17.75
18.92
19.84
19.48
(a)

(b)
95 ,
Ans: (a) d max 17.1 kN/m3 , wopt 16% (b) t 18.8 kN/m3 , S 65.2% ,
n 0.4
5. xxx
xxx
Void ratio
6. xxx
void ratio vertical strain
7. vertical strain, v v e /(1 e0 )
8.
water content

9. water content
d t /(1 w)
10. 1000 xxx
xxx

11. , Vadded , w f
Vadded (w f wi )Ws /(100 wi ) wi
Ws
12.
void ratio
13. e wGs
14. d
d
w Gs
1 wGs / S
water content
79
15. ()

3-33
2.5
Total unit weight (t/cu.m.)
(Gs = 2.7)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Water content (%)
3-33
t wGs
1 w
1 wGs
Gs =2.70 ( S =100 % )
80
4.1

index properties

(Permeability)
(Deformability)
(Strength)

4.2
USCS (Unified Soil Classification System) AASHTO (American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials)
USCS

AASHTO
2
(Grain size distribution)
(Liquid limit, Plastic limit Plasticity index)
0.075

0.075

(Hydrometer analysis)
82
4-1 Very crude rule and rank roil types in order of their bearing capacity. Rank from strongest to weakest
4-2
83
4
0.075
Diameter (mm)
0.075
0.425
2.0
4.75
19
76.2
Sieve size
(#200)
(#40)
(#10)
(#4)
(3/4'')
(3'')
SILT
or CLAY
Fines
(silt or clay)
SAND
Fine
sand
Medium
sand
GRAVEL
Coarse
sand
Fine gravel
Cobbles
Coarse gravel
Cobbles
4-3
4.2.1
(Sieve analysis) 0.075
4-4
# 4 (4.670 mm)
# 10 (2.000 mm)
# 20 (0.840 mm)
# 40 (0.420 mm)
# 60 (0.250 mm)
# 100 (0.149 mm)

# 140 (0.105 mm)
# 200 (0.074 mm)
Pan
4-4
1.
2. ( )
84
3. ( ) Percent
Finer
4.
(Percent finer) Semi-Log
(Grain size distribution curve)

% Retained on i th sieve
(4.1)
Wi
100
W
% Finer than i th sieve 100 % Retained on i th sieve

i 1
(4.2)
( )

4.1
500g
(grain size distribution curve)
4
10
20
40
100
200
(mm)
4.75
2.00
0.85
0.425
0.15
0.075
(g)
0
14.8
98
90.1
181.9
108.8
6.1

semi-logarithmic
85
4
%
(%)
(g)
0
100 0 =100
10
14.8
3.0
3.0
100 3.0=97.0
20
98
19.6
22.6
100 22.6=77.4
40
90.1
18.0
40.6
100 40.6=59.4
100
181.9
36.4
77.0
200
108.8
6.1
21.8
1.2
98.8
100.0
100 77=23.0
100-98.8=1.2
According to USCS
Gravels
Sands
C
Clay
100
% Finer
80
60
40
20
0
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
Particle size (mm)
4-5
4.2.2
0.075
(Hydrometer analysis) Hydrometer Stroke (Strokes
law)
D
w free body diagram
86
4 3
r w
3
F 6 rv
v = constant
4 3
r s
3
4-6 Free body diagram
Fy 0
B F
W
BF
4 3
4
r s r 3 w 6rv
3
3
s w 2
D
18
v
4.1
.
4.2
w .
4.1
87
(4.3)
4
deg.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
17.94
13.10
10.09
8.00
6.54
5.49
4.70
4.07
3.57
3.17
2.84
1
17.32
12.74
9.84
7.83
6.42
5.40
4.63
4.02
3.53
3.13
2.82
2
16.74
12.39
9.61
7.67
6.30
5.32
4.56
3.96
3.48
3.10
2.79
3
16.19
12.06
9.38
7.51
6.18
5.24
4.50
3.91
3.44
3.06
2.76
Millipoises
4
5
15.68
15.19
11.75
11.45
9.16
8.95
7.36
7.21
6.08
5.97
5.15
5.07
4.43
4.37
3.86
3.81
3.40
3.36
3.03
2.99
2.73
2.70
6
14.73
11.16
8.75
7.06
5.87
4.99
4.31
3.76
3.32
2.96
2.67
7
14.29
10.88
8.55
6.92
5.77
4.92
4.24
3.71
3.28
2.93
2.64
8
13.87
10.60
8.36
6.79
5.68
4.84
4.19
3.66
3.24
2.90
2.62
9
13.48
10.34
8.18
6.66
5.58
4.77
4.13
3.62
3.20
2.87
2.59
8
0.9999
0.9986
0.9963
0.9930
0.9890
0.9842
0.9789
0.9731
0.9667
0.9598
9
0.9998
0.9984
0.9960
0.9926
0.9885
0.9838
0.9784
0.9724
0.9660
0.9591
1 dyne sec per sq cm = 1 poise

1 gram sec per sq cm = 980.7 poises
1 poise = 1000 millipoises
4.2
deg
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0.9999
0.9997
0.9982
0.9957
0.9922
0.9881
0.9832
0.9778
0.9718
0.9653
1
0.9999
0.9996
0.9980
0.9954
0.9919
0.9876
0.9827
0.9772
0.9712
0.9647
Specific gravity of water or desity of

2
3
4
5
1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0.9995 0.9994 0.9993 0.9991
0.9978 0.9976 0.9973 0.9971
0.9951 0.9947 0.9944 0.9941
0.9915 0.9911 0.9907 0.9902
0.9872 0.9867 0.9862 0.9857
0.9822 0.9817 0.9811 0.9806
0.9767 0.9761 0.9755 0.9749
0.9706 0.9699 0.9693 0.9686
0.9640 0.9633 0.9626 0.9619
water (g/cc)
6
7
1.0000 0.9999
0.9990 0.9988
0.9968 0.9965
0.9937 0.9934
0.9898 0.9894
0.9852 0.9848
0.9800 0.9795
0.9743 0.9737
0.9680 0.9673
0.9612 0.9605
L
t
18
s w
L
t
(4.4)
D

.
88
L1
t=0
L2
t1
L3
t2
L4
t3
t4
4-7 0.075
t 0 . t
D L
L D
D (percent finer)

D (%)
L . t
t 0
(4.5)
L = c.g. Hydrometer
t = Hydrometer
Particle size distribution curve
0.075
89
4.2.3 Particle size distribution curve

Grain size distribution curve

frequency distribution curve

a) Lognormal distribution
Well graded
30
20
10
Weight fraction (%)
0
50
40
b) Non-normal distribution
30
Poorly graded
20
10
0
c) Gap graded distribution
Gap graded
20
10
0
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.002
Equivalent grain diameter (arbitrary scale)
100
Percent finer by weight
80
60
c) Gap graded
distribution
b) Non-normal
distribution
a) Lognormal
distribution
40
20
1.0
0.1
0.01
Equivalent grain diameter (arbitrary scale)
4-8 Gradation curves
90
0.002

100
Poorly graded
80
60
Gap graded
Well graded
40
20
0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02
(
0.01
0.005
4-9
1
2
3
4-10 Schematic
4.2.4
Effective size, D10
10%
Uniformity coefficient, C u
Cu
D60
D10
Coefficient of curvature, Cc
Cc
D 302
D60 D10
4.2
4-11 C u Cc
91
4
Sand
Sieve
No. 10
16
30 40
60
100
200
100
Unified Soil Classification

Silt and Clay
Sieve analysis
Hydrometer analysis
(%
80
D60= 0.24 mm
60
40
D30= 0.16 mm
20
D10= 0.096 mm
0
5
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02
0.01 0.005
0.002
0.001
4-11
Cu
0.24
2.5
0.096
Cc
(0.16) 2
1.11
0.24 0.096
4.3
Gravel, Sand, Silt Clay
76.2
100%
4.75
100%
0.075
62%

(Gravel)
100-100 = 0%
(Sand)
100-62 = 38%
(Clay and Silt)
62-0 = 62%
4.3 (Soil filters)

92

Filter

4-14
(Filter)
4-12
(weep hole)
(Filter)
(Filter)
4-13
93
4
100
d 85
Soil in contact
with filter
Percent passing
80
60
40
Suitable filter
material
d15
4d15
20
4d85
0
10
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
Sieve opening, mm
4-14
4.4

2
1. #200 (0.075 .)
2. #200

94

250
)
# 200
# 200
/
200
Hydrometer
W1
W3
: Ws)
200, F
: Wt = W1-Ws-W3
Hydrometer
a)
,D
b)
D, N
(Combined)
N' = F*N
# 200
N
N'
4-15 flowchart Hydrometer
4.5 (Lambe and Whitman 1928)

0.38
4-16 Broms
95
4.5.1 Dilatancy ( )
80
(sticky)

4.5.2

CH

4.5.3
12

3

96

(tough) (stiff)

A-line

4.6 Unifield soil classification system

Casagrande 1942

GW, SP, ML CH 2
1. (Coarse-grained soils) #200 50%
G = Grevelly soils
S = Sandy Soils
2. (Fine-grained soils) #200 50%
M = Inorganic silts
C = Inorganic clays
O = Organic silts and clays
Pt = Peat

W = Well graded
P = Poorly graded
L = Low plasticity
H = High plasticity
4-17
97
Silts and clays

liquid limit less than 50
Coarse grained soils

(more than half of material is larger than No. 200 sieve size)
Highly organic soils
Fine-grained soils
(more than half of material is smaller than No. 200
sieve size)
Gravels
More than half of coarse fraction
is larger than 4 mm sieve size
Sands
More than half of coarse fraction
is smaller than 4 mm sieve size
Clean
gravels
(little or no
fines)
Gravels with fine

(appreciable
amount of fines)
Clean sands
(little or no
fines)
Sands with fines

(appreciable
amount of fines)
Silts and clays

liquid limit greater than
50
98
Well graded sands, gravelly sands,

little or no fines
Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands,
little or no fines
SW
SP
Organic clays of medium to high

plasticity
OH
Peat and other highly organic soils
Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat

clays
CH
Pt
Inorganic silts, micaceous or

diatomaceous fine sandy or silty
soils, elastic silts
Organic silts and organic silt-clays of

low plasticity
Inorganic silts and very fine sands,

rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands
with slight plasticity
Inorganic clay of low to medium
plasticity, gravelly clays sandy clays,
silty clays, lean clays
MH
OL
CL
ML
Clayey sands, poorly graded sandclay mixtures
Clayey gravels, poorly graded

gravel-sand-clay mixtures
GC
SC
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravelsand-silt mixtures
GM
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt

mixtures
Poorly graded gravels, gravel-sand

mixtures, little or no fines
GP
SM
Well graded gravels, gravel-sand

mixtures, little or no fines
Typical name
GW
Group
symbol
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Determine percentage of gravel and sand from grain size curve

Depending on percentage of fines (fraction smaller than No. 200
sieve) coarse grained soils are classified as follows:
Less than 5%
GW, GP, SW, SP
More than 12%
GM, GC, SM, SC
5% to 12% Borderline cases requiring use of dual symbols
Plasticity Index
Major division
10 16 20
CL-ML
30
CL
50
60
Liquid Limit
OL
ML
40
OL
Atterbergs limits above A line with

PI greater than 7
CH
70
80
MH
90
OH
)
e
20
Lin
LA- 3(w L
0.7
I p=
OH
100
Above A line with PI between 4 and

7 are borderline cases requiring use
of dual symbol
Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
Between 1 and 3
Greater than 6
Atterbergs limits below A line, or PI

less than 5
C c D 30 / D10 D 60
C u D 60 / D10
Atterbergs limits above A line with

PI greater than 7
Above A line with PI between 4 and

7 are borderline cases requiring use
of dual symbol
Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
Between 1 and 3
Greater than 4
Atterbergs limits below A line, or PI

less than 4
C c D 30 / D10 D 60
C u D 60 / D10
Laboratory classification criteria
4-17 Unified soil classification Wagner, 1957 (Lambe and Whitman 1969)
4.6.1 Flowchart
4-17
flowchart 4-18 4-19
4-20 plasticity chart
F < 50%?
F=%
F1 = %
#4
#200
flowchart
plasticity chart
F1 < (100-F )/2 ?

y
#200
S
#200
<5%?
5%
12%?
>12%?
y
y
Atterberglimit
A-Line
PI > 7 ?
liquid limit
PI
plot
#40
plasticity chart
A-Line
Cu 4
1 Cc 3 ?
Cu 6
1 Cc 3 ?
GW
GP
SW
SP
Cu 4
1 Cc 3 ?
Cu 6
1 Cc 3 ?
GW-GC
GP-GC
SW-SC
SP-SC
GW-GM
Cu 4
1 Cc 3 ?
GP-GM
SW-SM
SP-SM
Cu 6
1 Cc 3 ?
plasticity
chart
4-18 Flowchart USCS

F > 50%?
y
F=%
#200
flowchar
wLL (oven dried)

0.75%
wLL (not dried)
n
Inorganic soil
Atterbergs limit
A-Line ?
Liquid limit > 50% ?

y
4-19 Flowchart USCS
99
A-Line
plasticity
chart
GM-GC
SM-SC
plasticity chart
4
70
CH
or
OH
Plasticity Index
60
50
e
0)
-2
Lin
A- 3(LL
.7
=0
PI
CL
or
OL
40
30
MH
or
OH
20
CL-ML
ML
or
OL
10
0
10 16 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Liquid Limit
4-20 Plasticity chart
4.7 AASHTO
7
A-1, A-2 A-3 Granular materials 200
35%
A-4, A-5, A-6 A-7 Clay-type materials 200
35%
Granular materials
(35% or less of total sample passing No. 200)
General classification
A-1
A-3
Group classification
A-1a
A-1b
Sieve analysis
Percent passing:
No. 10
No. 40
No. 200
50
30
15
50
25
Characteristic of fraction
passing No. 40
Liquid limit:
Plasticity index
Group index
Usual types of significant

constituent materials
Stone
fragments,
gravel, and
sand
General rating as
subgrade
Silt-clay materials
(More than 35% of total sample
passing No. 200)
A-2
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-7
A-2-4
A-2-5
A-2-6
A-2-7
> 51
10
35
35
35
35
> 35
> 35
> 35
> 35
NP
40
10
> 41
10
40
> 11
> 41
>11
40
10
> 41
10
40
> 11
> 41
> 11
12
16
20
Fine
sand
Silty or clayey gravel and sand
A-7-5(a)
A-7-6(b)
Silty soils
Excellent to good
(a) For A-7-5, PI LL 30;

(b) For A-7-6, PI > LL 30
4-21 AASHTO
100
Clayey soils
Fair to poor

Grain size
75 mm
2 mm < 75 mm
0.425 mm < 2 mm
0.075 mm < 0.425 mm
0.002 mm < 0.075 mm
< 0.002 mm
Boulder
Gravel
Coarse sand
Fine sand
Silt
Clay
(Plasticity)
:
Plasticity index 10 Silty
Plasticity index 11 Clayey
A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6 A-7 Liquid limit Plasticity index
70
60
50
A-7-6
40
A-2-6
A-6
30
A-2-7
A-7-5
20
10
A-2-5
A-5
A-2-4
A-4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Liquid limit (%)
70
80
90
100
4-22
Liquid limit Plasticity index A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6 A-7
101
Grain size distribution Atterberg limits

Group index
Group index (GI)

GI ( F 35)[0.2 0.005( LL 40)] 0.01( F 15)(PI 10)
200
LL Liquid limit
PI
Plasticity index
GI GI = 0
( 3.4 3 3.5 4)
Group index
Group index A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 A-3
Group index A-2-6 A-2-7
F
GI 0.01( F 15)( PI 10)
Group index
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Very poor
A-1-a (0)
(0-1)
(2-4)
(5-9)
(10-20)
4.4
AASHTO
1
2
3
Sieve analysis (% finer)
# 10
100
48
100
# 40
82
29
80
# 200
38
8
64
102
Plasticity # 40
Liquid limit
Plasticity index
42
23
2
47
29
90
76
34
37
12
1
1. #200=38% 35% siltclay materials
2. Liquid limit > 41 plasticity index >11
3. Plasticity index > Liquid limit 30 A-7-6
2
1. #10, #40 #200 A-1-a
2. #200=8% 35% granular
materials
#10 = 48 < 50%
#40 = 29 < 30%
#200 = 15 < 35%
Plasticity index = 2 < 6%
3
1. #200=64% 35% silt-clay
materials
2. Liquid limit > 41 plasticity index >11
3. Plasticity index > Liquid limit 30 A-7-6
4
1. #200=34% 35% granular
materials
2. #10, #40 #200 A-2-?
#10 = 90 > 50%
#40 = 76 >50%
#200 = 15 < 35%
3. Atterbergs limit A-2-6
Liquid limit = 37 < 40%
103
Plasticity index = 12 > 11%
4.5
Sieve analysis 1
4
4 200
200
30%
40%
30%
33
Liquid Limit
Plasticity Index
12
200 = 30% < 50% (G, S)

= 100-30 = 70%
4 200 = 40%
F1 = 40% > (100-30)/2 =35% Group symbol S
Liquid limit Plasticity index
200 = 30% > 12% Plasticity chart
A-Line
Group symbol SC
2 Sieve analysis
4
4 200
200
Liquid limit
Plasticity index
Cu
Cc
10%
82%
8%
39
8
3.9
2.1
200 = 8% < 50% (G, S)

4 200 = 82% > (100-8)/2 = 46%
200 = 8% 5% 12%
104
Cu < 6 Cc 1 3 SW SP
Liquid limit Plasticity index Plot Plasticity chart group
symbol SM
Group symbol SP-SM
3
4
200
100%
86%
55
Liquid limit
Plasticity index
28
200 > 50% (M, C)

Liquid limit plasticity index Plot Plasticity chart ALine group symbol CH
4.8
1. Unified Soil Classification
( ) A B
Sieve no
4
10
20
40
60
100
200
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Opening size (mm)

4.750
2.000
0.850
0.425
0.250
0.150
0.075
105
Percent finer (%)

A
B
98
86
50
28
18
14
10
-
100
100
98
93
88
83
77
53
28
4
100
90
Percent finer (%)
80
Cc
( D 30 ) 2
D 60 D10
Cu
D 60
D10
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10.00
1.00
0.10
0.01
0.001
Particle size, mm
4-23
2. ( ) 3

a) 3 Unified Soil Classification
b)
% 4
% 200
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu
Coefficient of curvature, Cc
Plastic limit (%)
Liquid limit (%)
98.0
10.0
11
2.3
20
44
100.0
77.0
28
54
90.0
4.0
4.5
1.2
-
3. Atterbergs limit 3 3

Water
content
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
22
40
60
50
50
50
25
25
25
106
107
5
Permeability and Seepage
5.1

( 5-1) ( 5-2)
( 5-3) ( 5-4)
sump
5-1
Sheet piling
flow
filter
drainage layer
5-2
5-3
concrete
weir
river bed
uplift pressure
permeable
stratum
5-4
5.2 Pressure and Head

incompressible
( Total head) 5-5
Daniel Bernoulli1
1
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) was a Dutch-Swiss mathematician.
109
5 Permeability and Seepage

h z
v2
constant
2g
z elevation head (datum),

(standpipe) v 2 / 2 g velocity head
(5.1)
p / w pressure head

laminar flow
v 2 / 2 g 5.1
Head
loss
Pressure
head
pA
Flow out
pB
Pressure
head
B
Flow in
A
L
Elevation
head
zB
zA
Elevation
head
Datum
5-5
Total head A
(Total head) A z A
pA
Total head B
(Total head) B z B
pB
Head loss A B
h z A A z B B
w
w
110
Head loss head loss

i
h
L
= hydraulic gradient
L = A B ( Head loss)
Total head A B 2 Total head A

B A B Head Head loss
5.3 1 (Darcys Law)

1856 Darcy
hydraulic gradient
Turbulent flow
Velocity, v
Transient flow
Laminar flow
Hydraulic gradient, i
5-6 hydraulic gradient
laminar flow
hydraulic gradient
vi

v ki
Henry Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803 1858) was a French engineer who made several important contributions to hydraulics.
111
(5.2)
= Coefficient of permeability ( )
i = Hydraulic gradient h / L
k

q vA
(ki) A
m3/s cm3/s
(conservation of flow)

5.1
(cm/s)
> 1.0
1.0 10-3
10-3 10-7
<10-7
( )

(Discharge velocity, v) (Seepage

velocity, vs )
vs
= (Porosity)
112
v
n
(5.3)
Darcys Law Laminar Flow

Darcys Law
Turbulent Darcys Law
5-7
5-7

5-1 permeability 5-8
permeability coefficient of permeabilty
5-1
Degree of permeability
High
Medium
Low
Very Low
Practically impermeable
Coefficient of permeability (cm/s)

More than 10
10 to 10
10 to 10
10 to 10
Less than 10
1
113

Coefficient of Permeability k in cm per sec (log scale)
10
10
Drainage
Soil type
Direct
determination of
Indirect
determination of
1.0
10
-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
Good
Clean gravel
10-5
Poor
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
Practically impervious
Very fine sand, organic and inorganic silts,

mixtures of sand silt and clay, glacial till, stratified Impervious soils, e.g.,
Clean sand, clean sand and gravel
clay deposits, etc.
homogeneous clays below
mixture
zone of weathering
Impervious soils modified by effects of vegetation and
weathering
Direct testing of soil in its original position-pumping tests. Reliable if

properly conducted. Considerable experience required
Constant-head permeameter. Little experience required
Falling-head permeameter.
Falling-head permeameter. Reliable.
Unreliable. Much experience
Little of no experience required
required
Falling head permeameter. Fairly reliable.

Considerable experience necessary
Computation from grain-size distribution, i.e., Hazens

formula. Applicable only to clean cohesionless sands and
gravels
Computation based on results

of consolidation tests.
Reliable. Considerable
experience required
After Casagrande and Fadum (1940)
5-8 coefficient of permeability
5.4 k ?
5.4.1 (Empirical formula)
( ) k
Effective size, D10
Cu
, Cu
empirical
(Void ratio, e ) k
k C ( D10 ) a (Cu )b (e) c
C , a , b c
Empirical
permeability
Empirical Hanzen
k C (D10 ) 2
= Coefficient of permeability, (m/s)

D10 = Effective size, (mm) % finer 10%
0.01 0.015
C =
Clean and Uniform Sand
k
114
5.4.2
2
5.4.2.1 (Constant head)
(Clean sand)
10% 5-9 constant head

. Manometer head loss
Q t
Head loss
Manometer
L
5-9

Q Avt
A(ki)t
i h L Manometer
L
QL
Aht
115
(5.4)
Q = ()
A =
h = manometer
t =
k
(Fissure,
lamination, root hole)
Permeameter
Permeameter

filter
1/20 Permeameter
Coefficient of permeability

kK
k = Coefficient of permeability
K =
w =
=

k k 20 C
k20 kT
T
20
5-2
116

Temp C
T
20
Temp C
T
20
0
4
10
15
20
1.779
1.555
1.299
1.133
1.000
25
30
40
50
60
0.906
0.808
0.670
0.550
0.468
5.4.2.2 (Variable head)

.
t=0
dh
=a
h0
h
5-10
k Stand pipe
t Coefficient of permeability
q A
q k
h
A
L
standpipe dh dt standpipe
a
117

q a
dh
dt

dt
aL dh

Ak h

t1
dt
t0
aL
Ak
h1
dh
h
h0

h Ak
(t1 t0 )
ln 0
h1 aL

k 2.303
h
aL
log 0
A(t1 t 0 )
h1
(5.5)
Variable head
5.4.3
Coefficient of permeability
(pumping well) (Observation well)

Confined aquifer Unconfined aquifer
5-11 5-12
118
Confined aquifer
5-11 Confined aquifers and wells confined
Unsaturated
zone
Saturated zone
Unconfined
aquifer
5-12 Unconfined aquifers well unconfined
5-13 unconfined aquifer
119
5.4.3.1 (Confined aquifer)

k
5-14
r1 r2 k
Darcy
r2
r
q
r1
dr
dh
h2
h1
5-14 k

q kiA
dh
k 2rl
dr
integrate
r2
r1
dr
h
2kl dh
h
r
2
r
q
ln 2
(2l )(h2 h1 ) r1
k confined aquifer
120
(5.6)
5.4.3.2 (Unconfined aquifer)

r2
r
r1
dr
dh
permeable
aquifer
h2
h1
5-15 k

q kiA
i dh / dr
dh
2rh
dr
q k
integrate
r2
r1
dr 2k
q
r
h2
h1
hdh
r
q
ln 2
2
(h h1 ) r1
2
2
(5.7)
5.5 (Flow through a layered soil)

5-16

121
5-16
Permeability
Permeability
Permeability
5.5.1
(hydraulic gradient)
122
L1
1
k1
L2
2
k2
5-17
1 2 Head Loss Hydraulic

gradient i1 i2 i
1
qv Av
(1.0) Lt k H i (1.0) L1k1i (1.0) L2 k 2 i (1.0) Ln k n i
Lt
k H = Coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction

kH
1
L1k1 L2 k 2 Ln k n
Lt
(5.8)
Coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction

5.5.2
head loss ( h ) head loss h1
hn )
H h1 h2 hn
kv
q1 q2 qv
h
h
h
H
k1 1 k 2 2 k n n
Lt
L1
L2
Ln
123
head loss
H k v
H
Lt
L1 L2
L

n
kn
k1 k 2

kv
Lt
L
L1 L2
n
k1 k 2
kn
(5.9)
h1
h2
L1
1
k1
L2
k2
5-18
= Coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction

iv = Hydraulic gradient 1 2
head loss h1 i1 L1 h2 i2 L2
kv
5.1

kV
k H k H / kV
0.9m.
k1 = 110-4 cm/s
1.2m.
k2 = 3.210-2 cm/s
1.8m.
k3 = 4.110-5 cm/s
5-19
124

kH
1
L1k1 L2 k 2 Ln k n
Lt
kH
(0.9)(110 4 ) (1.2)(3.2 10 2 ) (1.8)(4.110 5 )

9.888 10 3 cm/s
0.9 1.2 1.8
kv
kv
Lt
L
L1 L2
n
k1 k 2
kn
0.9
4
110
0.9 1.2 1.8

7.367 10 5 cm/s
1.2
1.8
3.2 10 2 4.110 5
k H 9.888 10 3
134.2
k v 7.367 10 5

5.2
Constant-head

= 17 C
= 100 mm
Manometer
= 150 mm
Manometer
= 76 mm.
2 = 541 ml.
coeff. of permeability, k
k
QL
hAt
(541 10 3 )(150)
(76)(0.25 100 2 )(2)(60)

1.13mm/s
1.09
20 17 C
k20 1.13 1.09 1.23mm/s
125
5.3
Variable-head

= 100 mm
= 150 mm
Stand pipe
= 9 mm
Stand pipe t 0 = 1200 mm
Stand pipe t
= 900 mm
t 0 t
= 177 s
k 2.303
2.303
h
aL
log 0
A(t1 t 0 ) h1
(0.25 9 2 )(150)
1200
log
.
(0.25 100 )(177) 900
2
1.975 10 3 m/s
5.4
coeff. of permeability Pumping test
37.4 m3/hr Pumping well Observation well
k
126

q = 37.4 m3/hr
50.0 m
15.0 m
0.42 m
2.5m.
1.15 m
7.4m.
3.75 m
4.48 m
11.7m.
aquifer
5-20

r1 15 m
h1 7.4 - 2.5 1.15 3.75 m

r2 50 m
h2 7.4 - 2.5 0.42 4.48 m

k
r
q
ln 2
(2l )(h2 h1 ) r1
(37.4)
50
ln 2.33 10 4 m/s
(3600)(2 11.7)(4.48 3.75) 15
5.5
coeff. of permeability Pumping test
Pumping well Observation well 23.4 m3/hr

127

q = 23.4 m3/hr
62.0 m
18.0 m
0.48m
2.5m.
0.96 m
12.0 m
aquifer
5-21
r1 18 m
h1 12 2.5 0.48 9.02 m
r2 62 m
h2 12 2.5 0.96 8.54 m
k
r
q
ln 2
2
(h h1 ) r1
(23.4)
ln 18 3.04 10 4 m/s
2
2
(3600) ((8.54 ) (9.02 ))
2
2
5.6 (Seepage theory)

5-22
128
5-22

5-23
5-23
2
2
(Laplaces equation)
kx
2H
x 2
kz
2H
z 2
H Total head
k x k z x z
Hydraulic gradient
hydraulic gradient

(homogeneous and saturated)
(incompressible)
129

Darcy
k x k z
2H
x 2
2H
z 2

flow net ()
hydraulic gradient
hydraulic gradient

(homogeneous and saturated)
(incompressible)

Darcy
5.7 Flow net ( )

total head xz
velocity potential total head
kH
k X Z
vx k x
x x
vz k z
z
z
total head
equipotential line ( piezometer xx) total
130
head head equipotential head loss

xx
k x k z
2H
x 2
2H
z 2
Total head . H f ( x, z)

flow net
Finite element Finite difference
Piezometer
Equipotential
Flow line
Equipotential line
5-24 equipotential Total head piezometer

equipotential piezometer
131
H = 6h
Piezometer
flow line
P7
P1
P2
P6
P3
P4
P5
Flow line
Equipotential line
5-25 (flow line) equipotential
Equipotential line Flow line Flow net

Flow net
1. flow line equipotential line
2. Equipotential line Flow line

Flow line
equipotential line
3. 1
132
flow line
4. open water Equipotential line

open water
equipotential line
flow line
flow line
Flow net
1.

2. flow line 1
Equipotential line Total head

flow line
equipotential
equipotential
line
line
3. flow line
133
F1
F2
F3
F4
4. Equipotential Equipotential flow line

(curvilinear square)
5.
5.8 (Calculation of seepage quantities)

Flow net Darcys law
Flow channel 1
j1
y1
j2
h1
Flow line
h2
y3
l1
l1
l3
h3
Equipotential line
y2
y4
l3
h4
y1
l2
l3
j1
y2
y3
j2
y4
q1
q2
1 = 1
q3
Total head .
5-26
134
Flow channel 1
q q1 q2 q3 ...
Darcys law kiA

h h4
h h
h h3
l3 ...
l2 k 3
q k 1 2 l1 k 2
l1
l2
l3
Piezometric level equipotential line

potential drop
h1 h2 h2 h3 h3 h4 ...
H
Nd
1 (flow channel)
q (1.0)(k
H
)
Nd
(1.0)(k
H
)
Nd
= head head loss

N d = Number of potential drops
Flow channel N f
H
q q N f
q kH
Nf
(5.10)
Nd
Nf = 3
5m
potential drop Nd= 11

1
2
1
2
11
3
3
5m
10
5-27

135
5.6

a)
b)
: Coefficient of permeability, k 5.2 105 m/s
Piezometer
30.0m.
Head loss, H = 11.0 m

1.0m.
12.0m.
1.5m.
8.3m.
7.7m.
F0
F17
A
9.0 m
F1
17.0m.
z = 15.5 m
F16
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6 F7
10.0 m
0m
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
20.0 m
5-28
N f 4.4
N d 17
q kH
4.4
4
5.2 10 5 11.0
1.48 10 m/s
Nd
17
Nf
Pressure A (F8)
(Total head) F8 = (Total head) F0 - (H/Nd)*n

z A 17 1.5 15.5 m
p A (23.82 15.5)(9.81) 82 kPa
. A H
equi. line no.
F8
Total head
(m)
23.82
Elevation head
(m)
15.5
136
Pressure
head (m)
8.32
u (kPa)
82

B
C
D
E
F
G
H
F9
23.18
22.53
21.88
21.24
20.59
19.94
19.29
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
82
75
15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5
69
u (kPa)
63
56
7.68
7.03
6.38
5.74
5.09
4.44
3.79
50
44
75
69
63
56
50
44
37
37
5-29
8.3m.
7.7m.
7.03m. 6.38m.
5.74m.5.09m.
4.44m. 3.79m.
E
5-30 piezometer . equipotential
5.7 .
137
Sheet pile Sheet pile

A B
: Coefficient of permeability, k = 5.2x10-5 m/s
EL 16.00
2.5m.
EL 10.92
4.0m.
F1
F12
F2
EL 6.62
F11
F10
F3
EL 0.00
0m
F4
5.0 m
F5
F6
10.0 m
5-31
Total head loss = 2.5 m

Nf = 5
q kH
Nf
Nd
5
5.2 10 5 2.5 5.729 10 5 m/s
12
Nd = 12
Pressure A (F2)
2.5
16.0
2 15.58 m
12
Head u H t z w
z A 10.92 m
uA (15.58 10.92)(9.81) 45.74 kPa
Pressure A (F4)
138
F7
F8
F9
4.7m.
4.8m.

2.5
16.0 4 15.16m
12
Head u H t z w
zB 6.62 m
uB (15.16 6.62)(9.81) 83.7 kPa
5.8
Sheet pile
a) . A I
(b)
: Coefficient of permeability, k 5 109 m/s , w 9.81 kN/m3
A
Sheet pile
El. 19.5m
I
B
El. 18m
H
C
El. 27m
D F
El. 9m
El. 0m
0
5m
5-32
head loss = 27 19.5 = 7.5m

total head A I h 7.5 / 8 equipotential line
1
5-3 A I
5-33
sheet pile ( head )
139
( head )
u

5-3
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
equi. line no.
Total head (m)
hydrostatic
F0
27.0
27.0
F1
27 7.5 / 8 26.1
F2
27 2(7.5 / 8) 25.1
F4
27 4(7.5 / 8) 23.3
F6
27 6(7.5 / 8) 21.4
F7
27 7(7.5 / 8) 20.4
F8
27 8(7.5 / 8) 19.5
hydrostatic
19.5
Elevation
head (m)
27.0
18.0
14.7
11.7
9.0
11.7
14.7
18.0
19.5
Pressure head
(m)
27.0-27.0 = 0.0
27.0-18.0 = 9.0
26.1-14.7 = 9.4
25.1-11.7 = 13.4
23.3-9.0 = 14.3
21.4-11.7 = 9.7
20.4-14.7 = 5.7
19.5-18 = 1.5
19.5-19.5 = 0
u wh
(kPa)
0
88.3
111.8
131.5
140.3
95.2
55.9
14.7
0
30.0
El. 27m
A
25.0
Elevation (m)
20.0
El. 19.5m
El. 18m
H
15.0
(Hydrostatic)
C G
(Hydrostatic)
D F
10.0
5.0
El. 9m
E
150
50
50
150
(kN/m2)
El. 0m
0.0
5-33
140
5.9
. A H

a

b

c
5
k 5 10 m/s z
H
(a)
(b)
Impervious blanket
A
(c)
5-34 (a) sheet pile (b) sheet pile (c)

5-4 A c
flow net equipotential line 18 total head

141

5-4
Total head
z + H 10H/15 = z 0.33H
z + H 6H/15 = z 0.60H
z + H 18H/22 = z 0.18H
b
c
Elevation Pressure head

head
A
z
0.33H
z
0.60H
z
0.18H
Pore pressure
A
0.33 w H
0.60 w H
0.18 w H
5.9 Seepage force

(Seepage force) Seepage
force
Block equipotential line flow line
Hydraulic
gradient i
h
h1
h2
Flow
Area, A
L
5-35
wh1 A
wh2 A
1 l 1.0
Seepage force l 2 1.0
142
Flow
line
Hydraulic gradient, i h
l
(Seepage force)
wh1 l 1.0 wh2 l 1.0
w h l 1.0
w
h
2
l 1.0
l
J w i V
Seepage force per unit volume

J
w i
V
5.9.1 (Vertical seepage)

z
h
H2
H1
sat
H2
5-36
Critical hydraulic gradient ( 0 )

sat w z iz w
ic
sat w
w
w

143

z
h
H2
H1
H2
5-37
z
H2
sat w z w
5.9.2 (Quick Sand), (Boiling)

Liquefaction boiling (), quicksand
() 5-38
Manometer
h
z
h
H2
H1
H2
sat
H2
5-38
144

t u
Total stress z
t z w H1 sat z
Pore pressure z
h
uz w H1 w z w
z
H2
Effective stress z
z w H1 sat z w H1 w z w
h
z
H2

z sat w z w
h
z
H2
h / H 2 Hydraulic gradient i
z sat w z wiz
z hydraulic gradient
hydraulic gradient hydraulic gradient
ic z 0
sat w z wic z 0
5-39
ic
sat w Gs 1
w
1 e
145

5
w eVs
2
Water
eVs
Vs eVs
3
Gs wVs
Solid
Vs
5-39
Hydraulic gradient ic Boiling ic

ic 0.6
ic 1.0
5.9.3 Piping adjacent to sheet piles
Terzaghi (1929)

( Background on failure of Teton Dam, Roger D.)
(Filtration Criteria) Terzaghi .. 1922 Bureaus of
reclaimation, 1947 Filter
Hydraulic head ( Hydraulic piping)
146

100
d 85
Soil in contact
with filter
Percent passing
80
60
40
Suitable filter
material
d15
4d15
20
4d85
0
10
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
Sieve opening, mm
5-40
Terzaghi Critical hydraulic gradient

1.0

Hydraulic piping
5-41
5-41
147
piping
Soil grain moving apart
Increase permeability
Increase flow
Quick condition
Loss of strength
Catastrophic collapse
Flow net Terzaghi
Piping D/2 D
DD/2
Terzaghi (1922)
D
2
5-42
iav
D
2
hav
D
hav
Block of soil prone

to piping failure
variation of total head
Total head
d/2
Total head
5-43
148
5-43 W D / 2 D
W D D / 2 sat w
1 2
D
2
U D / 2 D

U D
D
1
iav w D2iav w
2
2
iav hydraulic gradient

FS
U iav w
Factor of safety against piping

FS piping
ic
im
im
= Mean hydraulic gradient im hm
hm
= Total head d ( )
Factor of safety against boiling Block Flow net
Head loss = h
Block = l
hydraulic gradient
iex
h
l
Fboiling
149
ic
iex
5.10
5-44
m3/min 1
k 18 103 mm/s
2.2m
1.8m
2.5m
1.25m
sat 18.5 kN/m3
5-44
1. flow net
2. Head loss = 1.25+2.5=3.75m
3. Nf = 6 , equipotential Nd=14
150
2.5m
1.25m
2.2m
1.8m
0.9m
5-45
6
q 18 106 3.75 2.89 105 m3 /s
s
14
hav=1.28m
0.9m
c
1.8m
W
a
Total headav=3.08m
b
Total head
= 2.68m
Total head
= 3.48m
Total head=3.08m
5-46
5-46 hav 1.28 D 1.8 iav hav iav

D
iav
1.28
0.71
1.80

151

18.5 9.81
1.24
(0.71)(9.81)
FS
5.10 Flow net anisotropic Transformed section

differential equation of continuity for a two dimensional flow is
kH
2h
2h
k
0
V
x 2
z 2
anisotropic k H kV Equipotential line Flow line

2h
(k H / kV )x 2
x'
2h
z 2
kH
x
kV
2h 2h
0
x'2 z 2
x/3
5.0 m
3.2 m
7.2 m
Transformed scale
F0
F7
7.2 m
F1
F2
F3
True scale
5-47
152
F4
F5
F6
x x Coordinate anisotropic soil (

Flow net
k H kV )
Flow net k H 9kV
x Transformed scale
kV
kH
1

3
5.11
permeability k x 16 10 8 m/s k y 1108 m/s
cutoff sheet pile 4.6 From:
Azizi
(a)
(b) Factor of safety against piping

kV
1
kH 4
transformed section permeability

kt k H kV
flow net
5-48 Transformed section

153
Q kt H
Nf
Nd
5
(4 10 8 )(5)
10
1 10 7 m 3 / s / 1m
factor of safety against piping

Exit hydraulic gradient, iexit
iexit
H / Nd
Lexit
5 / 10
0.45
1.1
Factor of safety
FS
icr
iexit
1
2.22
0.45
5-49 Natural section
5.11
flow net uplift pressure
Pressure distribution Piezometric level
Total head = Elevation head + Pressure head
Ht z
154
p
w
Total head equipotential line F i

(Total head) F i = (Total head) F 0 - ( H / N d )i
H t F H t F
1
H
i
Nd
i = number of potential drop from F 0 to F i

Pore water pressure, p
pFi H t Fi z w
5.12

a)
b) (Uplift force)
: Coefficient of permeability k H 9 105 m/s , kV = 110-5 m/s
x
5.0 m
3.2 m
kV = 1x10-5 m/s
7.2 m
kH = 9x10-5 m/s
5-50
k scale
k
xT V
kH
1
x x
3
155

x/3
5.0 m
3.2 m
Transformed scale
5-51
Scale Flow net

Transformed section
Flow net True scale Scale 3
x
F0
F7
7.2 m
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
True scale
5-52
Permeability
kV kH 1x105 9 x105 3x105 m / s

Anisotropic soil equipotential line Flow line

Number of equipotential drops, Nd
=7
Number of flow channel, Nf
=3
koverall
Nf
q koverall h
Nd
3
q 3 10 5 5 6.43 10 5 m3 / s
7
156
= 3.9
Pressure A (F0)
5.0
12.2 0 12.2m
7
zA = 7.2 m
uA = (12.2-7.2)*9.81 = 49 kPa
Pressure B (F1)
5.0
12.2
1 11.48m
7
zB = 7.2 m
uB = (11.48-7.2)*9.81 = 42 kPa
Pressure C (F2)
5.0
12.2 2 10.77m
7
zC = 7.2 m
uC = (10.77-7.2)*9.81 = 35 kPa
Pressure D (F2 - F3)
(Total head) F2 F3 = (Total head) F0 - (H/Nd)*n
5.0
12.2 2.5 10.41m
7
zD = 7.2 m
uD = (10.41-7.2)*9.81 = 31 kPa
157

49 kPa
42 kPa
35 kPa
31 kPa
5-53
5.12 Finite difference

Finite difference
Laplaces differential equation
kx
2 H
2 H
k
0
z
x 2
z 2
(5.11)
finite difference
kx
k
(hi 1, j 2hi , j hi 1, j ) z 2 (hi 1, j 2hi , j hi 1, j ) 0
2
x
z
5.13
sheet pile
k x kz
hi , j
1
(hi 1, j hi 1, j hi , j 1 hi , j 1 )
4

hi , j
1
(hi 1, j hi , j 1 )
2
1
1
1
hi , j (hi , j 1 hi 1, j hi , j 1 hi 1, j hi , j 1 )
3
2
2
158
(5.12)

Microsoft excel 5-5 contour
head 5-54
5-5
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
i=5
i=6
i=7
j=1
3.00
2.97
2.94
2.92
2.90
2.89
2.88
j=2
3.00
2.97
2.94
2.92
2.90
2.88
2.88
j=3
3.00
2.97
2.94
2.91
2.89
2.88
2.87
j=4
3.00
2.96
2.93
2.90
2.87
2.86
2.85
j=5
3.00
2.96
2.91
2.88
2.85
2.83
2.83
j=6
3.00
2.95
2.90
2.85
2.82
2.80
2.79
j=7
3.00
2.93
2.87
2.82
2.78
2.75
2.74
j=8
3.00
2.92
2.84
2.77
2.72
2.69
2.68
j=9
3.00
2.89
2.79
2.71
2.64
2.61
2.60
j=10
3.00
2.86
2.73
2.62
2.54
2.50
2.49
j=11
3.00
2.83
2.65
2.50
2.41
2.36
2.35
j=12
3.00
2.79
2.56
2.32
2.23
2.20
2.19
j=13
3.00
2.76
2.47
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.80-3.00
2.60-2.80
Series7 2.40-2.60
Series6
2.20-2.40
2.00-2.20
Series5 1.80-2.00
Series4
1.60-1.80
1.40-1.60
Series3 1.20-1.40
Series2
1.00-1.20
0.80-1.00
Series1 0.60-0.80
10 11 12 13
0.40-0.60
0.20-0.40
0.00-0.20
5-54
5.13 Finite Element Method

Finite Element

""

5-55
5-57 Error! Reference source not found.
159

Max. WL. +24.36
+24.50 (EGL)
0.0
13.10
5.0
23.50
16.50
10.0
Min. Twl. +11.41

+10.00
15.0
20.0
+1.00
25.0
8.00
Relief well
Cutoff level is based on

preliminary information only
30.0
-10.00
35.0
40.0
27.23
-10.00
30.50
22.00
52.50
Scale
5-55
5-56 Finite element mesh
5-57 flow line
160
5.14
75
69
63
56
50
44
x=6.62
x=11.22
x=15.52
x=19.31
x=22.91
Piezometer
37
x=28.52
x=26.16
u (kPa)
82
x=0.77

flow net
5-58 Permeabiltiy
1m/day
w 10 kN/m3
30.0m.
29.00

1.0m.
12.0m.
1.5m.
17.00
8.3m.
F17
15.50
9.0 m
8.00
7.7m.
F0
B
18.00
17.00
F1
17.0m.
z = 15.5 m
F16
F2
0.00
F3
0m
F4
F5
10.0 m
F6 F7
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
20.0 m
5-58
(
) Interface element
Interface element

5-60
flow net
5-61
161
Flow net

40.0m.
30.0m.
40.0m.
12.0m.
1.0m.
40,17
0,17
70,17
1.5m.
40,15.5
17.0m.
110,17
70,15.5
9.0 m
15.5 m
40,8
8.0 m
0,0
110,0
5-59
5-60
100
(kPa)
PLAXIS
Flow net
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
x (m)
5-61
162
30
35
5.14
1. (flow net)
a)
b) A, B, C D
: k 5 105 m/s w 10 kN/m3
Midterm Exam 2-2548
30.0m.
13.0m.
1.5m.
9.0 m
17.0m.
15.5m.
Nf = 4.4
Nd = 17
5-62
2. Sheet pile
a) 1
b) A
c) Critical hydraulic gradient, ic
d) Factor of safety against boiling
163

Sheet pile
3.0m.
3.5m.
A
4.7m.
t = 19 kN/m3
7.3m.
4.8m.
-5
k = 5.2x10 m/s
Impermeable stratum
0m
5.0 m
10.0 m
5-63
3. (flow net)
a)
b) ()
c) sheet pile
: k 5 10 5 m / s w 10kN / m3
Midterm Exam 2-2548
Filter
Sand
5-64
164
2
H
3
Flow net Sheet pile

a) Sheet pile
b) sheet pile
c) Factor of safety against boiling heaving
: Coefficient of permeability k = 310-5 m/s, Gs = 2.65, e = 0.6
Ground level
2.0 m
Sheet pile
Water level
4.0 m
3.0 m
3.0 m
Impermeable layer
5-65
4.
w 10kN / m3
165
k 5 10 5 m / s

4.90
1.502
10.04
Impervious stratum
0m
5.0 m
10.0 m
5-66
5. Fig. 5-67 shows the cross-section of a long cofferdam into which the flow can be considered
two-dimensional. Sketch the flow net (to the right of the center line only) for this situation. The base of the
soil stratum is at a considerable depth. Determine the seepage into the cofferdam (per meter run) if the
water level inside is maintained at excavated ground level. The coefficient of permeability of the soil is
0.015 m/s in every direction.
Using the flow net, determine the distribution of water pressure (expressed as meters head of water)
both on the outside and inside of the sheet piling and indicate the values on the left hand part of the
drawing.
Comment on the stability of the proposed structure. (ICE)
B.H.C. Sutton, Solving Problem in Soil Mechanics,
166
3.0m
7.25m
1.8m
6.5m
5-67
6. A, B, C, D, E flownet 5-68
7.0m
5.0m
4.7m
4.2m
A
B
E
C
D
0.0m
k 1105 m/s
5m
5-68 (Vogt 2003)
7.
167

El. 27m
El. 19.5m
El. 18m
I
B
H
C G
D F
El. 9m
El. 0m
5-69
168
6

6.1
" ?"

6.2

3
6
x
xx
xy
xz
yx
zx
yy
zy yz
zzz
6-1 True triaxial
stress tensor
scalar vector9 Tensor invariants (independent) 3

6-1 scalar, vector tensor (Schofield and Wroth)
Type
Array of
Example
Notation
Number of
components
Independent data
Independent scalar
quantity that can be
derived
Scalar
Zero order
Specific volume
Vector
First order
Displacement
Tensor
Second order
Stress
di
ij
9 in general
6 if symmetrical
3
Scalar (from the Latin to measure), a quantity with magnitude only, e.g. temperature; Vector (from the Latin to carry), a quantity with
magnitude and direction, e.g. a force.; Tensor (from the Latin to stretch), a quantity with magnitude and direction and with reference to the
plane it acting across, e.g. stress or permeability.
170
6-1 xx , yy , zz
xy yx , xz zx , yz zy
xx , yy , zz , xy , xz , yz
xx
xy
yy
xz
yz
zz

(Axisymmetry)
x
y
z
xx
yy
zz
6-2 triaxial
xx
yy , zz
xx yy , zz

a
r
6-3
171
,
, , ( 6-4)

plane
strain
xx , yy xy zz
(Wale)
(Strut)
L=
L=
6-4 plane strain

x
xx
xy
yy
z
zz
yx
6-5 Plane strain
172
6.2.1 (overburden pressure)

y
z
x
v h
z h
h
=
3
6-6
h1
h2
h3
hw
v
u
v
A
v 1h1 2 h2 3 h3
u w hw
v th
6-7 (Overburden pressure)
. A
v 1h1 2 h2 3 h3
(6.1)
Vertical total stress

n
v i hi
(6.2)
i 1
. i
hi . i
n
173
(Pore water pressure, u) Hydrostatic

(6.3)
u w hw
w
hw
6.3 (Effective stress)

(Total stress)
(Effective stress)
(Pore water pressure)
6-8
(Vertical stress)
v (Vertical total stress)
v (Vertical effective stress)
u (Pore water pressure)
Effective stress
n
v i hi w hw
(6.4)
i 1
6.3.1

174
t w
t
w
h=?
(a)
(b)
(c)
h (a)
A h W

v
W
sh
A

W
A
hA w hA
s
A
s h wh

w h v
(Effective stress)
v v u
6.4
Total shear stress Effective shear stress
175
(6.5)
(Total stress)
(Effective stress)
Effective horizontal stress h
(Coefficient of
lateral earth pressure at rest)
h K o v
(6.6)
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest

K 0 Poisson's ratio
(Hooke's law)
h zz xx
K0
1
xx yy zz
E
h 0 ; xx zz h yy
0
1
h v h
E
K 0 h / v
K0
v
1
(6.7)
K 0 h 0

K 0
pressuremeter self boring pressuremeter
h Total horizontal stress h
(6.8)
h h u
6.1
5
13 4.8
176
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
w 10 kN/m3 K o 0.7
6.1
6-9 6-10
6.1
(m)
0.0
2.8
5.0
10.0
= (19)(0)
= (19)(2.8)
= (19)(2.8)+(20)(2.2)
=
(19)(2.8)+(20)(2.2)+(16)(6.0)
= (10)(0)
= (10)(2.8)
= (10)(5.0)
= (10)(10.0)
0.0
53.2
75.2
111.2
t (kN/m2)
0
0.0
100
200
0.00
37.24
0.00
37.24
52.64
77.84
74.64
159.84
v(kN/m2)
u (kN/m2)
300
50
100
50
100
150
0.00
0.00
t = 19 kN/m3
2.80
2.0
GWT
t = 20 kN/m3
6.00
53.20
0.00
4.0
z (m)
2.20
53.20
97.20
75.20
22.00
6.0
8.0
t = 16 kN/m3
10.0
193.20
82.00
6-9
177
111.20
6
h' (kN/m2)
0
0.0
50
h (kN/m2)
u (kN/m2)
100
50
100
0.00
100
200
0.00
t = 19 kN/m3
2.80
2.0
GWT
t = 20 kN/m3
37.24
4.0
52.64
z (m)
2.20
0.00
37.24
74.64
22.00
6.0
6.00
8.0
t = 16 kN/m3
10.0
77.84
159.84
82.00
6-10
6.5 capillary

6-11
z c w
zc
+
z w
6-11 Capillary
178
T
z c
zc
4T cos a
wd
(6.9)
zc
1
d
(6.10)

( ) Capillary zone
6-2 Capillary
6-2 capillary
capillary
()
0.12-0.18
0.30-1.20
0.76-7.60
7.60-23.0
Capillary
capillary zone
w z
wz
6.6

.
Bishop (1960)

179
(6.11)
u a (u a u w )

u a
u a
Bishop S
6-12

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Drained test
20
40
60
80
100
, S (%)
6-12 (Bishop )
6.2
5.0 13.0
2.8
a) (vertical total stress)
b) (vertical effective stress)
c) (horizontal effective stress)
d) (horizontal total stress)
e)
180
11.0
2.80
Sand
t = 19 kN/m3
2.20
Saturated sand
t = 20 kN/m3
hw = 8.2
Clay
Ko = 0.7
t = 15.7 kN/m3
6.00
a) Vertical total stress

v i hi
(19)(2.8) (20)(2.2) (15.7)(6) 191.4 kPa
b) Vertical effective stress

v v u
v 191.4 80.4 111 kPa
Pore water pressure

u w hw
(9.8)(8.2)
80.4 kPa
c) Horizontal effective stress

h K o v
0.7(111)
77.7 kPa
d) Horizontal total stress

h h u
77.7 80.4
158.1 kPa
6.3
. 4 6
4.0 a)
181
(Vertical total stress) b) (Vertical effective stress)
Sand
t = 18 kN/m3
4.00
3.00
Clay
t = 20 kN/m3
6.00
3.00

v i hi
v 18(4) 20(3)
132 kPa
Pore water pressure

u w hw
9.8(3.0)
29.4 kPa

v v u
v 132 29.4 102.6 kPa
6.4
Ex. 2 (t = 20 kN/m3) 2.0 a)
(Vertical total stress) b) (Vertical effective stress)
. Hydrostatic

182

Fill
t = 20 kN/m3
2.00
Sand
t = 18 kN/m3
4.00
3.00
Clay
t = 20 kN/m3
6.00
3.00
Hydrostatic
Effective stress
h t fill
v i hi
v (20)(2) (18)(4) (20)(3) 172 kPa
Pore water pressure

u w hw
u (9.8)(3.0) 29.4kPa

v v u
v 172 29.4 142.6kPa
6.7

hydrostatic 6-15 10
23 Piezometer

183
6
Effective overburden pressure (t/m2)
Pore water pressure (t/m2)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Standpipe
piezometer
10
10
20
Piezometric drawdown
after deep well pumping
20
piezometer
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Hydrostatic
30
Piezometric
drawdown
40
30
40
50
Hydrostatic
50
6-13
20
32
30
28
26
24
22
22
20
18
24
26
24
22
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
26
24
22
32
20
Piezometric levels in the Phra Pradaeng Aquifer in 1990
10
6-14
184
20 km
70
6.8 (Stress from extermal applied load)

Boussinesqs equation
1885 Boussinesq10

(Homogeneous)
(Isotropic)
Linear elastic
(Semi-infinite)
z
h
6-15

a) Analytical - close form solution
10
Application des potentiels l'tude de l'quilibre et du mouvement des solides lastiques, principalement au calcul des deformations et des
pressions que produisent, dans ces solides, des efforts quelconques exercs sur und petite partie de leur surface ou de leur intrieur; memoire
suivi de notes tendues sur divers points de physique mathmatique et d'analyse; par m. J. Boussinesq.
185
b) b) Numerical

6.8.1 (Vertical stress at any point under point load)
Point load, P
x
Infinite soil
thickness
z
R
6-16 v
v
3Pz 3
2R 5
3P
r 2
2
2z 1
z
5/ 2
(6.12)
6.5
1500 kN
5.0
Boussinesq v
3Pz 3
2R 5
z 5m,
0 2 5 2 25 m
(3)(1500)(53 )
2 (55 )
28.6 kPa
6.6
186

100 kN z
= 0.1, 0.2, 0.3
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
1.000
1.100
1.200
1.300
1.400
1.500
1.600
1.700
1.800
1.900
2.000
2.100
2.200
2.300
2.400
2.500
2.600
2.700
2.800
0.5000
0.6000
0.7000
0.8000
0.9000
1.0000
1.1000
1.2000
1.3000
1.4000
1.5000
1.6000
1.7000
1.8000
1.9000
2.0000
2.1000
2.2000
2.3000
2.4000
2.5000
2.6000
2.7000
2.8000
point load
dsig_v
1.910
1.326
0.974
0.746
0.589
0.477
0.395
0.332
0.283
0.244
0.212
0.187
0.165
0.147
0.132
0.119
0.108
0.099
0.090
0.083
0.076
0.071
0.065
0.061
line load
dsig_v
dsig_v
2.546
1.768
1.299
0.995
0.786
0.637
0.526
0.442
0.377
0.325
0.283
0.249
0.220
0.196
0.176
0.159
0.144
0.132
0.120
0.111
0.102
0.094
0.087
0.081
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
point load
line load
6-17
6.7
100 kN z = 0.2
0, 0.1, 0.2
187
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
1.000
1.100
1.200
1.300
1.400
1.500
1.600
1.700
1.800
1.900
2.000
2.100
2.200
2.300
point load
dsig_v
R
0.950
0.955
0.971
0.996
1.031
1.074
1.124
1.180
1.242
1.309
1.379
1.453
1.531
1.610
1.692
1.776
1.861
1.947
2.035
2.124
2.214
2.305
2.396
2.488
line load
dsig_v
0.53
0.51
0.47
0.42
0.35
0.29
0.23
0.18
0.14
0.11
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.67
0.66
0.61
0.55
0.48
0.41
0.34
0.28
0.23
0.19
0.15
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
1.0
point load
line load
dsig_v
0.5
0.0
0
6-18
6.8.2 line load

Line load,
P/unit length
y
z
Infinite soil
thickness
z
R
x
y
6-19 line load v

v
2 Pz 3
R 4
188
(6.13)
6.8.3 Uniform strip pressure

x+B/2
,q
B/2
B/2
x-B/2
v
v
6-20
v
x
[a sin a cos(a 2 )]
(6.14)
[a sin a cos(a 2 )]
(6.15)
2q
x B/2
a tan 1
x B/2
tan 1

q
6.8
Strip footing 3.0 50 kPa
2.5 5.0
189
Excel
2.5
5.0
6-21
190

3.00
q = 50 kPa
31.25 kPa
2.5
18.04 kPa
5.0
-.70
-6.0
-5.0
-4.0
-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
6-22
Boussinesq

Homogeneous Stiffness
Isotropic Over consolidated clay Stiffness
Linear Elastic
Boussinesq
Boussinesq
Net applied pressure, qnet
qnet qgross pressure of soil
6.8.4 (Bulb of pressure)

Boussinesq . Contour line
6-23 Bulb of pressure
strip load
square load v 20 q
1.5B strip load 1.5B v 20
q
191
L>>B
q
0
0.8q
0.6q
0.4q
0.9q
0.6q
Depth
0.4q
0.2q
2B
3B
0.2q
Strip
Square
6-23 stress bulb strip load square load
contour MATLAB Error! Reference source not

found. v 200200
array x, y v
contour 6-24
-2
0.
1
0.2
0.3
-3
0.1
-4
0. 4
0 .8
0 .7
0.5. 6
9
0.
-1
0.4
-5
0.3
0. 2
-6
0. 1
-7
-8
-9
-10
0.2
10
6-24 MATLAB
192
6.8.5 (Linearly increased load)

Strip load Strip
load Integrate B
B
q
y
z
x
a
6-25
Strip load
q
2 rdr z 3
B
d v
x r 2 z 2
Integrate
v
rB
r 0
2 rdr z 3
B
x r 2 z 2
qx
sin 2
a
B
2
6.9
193
(6.16)
v A B
CL
7.0
2.0
q 150 kN/m 2
10.0
6-26
A; v 149.7 kN/m 2
B; v
124 kN/m 2
6.8.6 (Stress beneath a flexible rectangle)

B L

L
B
x
dP = qdA
q
y
y
x
z
z
v
6-27
dP
q dA
dP
qdA
qdxdy
point load
194

3
v 3Pz 5
2R
d v
3qdxdy z 3
2 x 2 y 2 z 2
v integrate
v
y 0 x 0
3q (dx dy ) z 3
2 ( x 2 y 2 z 2 )
(6.17)
qI

L z m B / z n L / z (Newmark 1935)
m 2 n 2 m 2 n 2
I
2
2
1 2mn m 2 n 2 1 m 2 n 2 2
1 2mn m n 1
tan
m2 n2 1 m2n2
4 m 2 n 2 m 2 n 2 1 m 2 n 2 1
m 2 n 2 m 2 n 2
I
2
2
1 2mn m 2 n 2 1 m 2 n 2 2
1 2mn m n 1
tan
m2 n2 1 m2n2
4 m 2 n 2 m 2 n 2 1 m 2 n 2 1
m 2 n 2 1 m 2 n 2 (tan 1 )
(tan 1 )

influence factor influence
factor m n
195
6
0.26
0.24
L>B
2.0
B
z
L
z
0.22
1.4
1.2
0.20
1.0
0.9
v = stress beneath corner
0.18
0.8
Infinite soil thickness
v = q I
0.7
Influence value, I
0.16
0.6
0.14
0.5
0.12
0.4
0.10
0.3
0.08
0.06
0.2
0.04
n = 0.1
0.02
0.00
10.0
1.0
0.1
6-28 Fadum's chart
Influence factor
I

Superposition
196

superposition
6-29
40
kPa 4
2 Newmarks chart
(6.18)
v qI1 qI 2 qI 3 qI 4
6.8.7
Load
Boussinesq equation

Uniform
pressure, q
dP = qdA
R
R
6-30
197
Flexible circle
Stresses are beneath
axis of circle
3P
r 2
2z 1
z
5/ 2
d v
v
0
3 q
r 2
2
2z 1
z
5/ 2
dA
5/2
dA
3 q
r 2
2
2 z 1
z

3

2
1
v q 1
2
r
1 z

(6.19)
6.10
Flexible 10
150kPa . 10
3

2
v 1501
2
5.0
1 10.0

42.7 kPa
6.11
flexible 4 2
100 kPa
2
198

2m
1m
q 100 kPa
6-31
superposition 2
1
3
3

2
2
1
1
v 1001
100 1
1 2 / 22
1 1 / 22

26.41kPa
6.9 Flexible
Newmark (1942) .
chart
9 10

32

1
z q 1
2
1 (r0 / z )
z
r
1
q
z
2 / 3
1/ 2
(6.20)
z z q
a
199
6.2
6.2
ring
number
1
2
3
4
cumulative
number of field
20
40
80
120
I q per each
circle
ring radius
(z=40 mm)
a
z
0.10
0.20
0.40
0.60
Total number of blocks = 200
0.2698
0.4005
0.6370
0.9176
10.8
16.0
25.5
36.7
One influence area or block
Total number of blocks

on chart = 200
influence value per block
= 1/200 = 0.005
scale line
(length of line = depth z)
scale line
6-32 Newmarks chart
Graphical Integration z
Flexible q Newmarks chart
Newmarks chart
1. z
Scale line
2. Newmarks chart
Newmarks chart
3. ( )
200
4.
v 0.005 N q
=
q =
6.12
4 40 kPa
A
1.0m.
2.0m.
2.0m.
4.0m.
4.0m
2.0m.
A
4.0m.
2.0m.
1.0m.
CROSS SECTION
PLAN
6-33
Newmark chart

a) Newmarks chart
Scale line = = 4.0 m
Newmarks chart Scale Scale line
Vertical stress Chart

Influence area 21.5
Vertical stress
v 0.005Nq
0.005(21.5)(40) 4.3 kPa
201
6
= 200
4
chart
0.0
4.0m
scale line
6-34
b) Influence factor
Influence factor Vertical stress
Vertical stress A
Method of superposition
7.0m.
40 kPa
3.0m.
2.0m.
2.0m.
1.0m.
6-35
202
2.0m.
B
2.0m.

6-3
B (m)
1
2
3
4
(m)
7.0
7.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
z/B
L/ B
4.0/2.0=2
4.0/2.0=2
4.0/1.0=4
4.0/2.0=2
7.0/2.0=3.5
7.0/2.0=3.5
2.0/1.0=2
3.0/2.0=1.5
0.134
0.134
0.048
0.107
superposition
v q( I1 I 2 I 3 I 4 )
(40)(0.133 0.133 0.048 0.107) 4.44 kPa
Newmarks chart superposition

Newmarks chart integrate
Newmarks chart
superposition
Newmarks chart

influence factor
Excel
Newmarks chart
6.13 Newmarks chart
4 .
200 kPa
2.50
1.00
10.00
2.00
6-36
203

Newmarks chart
chart
6.3 chart
A
B
C
D
E
Newmarks
4.0 m
10.0 m
1.0m
2.0m
2.5m
chart
2.78cm
(10/4)(2.78)=6.95cm
(1/4)(2.78)=0.70cm
(2/4)(2.78)=1.39cm
(2.5/4)(2.78)=1.74cm
Total number of blocks = 200
B
C
A
4m
scale line
6-37
chart

204
61 Influence (1/chart) = 1/200 =

0.005
v nI N q
(61)(0.005)(200) 61 kPa
6.10

2:1 6-38
P
B
y
x
2
2
L z
Bz
6-38
qBL
z z
z z
B L
2 2
2 2
qBL
B z L z
closed form solution Boussinesq
(6.21)
zB
6.14
v strip load analytical solution
3
10 kPa
205
v
v 6-39
6-40
v (kPa)
0
10
15
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
Bousinesq
16.0
6-39 Bousinesq
12
Bousinesq
10
v (kPa)
8
6
4
2
0
0
6-40 Bousinesq
206
6.11 Mohrs Circle

Mechanics of materials , ,

Mohr circle State of Stress Soil Mechanics pole

Major Principle Stress ()
Minor Principle Stress (
)
Stress in Arbitrary Plane ( )
6.11.1

Mohrs circle

6-41

y
x
y
x
6-41
207
6.11.2 (State of stress) Mohrs circle

Mohrs circle
- Mechanics of materials

Pole method

Mohr's circle
Pole method

6.11.3 (Sign convention)

Mohrs circle
6-42 Sign convention
Mohrs circle
208
Mohrs circle
Major principle stress ()

Minor principle stress ( )
Stress in Arbitrary Plane ( )

Mohr-Circle
6.11.4 pole
Mohrs circle
6-43
y
xy
2
2
1 2
PM
State of stress
X ( 1 , 1 )
M
YP
y
Pole
Y ( y , xy )
X ( x , xy )
Y ( 2 , 2 )
N
6-43
209

X ( x , xy ) Y ( y , xy )

X Y
Pole P
P
state of stress
state of stress PM X 6-43
state of stress 1
State of stress 2 1 PN 2
Y Y state of stress 2
state of stress 1 2
6.11.5 Mohrs circle
Mohrs circle Pole

210

y
y
xy
x y
2
R sin Y
R cos Y
X ( 1 , 1 )
Y ( y , xy )
Y
xy
2 180
21
2
X ( x , xy )
x y
2
R sin Y
R cos Y
Y ( 2 , 2 )
x y
2
6-44 Mohrs circle

1
X
xy
State of stress
6-45 state of stress
211
6.15
60 kPa
a) Principle stress
b) State of stress 45 x
GWT
t = 20 kN/m3
w = 10 kN/m3
Ko = 0.6
15.0 m
= 60 kPa
6-46
vertical effective stress

v (20)(15) (10)(15) 150kPa
horizontal effective stress

h (0.6)(150) 90kPa
state of stress 6-47

v 150kPa
60kPa
h 90kPa
6-47
212
187.08
120.0
Y (150, 60)
52.92
67.08
60.0
1 (187.08, 0)
3 (52.92, 0)
30.0
2 p 63.43
2 s 26.57
X (90, -60)
max (120, -67.08)
6-48 Principle stress

120 kPa
120 kPa
150 kPa
60 kPa
Ma x .
r stre
ss
67.08 kPa
s 13 . 28
90 kPa
sh e a
p 31 . 72
Pr
in
ci p
le
str
es
187.08 kPa
52.92 kPa
6-49 State of stress principal stress maximum shear stress
213
6
v 150kPa
60kPa
h 90kPa
45.0
Y (150, 60)
135 (60, -30)

67.08
60.0
30.0
2 90
45 (180, -30)
X (90, -60)
6-50 Mohr's circle State of stress 45 x

60 kPa
180 kPa
30 kPa
150 kPa
60 kPa
45
90 kPa
6-51
214
6.11.6 Mohrs circle

Mohrs circle

Mohrs circle 6-52
v
h K 0 v
1
h K a v
= c+ tan
c
c cot
h = Kav
h = K0v
6-52 Mohrs circle
Cartesian

Cartesian
215
6
0.5B
(a)
(b)
6-53 Cartesian (a) Mesh

; (b) Principal stress
6.12

Finite Element Finite Difference
216
Effective stress
Elastic modulus
Tangent modulus
Yield
Secant modulus
Strain
6-54

Soil
model Constitutive model Soil model 6-4
6-4 Soil model
Soil model
Linear elastic
stress-strain relationship
Non-linear elastic
E
y2
Linar elastic perfectly plastic
E
tan j c
1
3
217
6-55 finite element

Mohr-Coulomb
0.5B
6-55
6.13
1.
( ,
w 10 kN/m3 K 0 0.7 )
v
1.0m
t = 19 kN/m3
3.0m.
t = 20 kN/m3
4.0m.
t = 20 kN/m3
6-56
218
2. ( w 10kN / m3 )
Total stress,
2.0m.
Made ground
Pore water pressure, u
Effective stress, '
t = 14 kN/m3
3.0m.
2x14 = 28
28-0=28
t = 16 kN/m3
water table
28+ (1x16) = 44
44-0 =44
3.0m.
Sand
sat = 17 kN/m3
44+ (2x17) = 78
5.0m.
Clay
2x10 = 20
78-20 = 58
sat= 17 kN/m3
78+ (5x22) = 188
7x10 = 70
188-70 = 118
6-57
3. a) b)
AB
2. A 40 kPa B 50 kPa
A 4.0 (
Flexible foundation) Midterm Exam 2548
4.0m.
2.0m.
2.0m.
2.0m.
A
B
40 kPa
50 kPa
2.0m.
6-58
219
4.0m.
3. A 70 kN/m2 B
50 kN/m2 C 4.0
Midterm Exam 2-2548
4.0m.
2.0m.
1.0m.
4.0m.
A
70 kPa
2.0m.
4.0m.
50 kPa
6-59
4. A 2 4 100 kPa
B Point load 50 kN
A Point load B C D 2
Midterm Exam 1-2550
2.00
4.00
2.00
A
= 100 kPa
2.00
B
Point load B
= 50 kN
6-60
5. Vertical stress 10
220
a) Newmarks chart
b) Superposition Influence factor
10.0m.
8.0m.
8.0m.
100 kN/m2
8.0m.
4.0m.
180 kN/m2
8.0m.
6-61
Influence value = 0.005
= 10 m
scale line
6-62 Newmarks chart
221
100 kN/m2
3
100 kN/m2
180
kN/m2
180 kN/m2
180 kN/m2
2
100 kN/m2
6-63 superposition
6. 120 kPa
a) 10 A
b) 5 B
25.0m.
15.0m.
5.0m.
6.0m.
5.0m.
4.0m.
6-64
: Newmarks chart Influence factor Influence factor

Principle of superposition
222
v q I q( I1 I 2 I 3 I 4 )
7. A 2 4 100 kPa B
Point load 50 kN
A Point load B C D 2
2.00
4.00
2.00
A
= 100 kPa
2.00
B
Point load B
= 50 kN
4. point load
point load
( midterm
1/2551)
5. A 1 50 kPa B
2 4 100 kPa
, v M z 2 (midterm 1/2551)
6. 2
6-65
223
6
2m
1m
q 100 kPa
6-65
8. x, y
Principal stresses Major principal stress
point no
s'_xx
s'_yy
s'_xy
s'_zz
1
2
-2.586
-3.056
-7.274
-7.442
-1.729
-1.671
-2.958
-3.149
224
7
(Consolidation)

7-1
consolidation
7-1
7 (Consolidation)
7-2

7-3

Bridge bearing unit (BBU)

226

5.0
Elevation (m)
4.0
Abutment
Approach of Bang Born bridge

Highway No. 340 OBRR (WP)
North bound, STA. 29+810
Design profile
3.0
Current profile (15/OCT/94)
2.0
Bridge bearing unit
1.0
50m
0.0
-100
-60
-20
20
60
100
Relative distance from abutment (m)
7-3 1

- 7-4
(
0
0
10
15
20
25
35
40
45
50
10
120
100
55
140
140
100
( .)
.)
30
10
120
15
80
80
100
60
20
60
25
Natural water content in percent
( .)
3.0
( . . 2502)
2.5
. . 2522 (20
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
.)
(
0
50
100
5
150
10
200
250
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
.)
7-4 -

227
7 (Consolidation)
7.1
0.858m
1m
0.137m
110
90
1
Gs 2.75
: 1

7-5
7-5
Vdrained 0.137 m3
Ww 0.752 ton
Vw 0.752 m3
Ww 0.615 ton
w 110%
Ws 0.683 ton
Vs 0.248 m3
Vw 0.615 m3
w 90%
Ws 0.683 ton
7-6
110
1.05Ws
Ws
1 m3
Gs w
Ws 0.683 ton
228
Vs 0.248 m3

Ww wWs (1.1)(0.683) 0.752 ton

Vs Ws / (Gs w ) 0.683 / ((2.75)(1.0)) 0.248 m3

Vw Ww / ( w ) 0.752 / (1.0) 0.752 m3
90

Ww wWs (0.90)(0.683) 0.615 ton

Vw Ww / w (0.615) / (1.0) 0.615 ton

Vw 0.752 0.615 0.137 m3

1 .. 1
0.137 .. 0.137
10 (0.137)(10) = 1.37

7.1

229
7 (Consolidation)
1
7-7
7-7

Cheese press
mould

7-8
230
permeability
Immediate settlement

3

3
Immediate settlement
Primary consolidation settlement

Secondary consolidation settlement

consolidation ( ) Primary
consolidation ( )

consolidation ( )
Immediate
settlement
5.00
(mm)
4.50
4.00
Primary
cosolidation
3.50
3.00
Secondary
compression
2.50
2.00
0.1
10
100
t (min)
7-9
231
1000
7 (Consolidation)
7.2 -

7-10
(a) unconfined compression:

v
(b) confined compression:

7-10
Confined compression Confined

compression

v
H
H0
H0
7-11
232
Normal strain
v
H
H0
(7.1)
P
A
(7.2)
Normal stress
v

stress strain
v (kPa)
0
500
1000
1500
1500
500
d in
ading
a
Lo
v (%)
1000
Lo
20
Unlo
v (kPa)
10
ad
in g
Unloading
30
0
0
10
20
v (%)
30
90
v v
7-12
stress logarithmic scale

v (kPa)
v (kPa)
1
10
100
1000
10000
10
100
1000
0
1.4
25
30
Unload
void ratio, e
ing
1.0
0.8
35
in g
in g
20
1.2
ad
ad
15
Lo
Lo
v (%)
10
Unload
ing
0.6
stress logarithmic scale
strain void ratio, e
233
10000
7 (Consolidation)
7-13
v
H
e
H 0 1 e0
e0 e
1 e0
e e0 v 1 e0
(7.3)
v (kPa)
1
10
100
1000
10000
Recompression curve
1.5
void ratio, e
1.3
Compression curve
1.1
0.9
Unloading/reloading curve
0.7
0.5
7-14 consolidation curve
7.3 Consolidation test ( )
7-15
234
7-16
7-17 Consolidation
7.3.1
Rigid ring
(porous disc)

(Swelling)

235
7 (Consolidation)

Void ratio
compression index, recompression index, cv, OCR
7.2
Consolidation test stress
void ratio
, Ws = 66.6 g
, A = 31.67 cm2
, Gs = 2.71
(N)
(cm)
0
31.7
63.3
126.7
253.4
506.7
1013.4
2026.9
1.900
1.900
1.899
1.874
1.834
1.764
1.641
1.508
Consolidation test
Volumetric strain v
P
P
a
H
H0
Hf
7-18
236
e0
Water
Water
1 e0
H0
A0
ef
Hf
1
Solid
Solid
1 ef
A0
7-19
v
H H 0 H
H0
H
H
e
H 0 1 e0
Effective stress Void ratio

a
a
Water
1 e0
H0
A0
e0
Water
ef
a
1
Solid
Hf
Solid
7-20
H0 H f
H0
e0 e f
1 e0
H0 H f
e f e0
H0
1 e0
Void ratio
Hv H f H s
Hv
Hs

237
1 ef
A0
7 (Consolidation)
Hs
Hs
Vs
Ws
A wGs A
66.6g
0.776cm
1g/cm 2.71 31.67cm 2
7-1
(N)
(kPa)
0
31.7
63.3
126.7
253.4
506.7
1013.4
2026.9
e = Hv/Hs
, H
Hv = H - Hs
(cm)
(cm)
1.900
1.900
1.899
1.874
1.834
1.764
1.641
1.508
1.900-0.776= 1.124
1.900-0.776=1.124
1.899-0.776=1.123
1.874-0.776=1.098
1.834-0.776=1.058
1.764-0.776=0.988
1.641-0.776=0.865
1.508-0.776=0.732
1.124/0.776=1.448
1.124/0.776=1.448
1.123/0.776=1.447
1.098/0.776=1.415
1.058/0.776=1.363
0.988/0.776=1.273
0.865/0.776=1.115
0.732/0.776=0.943
0
10
20
40
80
160
320
640
7-21
238

1.6
Void ratio, e
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
10
100
1000
Vertical stress, v (kPa)
7-21 vertical stress (void ratio)
7.4

recompression curve
(reversibility)
recompression curve compression curve

7-22
239
7 (Consolidation)
'v (kN/m2)
100
0
1000
10
v (%)
15
20
25
D
E
30
C
35
F
40
7-22
7.4.1 Maxium past pressure

Maximum past pressure
Compression curve Recompression curve
Re-compression index, Cr
f
a
Void ratio, e
d
c
Compression index, Cc
'vm
log 'vm
Casagrande
7-23 Maximum past pressure, vm

( a) . ac
240
ab x bac
ad bac
Compression curve ad f
Maximum past pressure, vm

Maximum past pressure
Re-compression index, Cr
ab
2.
1.
Compression
curve
Void ratio, e
Void ratio, e
log 'vm
log 'vm
2
4.
Compression curve
ad
bac
3.
ad
Void ratio, e
d
c
Compression
curve
a
a
Void ratio, e
d
c
Compression
curve
'vm
log 'vm
7-24 maximum past pressure Casagrande
241
log 'vm
7 (Consolidation)
7.4.2 (Overconsolidation ratio)

)
(Maximum past pressure, vm
(Overconsolidation ratio, OCR)
OCR
vm
v 0
(7.4)
v 0 , (Effective overburden stress)

7-25

7-26 Normally
consolidated soil .

OCR 1.0
vm
vm
vm
v0
vm
v0
v0
v0
v 0
(A)
v0
vm
v0
vm
(B)
(C)
7-25
242
v0
vm
(D)
v0
vm
(E)
Void ratio, e
(Normally consolidation)
C
E
D
log v
7-26
OCR
Normally Consolidates Clay (NC Clay)
(OCR = 1)
v0 vm
Over Consolidated Clay (OC Clay)

(OCR > 1)
v0 vm
Heavily Over Consolidated Clay (HOC Clay)

(OCR > 4)
v0 vm
7.3
10
= 100 kPa
18 kPa Maximum past pressure, vm
OCR ( w = 10 kPa)
v0 v 0 u
243
7 (Consolidation)
v0 18 10 10 10 80kPa
OCR
100kPa
1.25
80kPa
7.4.3
Effective stress Void ratio
Consolidation
v (kPa)
0
500
v (kPa)
1000
1500
1.6
Void ratio, e
1000
1500
mv 1 v
10
1.2
av 2
1.0
500
e
v
v (%)
av 1
1.4
e
v
av 3
0.8
mv 2 v
20
mv 3 v
e
v
30
0.6
Coefficient of compressibility, av
de
d v
Modulus of volume compressibility, mv
d v
d v
7-27 Coefficient of compressibility Modulus of volume compressibility

A
eA eB
eA eB
log B log A
veAA
eB
v B
Void rato, e
log B log A
C
eC
Cc
eC eD
log D log C
eC eD
D
eD
Cr
v A v B
v C
v C v D
log D log C
v C v D
D
v D
log D log C
'v (log scale)
void ratio e e0 v 1 e0
Cc
log D log C
A
v A v B
log B log A
log B log A
Verical strian, v
eA
Cr
D
'v (log scale)
Vertical strain v (e0 e) / (1 e0 )
7-28
244
7.5 Primary consolidation

primary consolidation

-
L0 A
P
L 1 P

L0 E A

H
v H0
vertical strain 1-D consolidation

void ratio
v
H
e
H 0 1 e0
e
H0
1 e0
log v
245
7 (Consolidation)
7.5.1 1 Maximum past pressure vf
v vm
vo
Recompression curve
slope = Cr
e0
vm
e
ef
'v
Void rato, e
Compression curve
slope = Cc
v0
vf
'v (log scale)
7-29 vf vm
' v
e Cr log v 0
'v 0
e
H

1 e0
H
' v
Cr log v 0

1 e0
'v 0
246
7.5.2 2 Maximum past pressure vf
'vo v 'vm
Recompression curve
slope = Cr
vm
e0
Void rato, e
e1
Compression curve
slope = Cc
e2
ef

log vf

vm

log vm
v0
vf
v0
'v (log scale)
7-30 vf vm
H e1 H e2

1 e0 1 e0
H
' H
'
Cr log vm
Cc log vf

'v 0 1 e0
'vm
1 e0
(7.5)
7.6

(
)

Consolidation

7-31
247
7 (Consolidation)
7-31 Consolidation

7-32

(
) 7-33
7-33
W
W
W
W
W
7-32 ((Lambe and Whitman 1969)
7-33
248
W
W
( )
7-2
7-2

u
u0
u0
ut
u
u0 0
t 0 (
)

0 t (
)

t (
)

Excel
.
249
7 (Consolidation)
7-34 Excel t .
30 N
Hav = (Hini+Hend)/2
7-35
7.1
250
Hend
Hini
30 N

Time from start of loading
(min)
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.25
4.00
5.00
7.00
11.00
16.00
30.00
90.00
Specimen compression
(mm)
0.61
0.96
1.06
1.16
1.24
1.35
1.45
1.60
1.66
1.73
1.79
1.82
1.86
1.92
Specimen compression, (mm)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0
10
Sqrt (t), (min)1/2
7-36
251
7 (Consolidation)
Specimen compression, (mm)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
Time, (min)
7-37 logarithm
Coefficient of consolidation
7.7 1 Terzaghi
7.7.1
1
( lateral 0 ) Vertical strain, v Void ratio, e
v
H e0 e
H 0 1 e0
Darcys
Coefficient of permeability, k Modulus of volume compressibility, mv
Consolidation
Creep (Secondary compression)

Element A ( dx , dy , dz )
252
,
h
z
z
dz
dz
Clay
Clay
Hydrostatic
(Excess pore
water pressure)
7-38
Hydraulic gradient
h 1 u
z w z
u wh
Darcy v
v ki k
h
k u
z
w z
Velocity gradient, v / z
v
k 2u
z
w z 2

dV / dt
dV v
xyz
dt
z
dV
k 2u
xyz
dt
w z 2

253
7 (Consolidation)
dV
e
xyz 1 e0

dV e 1
xyz
dt
t 1 e0
1
mv
v
e 1
'v
'v 1 e0
5
'v u
(g) (f) (e)

dV
u
xyz
mv
dt
t
u
k 2u
xyz
xyz
mv
t
w z 2
u
k 2u
t mv w z 2
cv
k
mv w

u
2u
cv 2
t
z
(7.6)
Differential
Excess pore pressure, u
7.6 (Fourier Series)
(Boundary conditions)
t 0 u v

z 0 , u 0
z 2 H dr , u 0
254
Hdr
H
Hdr
Hdr
Hdr
7-39 Drainage path, H dr
H dr
H
H dr
7-40
z t
2u0
Mz ( M 2Tv )
sin(
)e
H dr
m 0 M
u z ( z, t )
cvt
H dr2
M (2m 1)
2
u, (kPa)
0
20
40
60
80
100
u(z,t)
Tv
(7.7)
7-41 Excess pore pressure z t
255
7 (Consolidation)
Degree of consolidation z
Uz
u0 u z
u
1 z
u0
u0
(7.8)
xx Degree of consolidation z
t t Tv H dr2 / cv 7-42 spread sheet Excel

Permeable
Tv
=0
.0 5
0.1
0.1
0.2
0 .3
0.4
0.5
0.75
0.6
0 .7
0.8
Tv =
0.9
Z = z/Hdr
0.50
Hdr=H/2
0.
5
0.25
0.
Tv = 0.00
0.00
1.00
1.25
Hdr=H/2
1.50
1.75
2.00
Permeable
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Degree of consolidation, Uv
7-42 Degree of consolidation, U z z t
256
1.0
z
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
0.400
0.450
0.500
0.550
0.600
0.650
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
0.900
0.950
1.000
1.050
1.100
1.150
1.200
1.250
1.300
1.350
1.400
1.450
1.500
1.550
1.600
1.650
1.700
1.750
1.800
1.850
1.900
1.950
2.000
Excess pore pressure

u =
{(2*sin(MZ)*e^(-Tv*M^2)/M}
0.000
0.018
0.036
0.054
0.071
0.089
0.105
0.121
0.136
0.150
0.164
0.176
0.187
0.197
0.206
0.214
0.220
0.225
0.228
0.231
0.231
0.231
0.228
0.225
0.220
0.214
0.206
0.197
0.187
0.176
0.164
0.150
0.136
0.121
0.105
0.089
0.071
0.054
0.036
0.018
0.000
Degree of conso.
at depth z
Uz = 1- uzu0
100.000
0.982
0.964
0.946
0.929
0.911
0.895
0.879
0.864
0.850
0.836
0.824
0.813
0.803
0.794
0.786
0.780
0.775
0.772
0.769
0.769
0.769
0.772
0.775
0.780
0.786
0.794
0.803
0.813
0.824
0.836
0.850
0.864
0.879
0.895
0.911
0.929
0.946
0.964
0.982
1.000
(%)
10000
98
96
95
93
91
89
88
86
85
84
82
81
80
79
79
78
78
77
77
77
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
81
82
84
85
86
88
89
91
93
95
96
98
100
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.55
1.60
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.90
1.95
2.00
0.05
100.0
87.4
75.2
63.5
52.7
42.9
34.3
26.8
20.6
15.5
11.4
8.2
5.8
4.0
2.7
1.8
1.2
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
1.2
1.8
2.7
4.0
5.8
8.2
11.4
15.5
20.6
26.8
34.3
42.9
52.7
63.5
75.2
87.4
100.0
0.1
100.0
91.1
82.3
73.7
65.5
57.6
50.2
43.4
37.1
31.5
26.4
22.0
18.1
14.9
12.1
9.9
8.1
6.7
5.8
5.3
5.1
5.3
5.8
6.7
8.1
9.9
12.1
14.9
18.1
22.0
26.4
31.5
37.1
43.4
50.2
57.6
65.5
73.7
82.3
91.1
100.0
0.15
100.0
92.7
85.6
78.5
71.6
64.9
58.6
52.5
46.9
41.6
36.7
32.3
28.4
24.9
21.9
19.3
17.3
15.6
14.5
13.8
13.6
13.8
14.5
15.6
17.3
19.3
21.9
24.9
28.4
32.3
36.7
41.6
46.9
52.5
58.6
64.9
71.6
78.5
85.6
92.7
100.0
0.2
100.0
93.8
87.6
81.5
75.6
69.8
64.2
58.9
53.8
49.1
44.7
40.6
37.0
33.7
30.8
28.4
26.4
24.8
23.7
23.0
22.8
23.0
23.7
24.8
26.4
28.4
30.8
33.7
37.0
40.6
44.7
49.1
53.8
58.9
64.2
69.8
75.6
81.5
87.6
93.8
100.0
Uv at Tv = ?
0.3
0.4
0.50
100.0 100.0 100.0
95.2
96.3
97.1
90.5
92.6
94.2
85.8
88.9
91.3
81.2
85.3
88.5
76.7
81.8
85.8
72.4
78.5
83.2
68.2
75.2
80.6
64.2
72.1
78.2
60.5
69.2
75.9
57.0
66.4
73.8
53.8
63.9
71.8
50.8
61.6
70.0
48.2
59.5
68.4
45.9
57.7
67.0
43.9
56.2
65.7
42.3
54.9
64.7
41.0
53.9
63.9
40.1
53.1
63.4
39.5
52.7
63.0
39.3
52.6
62.9
39.5
52.7
63.0
40.1
53.1
63.4
41.0
53.9
63.9
42.3
54.9
64.7
43.9
56.2
65.7
45.9
57.7
67.0
48.2
59.5
68.4
50.8
61.6
70.0
53.8
63.9
71.8
57.0
66.4
73.8
60.5
69.2
75.9
64.2
72.1
78.2
68.2
75.2
80.6
72.4
78.5
83.2
76.7
81.8
85.8
81.2
85.3
88.5
85.8
88.9
91.3
90.5
92.6
94.2
95.2
96.3
97.1
100.0 100.0 100.0
0.60
100.0
97.7
95.5
93.2
91.0
88.9
86.8
84.9
83.0
81.2
79.5
78.0
76.6
75.3
74.2
73.2
72.4
71.8
71.4
71.1
71.0
71.1
71.4
71.8
72.4
73.2
74.2
75.3
76.6
78.0
79.5
81.2
83.0
84.9
86.8
88.9
91.0
93.2
95.5
97.7
100.0
0.70
100.0
98.2
96.5
94.7
93.0
91.3
89.7
88.2
86.7
85.3
84.0
82.8
81.7
80.7
79.8
79.1
78.5
78.0
77.6
77.4
77.4
77.4
77.6
78.0
78.5
79.1
79.8
80.7
81.7
82.8
84.0
85.3
86.7
88.2
89.7
91.3
93.0
94.7
96.5
98.2
100.0
0.80
100.0
98.6
97.2
95.9
94.5
93.2
92.0
90.8
89.6
88.5
87.5
86.6
85.7
84.9
84.2
83.7
83.2
82.8
82.5
82.4
82.3
82.4
82.5
82.8
83.2
83.7
84.2
84.9
85.7
86.6
87.5
88.5
89.6
90.8
92.0
93.2
94.5
95.9
97.2
98.6
100.0
0.90
100.0
98.9
97.8
96.8
95.7
94.7
93.7
92.8
91.9
91.0
90.2
89.5
88.8
88.2
87.7
87.2
86.9
86.6
86.4
86.2
86.2
86.2
86.4
86.6
86.9
87.2
87.7
88.2
88.8
89.5
90.2
91.0
91.9
92.8
93.7
94.7
95.7
96.8
97.8
98.9
100.0
7-43 Excel z . t
Degree of consolidation, U z z t
Degree of consolidation Integrate
t 0
2 H dr
u z dz /( 2 H dr )
u0
1 2 H dr
u z dz
2 H dr 0
U 1
u0
(7.9)
Degree of consolidation, U
m
2 M 2Tv
e
2
m 0 M
U 1
(7.10)
7.10 Average degree of consolidation

Time factor Spreadsheet Excel
7.2 7-44
257
7 (Consolidation)
7.2 Average degree of consolidation Time Factor
Average Degree of consolidation,
U (%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Time factor, Tv
0.000
0.008
0.031
0.071
0.126
0.197
0.287
0.403
0.567
0.848
Degree of consolidation, U (%)
10
20
30
40
50
U = 50% FTv = 0.197
60
70
80
90
100
0.001
U = 90% FTv = 0.848
0.01
0.1
10
Tv
7-44 Average degree of consolidation Time factor
Average degree of consolidation Tv 7.10

Fit curve
U 0% 60%
Tv
U%
4 100
258
(7.11)
U 60%
(7.12)
Tv 1.781 0.933 log(100 U %)
Tv 7.10
7.7.2 Coefficient of permeability, cv

Coefficient of consolidation liquid limit cv
Graphic
7.7.2.1 Logarithm-of-time Casagrande Taylor 1942
5.0
Initial compression
a0
y
Dial gauge reading (mm)
4.5
y
a50
4.0
Primary cosolidation
3.5
a100
3.0
Secondary compression
2.5
t
4t
t50
2.0
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
7-45 cv t50
d 50 degree of consolidation = 50% Tv = 0.197 cv

cv
0.197d 2
t50
259
(7.13)
7 (Consolidation)
7.7.2.2 Square-root-time Taylor 1942

5.0
a0
Initial compression
Dial gauge reading (mm)
4.5
Primary cosolidation
4.0
3.5
a90
3.0
2.5
a100
t90
af
2
Secondary
compression
10
12
14
t (min)
7-46
d 90
degree of consolidation = 90% Tv = 0.848 cv

cV
0.848d 2
t90
(7.14)
7.4 e-log sigma v

200 kPa e 1.52
Normally consolidated line 150 kPa Void ratio 1.43
a) Compression index, cc
b) 200 kPa Void ratio
1.45 Recompression index, cr OCR
c) 500 kPa Void ratio
a) Normally consolidated line 7-47
260

Cr
Void rato, e
(200, 1.52)
(350, 1.43)
Cc
'v (log scale)
7-47
cc
cc
e
log v
cc
1.52 1.43
0.37
log 200 log 350
b) 200 kPa
7-48
Cr
Void rato, e
Cr
C (200, 1.45)
A (200, 1.52)
B (350, 1.43)
Cc
'v (log scale)
7-48
cr OCR
261
7 (Consolidation)
cr
e
log v
cr
1.45 1.43
0.08
log 200 log 350
OCR
vm
350
1.75
v0 200
c) 200 kPa 500 kPa

Cr
Void rato, e
Cr
C (200, 1.45)
A (200, 1.52)
B (350, 1.43)
D (500, ?)
Cc
'v (log scale)
7-49
e cr log 350 log 200 cc log 500 log 350
350
500
e 0.08 log
0.37 log
200
350
e 0.077
eD eC e
eD 1.45 0.077 1.37
7.5 NC
7-50 (primary
consolidation settlement) .
v 140 kPa
262
2.00
7.40
3.00
void ratio = 0.76, normally consolidated =

43%, cc 0.3 , Gs 2.7 , w 9.8 kN/m3
7-50
1.

e Gs
1 e
t w
e wGs
0.43 2.7 2.7
3
17.5kN/m
1
0.43
2.7
t clay 9.8
0.76 2.7
3
19.3kN/m
1 0.76
t sand 9.8
2.
v0 v 0 u
v0 19.3 3 19.3 7.4 17.5 1 9.8 7.4 1 135.9kPa
3.
v final 135.9 140 275.9kPa
263
7 (Consolidation)
4. primary consolidation, e0 (0.43)(2.7) 1.16

prim. conso.
v
H0
cc log v 0
1 e0
v0
prim. conso.
2m
275.9kPa
0.3 log
85.4mm
1 1.16
135.9kPa
7.6
Cc
341kPa
vm
v final 276.4 kPa
v0 136.4 kPa
Void rato, e
Cr
2.00
7.40
3.00
(primary
consolidation settlement) 7-51 .
v 140 kPa
water content = 38%, OCR = 2.5, cc =0.3, cr =0.05, Gs 2.7 , w 9.8 kN/m3
'v (log scale)
7-51
1. (
18 kN/m )
clay
v0 19.3 3 19.3 7.4 18.0 1 9.8 7.4 1 136.4kPa
2.
264

v0 OCR
vm
136.4 2.5 341kPa
vm
3.
v final v0 v
v final 136.4 140 276.4kPa vm
4. primary consolidation, e0 (0.38)(2.7) 1.026

prim. conso.
v
H0
cc log v 0
1 e0
v0
prim. conso.
2m
276.4kPa
0.05 log
1000 15mm
1 1.026
136.4kPa
7.7
(primary
consolidation settlement) 7-51 .
v 140 kPa
water content = 38%, OCR = 1.5, cc =0.3, cr =0.05, Gs 2.7 , w 9.8 kN/m3
Void rato, e
v final 276.4 kPa
204.6 kPa
vm
Cc
v0 136.4 kPa
2.00
7.40
3.00
Cr
'v (log scale)
7-52
265
7 (Consolidation)
1. (
18 kN/m )
clay
v0 19.3 3 19.3 7.4 18.0 1 9.8 7.4 1 136.4kPa
2.
136.4 1.5 204.6kPa
vm
3.
v final 136.4 140 276.4kPa vm
4. primary consolidation
prim. conso.
v final
H
H0
cr log vm 0 cc log

1 e0
vm
v0 1 e0
prim. conso.
2m
204.6kPa
2m
276.4kPa
0.05 log
0.3 log
0.047m
1 1.026
136.4kPa 1 1.026
204.6kPa
7.8
Normally Consolidated clay 8 net uniform pressure 60 kN/m2

: Bulk unit weight = 18.8 kN/m2, Specific gravity = 2.72, Compression index, cc 0.12 ,
Void ratio 7-54
Applied
stress
v (kPa)
Initial void ratio e0

0.5
0.0
0.7
0.9
2.0
1.1
20
40
56.4
0.952
2.0
8.0
2.0
w = 18.8 kN/m3
cc = 0.12
32.4
0.898
z (m)
Clay
4.0
2.0
0.843
16.8
6.0
2.0
0.789
8.0
7-53
266
60
9.6
dsig_v
80
Void ratio
Cc = 0.12
log 'v
7-54

Applied
stress
v (kPa)
0
20
40
60
56.4
8.0
2.0
2.0
32.4
Clay
80
w = 18.8 kN/m3
cc = 0.12
2.0
16.8
9.6
2.0
dsig_v
7-55
267
7 (Consolidation)
7.9
200 kPa
18mm 50 kPa 0.5mm Modulus of volume
compressibility ( mv ) Confined Elastic Modulus ( Ec )
mv v ( log v ) v
7-56
'v
50
v
200
7-56
1. 200 kPa v
v
20 18
0.1
20
2. 50 kPa v
v
3.
20 18.5
0.075
20
mv
268
4.
mv
v 0.1 0.075
m/m
1.67 104
v
200 50
kPa
Ec
1
1
5988 kPa
mv 1.67 104
Ec
7.10
10m
75mm 20mm 15
Degree of consolidation= 50%
a) 10m
degree of consolidation = 50%
b) 10m
degree of consolidation = 50%
Hdr =5000mm
10000mm
10000mm
Hdr =10000mm
Hdr =5000mm
20mm
7-57
a) Degree of consolidation Tv
cvtfield
2
dr field
tfield
cvtlab
2
dr lab
H t

H
2
dr field
2
dr lab
lab
10000 / 2 15min
tfield
2
20 / 2
2
tfield 7.13years
269
7 (Consolidation)
b)
2
10000
tfield
15 min
2
20 / 2
tfield 28.54years
7.11

75mm 20mm = 62%, Gs =
2.7

90 kPa 75 kPa
e0 = 1.67 w 16 kN/m3
1. primary consolidation
2.
1m
2m
w = 9.81 kN/m3
t = 18 kN/m3
t = 19.4 kN/m3
V= 90 kPa
3m
V= 87.5 kPa
V= 82.5 kPa
w=62%
V= 77.5 kPa
V= 75 kPa
7-58
270

7-3
(kPa)
(mm)
15
0.10
30
0.11
60
0.21
120
1.13
240
2.17
480
3.15
7-4 200 kPa

(min)
(mm)
(((mm)
0
0.25
0.22
0.42
0.60
0.71
16
0.79
36
0.86
64
0.91
100
0.93
271
7 (Consolidation)
cc vm , H0 = 20mm
1.75
vm = 60 kPa
cr 0
1.55
cc
e = 0.27
Void ratio
1.65
1.45
0.27
0.45
400
log
100
1.35
1.25
10
100
1000
v (kPa)
7-59
3 1
272

7-5
b)
U 0% U 100%
U Tv () t Tv H dr2 / cv
U t U total primary conso. cv cv
cv 240 kPa
0.0
Settlement (mm)
0.2
t90 1.1 min0.5
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0
6
0.5
t , min
7-60
t90 1.1 1.21min
2
273
10
12
7 (Consolidation)
cv
Tv H dr2
t90
H dr
7-61
240 kPa
Hav =
(18.87+17.83)/2
17.83mm
18.87mm
240 kPa
7-61
H av
18.87 17.83
18.35mm
2

0.848 18.35 / 2
cv
58.99mm2 /min
1.21
2
7-6
7-62
274

( )
0
10
15
20
25
(mm)
50
100
150
100 % settlement = 180.6
200
7-62

100
87.5
(kPa)
90
82.5
80
77.5
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
( )
7-63
275
25
7 (Consolidation)
90
(kPa)
80
70
87.5
60
82.5
50
77.5
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
( )
7-64
7.8 (Pre-compression, Pre-loading)

(Pre-loading)

log v
2. Preloading with surcharge
Void ratio, e
1. Original ground
3. Consolidation Settlement
4. Removal of surcharge
5
3
5. Service load
7-65
276

v(surcharge)
v(proposed)
v(proposed)
7-66
= p proposed =
Consolidation = s( proposed)
s ( proposed)
C c Hc p 0 p ( proposed)
log
1 e0
p0
Hc
t1
= ( proposed) p( f )
Consolidation = s( proposed f )
s( proposed f )
Cc Hc p0 p( proposed) p f
log
1 e0
p0
t2
p( f )
277
(7.15)
7 (Consolidation)
Surcharge
v(proposed) + v(fill)
v(proposed)
time
Settlement
t(with surcharge)
t(no surcharge)
time
(no surcharge)
7-67
7.8.1 consolidation
1 consolidation
Tv
Tv U av
U av Excess pore pressure, u , Consolidation Settlement, c , Effective stress,
v
c
Embankment
Clay
Degree of consolidation = ?
Excess pore pressure = ?
Settlement = ?
Permeable
Permeable
(t = t1)
(t = 0)
7-68
278
2 Average degree of consolidation Degree of consolidation
Uav
U = 90%
av
Tv = f(cv, Hdr)
Uav
Clay
= 90%
Clay
Permeable
Permeable
7-69
Embankment ()

consolidation void ratio

7.9 Effect of soil type and foundation size (Azizi)

consolidation H

-
-
u 3 A( 1 3 )
3
1 A
(1 A)
1
1 v
c mv udz
c mv 1 A 3 (1 A) dz
1
c(oedo) mv 1dz
0
279
7 (Consolidation)
dz
m
(
1
A
)
v
1
mv 1dz
0
3 dz
0
A (1 A) H
1dz
0

overconsolidated clay ( A )
Oedometer test
pore pressure parameter, A H / B
1.0
H
0.25
B
0.8
0 .5
0.25
0.50
1 .0
1 .0
4 .0
circle
strip
4 .0
0.6
0.4
H
clay
rock
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
7-70 Correction factor for foundation size (Skempton and Bjerrum 1957)
280
7.10 Field compression curve

7-71
11

7-71
Strength Consolidation
Sample disturbance

7.10.1 Normally consolidated clay
281
7 (Consolidation)
vo vm
e0
Void ratio, e
Virgin compression
curve, Slope Cc
Laboratory
consolidation
curve
0.42e0
log 'v
7-72
Normally consolidated clay (OCR =1) Sample disturb Virgin

compression curve Laboratory consolidation curve Virgin compression curve Void ratio
= 0.42e0
7.10.2 Over consolidated clay
Schmertmann, 1953 (Field compression curve)
282

'v0
e0
'vm
Slope = cr
Void ratio, e
Field compression
curve
Laboratory
consolidation
curve
0.42e0
log 'v
7-73
7.11
1. 5 120 kPa
cv = 60 mm2/min 7-7
a) (primary consolidation)
b)

7-7 Consolidation
v (kPa)
15
30
60
120
240
480
Void ratio, e
1.66
1.66
1.64
1.52
1.38
1.25
283
7 (Consolidation)
2. 7-74

a)
b)
a) b)
~ 12 m
Soft Clay
Sand
7-74
3. Consolidation
19 cv
7.3
Time from start of loading
(min)
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
284
Specimen compression
(mm)
0.61
0.96
1.06
1.16
1.24
1.35

2.25
4.00
5.00
7.00
11.00
16.00
30.00
90.00
1.45
1.60
1.66
1.73
1.79
1.82
1.86
1.92
4. 10 Consolidation
48 kPa Primary consolidation
48 kN/m2
1.12
1.10
Clay
e0
= 1.1
t
= 18 kN/m3
Void ratio, e
10.00
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.00
40
Rock
60
80
100
v (kPa)
7-75
5. Consolidation test ST 5
7-8
a) 2.8
vo = 140 kPa v = 72 kPa
b) = 40 mm. Apply stress
25.4 mm 2
Consolidate Average degree of consolidation = 50% 4.5
285
7 (Consolidation)
7-8
Pressure, p (kN/m2)
140
212
Void ratio at end of consolidation, e

0.92
0.86
6. 3 ( t = 20 kN/m3)
a) 3
b) 3
v 0 = 100 kN/m2 e0 = 0.88, cc = 0.32, cv = 1.26 m2/year
3.0m.
sat = 20 kN/m3
t = 17 kN/m3
8.0m.
Fill
2.0m.
Sand
sat = 19 kN/m3
Clay
6.0m.
sat = 20 kN/m3
Impervious
7-76
7.
2
= 115 kN/m2 In-situ effective stress ( v 0 = 210 kN/m )
cc = 0.28, e0 = 0.9, cv = 0.36 m2/month (
Normally consolidated clay)
a) Primary consolidation pre-compression
b) Surcharge primary consolidation 9
286
287
8

(upper limit)

Soil Engineering
n f
f
8-1
8-2
8-3
n f
8-4

( ) (
)
289
8.1

(friction force)

8-5
W = 100 N
(N)
60
40
F k N
static friction
kinetic friction
k 0.4
20
F s N
s 0.5
20
40
60
80
F (N)
8-5

W 8-6
W
,H
,V
,N
8-6
H
V H free body
290
diagram N V
j
V
tan j
N
(8.1)
j (Angle of friction) tan j

(coefficient of static firiction) tan j
Error! Reference source not found.
8-7
tan j
0.150.60
0.200.60
0.30-0.70
0.250.50
0.400.70
0.201.00
0.600.90
0.2 1.0
11.3 45
291
8-1 (Broms, internet)

j ()
35-55
28-45
12
6
24-35

10-30
(
) ( )

u

292

interlocking
( van der Waals)
8-8

Maximum
shear stress
Failure line, each for a

constant value of water
content
Effective normal stress
8-8

(plastic strain)

-
(peak strength) normally consolidated
overconsolidated
(ditatancy)
293

strain softening

33 50
2 3

Failure at peak
strength
(a)
(b)
Elastic range
E
1
8-9
V
V N tan j
V N1 tan j
V N1 tan j
V N1 tan j
N1
8-10
294
(8.2)
f n f tan j
8.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria

Otto Mohr (1900) Normal stress Shearing stress
Maximum normal Maximum shear
f f
(8.3)
n f
f
3 f
8-11
Mohr failure line

failure line ( ( n ) f , f )
295
ilu
Fa
l
re
in e
n f
8-12 Mohrs circle OCR = 1 2 (Normally consolidated soil
Failure line
Failure line
Failure line
(a)
(b)
(c)
8-13 (1) , (2) , (3)

(Major principle stress Minor principle stress)

296
f n f tan j
j
n f , f
2 90 j
3 f
1 f
8-14 Mohrs circle
n f
1 f
3 f
45
8-15 State of stress
8-16 (Vogt 2003)
297
8-17
8.2.1 Mohr-Coulomb
Mohr-Coulomb 5
(
8-18)

298

1 3
1
E50
E0
2 sin j
3
1 sin j
1 3 max
11
vol
2 siny
1 siny
11
8-18 triaxial
Youngs modulus, E
Youngs modulus
tangent modulus E0
secant modulus E50
50
Poissons ratio,
Cohesion, c
Friction angle, j
Dilatancy angle, y
8.3 (Failure envelope) Overconsolidated clay

Azizi
8-19a
Normally
consolidated
299
240
240
180
180
( 1 3 ) / 2, (kPa)
( 1 3 ) / 2, (kPa)
Overconsolidated
p a 8-19b
120
60
Over consolidated
(
)
Normally consolidated
(
)
120
60
a
0
0
120
240
360
480
600
120
( 1 3 ) / 2, (kPa)
240
360
480
600
( 1 3 ) / 2, (kPa)
(a)
(b)
8-19 (a) , (b)
Overconsolidated
f c tan j1
8-20 Normally consolidated
Normally consolidated
f tan j
300
8-21 Overconsolidated
Over
consolidated
Normally
consolidated
tanj
anj1
t
f c
j1
c
3
8-22 (Failure envelope) Overconsolidated
8.4

8-23
301
Quenched, tempered
alloy steel (A709)
Stress
High-strength, low-alloy
steel (A992)
Carbon steel (A36)

Pure iron
Strain
8-23
Effective stress

Elastic modulus
Tangent modulus
Yield
Secant modulus
Strain
8-24
302
8-25
8.1

"Triaxial apparatus" (
)
8-26
303
8
Proving ring
Dial gauge
Cell pressure
Pore pressure
measurement
Measurement
of volume
changes
8-26 Triaxial
Shear strength parameter

8-27

triaxial
304

State of stress
v 0
h 0
State of stress
8-27
Consolidated Drained
Compression Test
Consolidated Undrained
Compression Test
Unconsolidated Undrained
Compression Test
cell pressure
cell pressure
cell pressure
u = 0 (
V 0 (
)
)
u 0 (
V 0 (
)
)
cell pressure
u 0
u = 0
u = 0
Unconfined
Compression Test
u 0 (
V 0 (
)
)
8-28 triaxial test
305
8.1.1 Consolidated Drained compression

ub
, ub
u0
u0
8-29 (Drained compression test)
Drained Triaxial Drained triaxial

d - a v - a
V
V0 1
V
1 volume
V V0 V
0
A

A0
H H 0 H
1 axial
H
H 0 1
H0
(8.4)
306
deviator stress, 1-3
Overconsolidated clay
deviator stress, 1-3
Normally consolidated clay
strain
strain
strain
strain
V
V
8-30 Consolidated drained triaxial test
8-31 Effects of the state of a clay on the porewater pressure at failure
8.1
38 78
Consolidated drained triaxial compression test cell pressure = 300 kPa
100 kPa
axial strain deviator stress
axial strain volumetric strain
307
8
8-2
0
115
235
325
394
(mm3 10 )
Axial
strain, a
0.00
0.88
3.72
7.07
8.40
0.000
0.010
0.042
0.080
0.095
0.000
0.025
0.075
0.150
0.245
0.001134
0.001151
0.001174
0.001227
0.001359
0
-1.95
-5.85
-11.7
-19.11
A (m2)
350
300
250
d (kPa)
(kN)
Volumetric
strain, v
(mm)
200
150
100
50
0
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
a
a
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.05
vol
0.10
0.15
8-32
308
0.30
0.40
Deviatoric
stress, d
(kPa)
0.00
99.86
200.07
264.76
289.83
8.1.2 Consolidated Undrained compression

ub
, ub
u0
u0
u1
c
8-33 (Undrained Compression test)
8.2
38 78
Consolidated undrained triaxial compression test back pressure 100 kPa
cell = 300 kPa
axial strain deviator stress
axial strain total pore water pressure
8-3
(kN)
(mm)

, u
Axial strain,
(m2)
0.000
0.025
0.055
0.120
0.180
0.001134
0.001163
0.001200
0.001289
(kPa)
0
58
96
124
136
0
-1.95
-4.29
-9.36
-14.04
100
165
200
224
232
309
Deviatoric
stress, d
(kPa)
0
50
80
96
98
8
120
100
d (kPa)
80
60
40
20
0
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
a
250
u (kPa)
200
150
100
50
0
0.00
0.10
8-34
8.3
Consolidated undrained triaxial (Balasubramanium and
Chaudhry 1978) 8-35 3
3 Mohrs circle
deviator
310

300
c 414 kPa
d (kN/m2)
200
c 276 kPa
c 138 kPa
100
0
0
10
15
20
11 (%)
excess pore press, u (kN/m2)
300
c 414 kPa
200
c 276 kPa
100
c 138 kPa
0
0
10
11 (%)
15
20
8-35 Consolidated undrained traxail test (Balasubramanium and Chaudhry 1978)

8-4
Cell pressure
(kN)
Deviator stress
d (kPa)
Excess pore water

pressure, u (kPa)
Major principal
stress, 1 (kPa)
Minor principal
stress, 3 (kPa)
138
276
414
93.7
154.4
239.4
81.9
167.3
251
149.8
263.1
402.4
56.1
108.7
163
311
8
(kPa)
200
26.1
c 414 kPa
c 276 kPa
100
c 138 kPa
0
0
100
200
300
400
(kPa)
8-36 Mohrs circle CIU
8.4
Consolidated drained triaxial (Balasubramanium and
Chaudhry 1978) 8-37 3
3 Mohrs circle
deviator
312
d (kN/m2)
600
c 414 kPa
c 276 kPa
400
c 138 kPa
200
0
0
10
20
30
11 %
0
c 414 kPa
c 276 kPa
v (%)
-4
-8
c 138 kPa
-12
-16
-20
0
10
11 (%)
20
30
8-37 Consolidated drained traxail test (Balasubramanium and Chaudhry 1978)

8-5
Cell pressure Deviator stress at
failure d (kPa)
c (kN)
138
276
414
167
371
500
Excess pore water Major principal

pressure, u (kPa) stress, 1 (kPa)
0
305
0
647
0
914
313
Minor principal
stress, 3 (kPa)
138
276
414
8
(kPa)
22.5
300
c 414 kPa
200
c 276 kPa
100
c 138 kPa
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900 (kPa)
8-38 Mohrs circle CID
8.2

8-39 1 2
3 4
q 1 3
Load
c
Footing
Compression test
h c
v c
Active wall
c
Case 2
Case 1: Increase axial stress
p ( 1 2 3 ) / 3
h c
Extension test
Case 3
Excavation
Passive wall
v c
Case 4: Increase cell pressure
8-39 triaxial test
314
8.3 (USACE 1990)

Type of test
Uniaxial stress
(UT)
Diagram
Descrition
Loading 1 on a single vertical axis,
2 3 0
d
E 1
d1
Young's modulus, E is determined

1
Hydrostatic
compression
(HCT)
0
d 0
E
d vol
0
vol
Loading occurs along the space

diagonal in equal increment
0 1 2 3
and
vol 1 2 3
Bulk modulus, K is determined
315
shear
Confined
compression test
Conventional
triaxial
compression test
12
After hydrostatic loading to
21
G
d 12
d12
E1D
d 1
d1
0 oct ( 1 2 3 ) / 3
12
12
12
1
1
1 0
Simple
test
Et
d ( 1 3 )
d1
1
1
1
1 0
Conventional
triaxial
extension test
8.4

(Void ratio )
(Void ratio )
(Principle effective stress) Mohr
( )
316
8-40 Loose and dense states for sands
8-41 Contraction and dilation of sands
8.1

(softening)
(hardening)
317
8.1.1 (dilatancy1)

8-42

Osborne Renold2 .. 1885

adj. 1. dilating; expanding. 2. Physical Chemistry . exhibiting an increase in volume on being changed in shape, owing to a wider spacing
between particles.
2
Osborne Reynolds (August 1842 - February 1912) was a prominent innovator in the understanding of fluid dynamics.
318
8-43
8.2 OCR Peak strength
8-44 Effect of the OCR on the peak strength of a clay
319
8.3 Consolidated Undrained Triaxial

Deviator stress Strain

Undrained (
)
(8.5)
CU Mohrs circle

8.4 Axisymmetric
Skempton (1954)
(Axisymmetry)
u B 3 A 1 3
(8.6)
Minor principle stress

1 3 Deviatoric stress

B
B = 1
(S=0%) B = 0
A (excess pore water pressure coefficient)

3
u
B1 A 1 1
3
3
(8.7)
CU compression CD compression
3 1
320

u
B
3
B=1 u 3
3 3

ud
A A f
3 f
1
ud
Deviatoric stress
1.0
Af
0.5
0.0
-0.5
1
10
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR
8-45
Af
OCR
A f OCR
OCR < 2 ()
OCR > 2 ()
321
100
8-46 Effect of the state of a clay on its strength
8-47 Variation of su with depth for a normally consolidated clay (Azizi 2000)
8.5 Unconfined compression (UC test)

322
shear
stress,
Total stress failure

envelop (j =0)
su
1= qu
normal
stress,
8.6 Unconsolidated Undrained (UU test)

failure envelop ( j 0 ) f
su
Total stress failure

envelop (j =0)
shear
stress,
su
normal
stress,
8.5 Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test

Shear strength Unconsolidated Undrained triaxial test
8-6
8-6
UU-1
UU-2
UU-3
Cell pressure (t/sq.m.)

10
17
24
323
Deviator stress (t/sq.m.)

13.6
14.2
13.4

state of stress 8-48 state of total stress Mohr
3 8-49
j max 6.8

unconsolidated undrained triaxial
test j =0 c su =6.8
Total stress
Total stress
1=10+13.6
c= 10 t/m2
UU-1
3= 10 t/m2
1(
=31.2 t/m2
3= 17 t/m2
c= 17 t/m2
1(
=37.4 t/m2
3= 24 t/m2
c= 24 t/m2
3(
1=24+13.4
c= 24 t/m2
3(
1=17+14.2
c= 17 t/m2
UU-3
1(
=23.6 t/m2
c= 10 t/m2
UU-2
Effective stress
3(
8-48 unconsolidated undrained triaxial test

j = 0
10
(t/m2)
UU-1
UU-2
UU-3
5
su = 6.8 t/m2
10
20
30
40
(t/m2)
8-49 Mohrs circle state of total stress

unconsolidated drained triaxial test
324
8.6 CD triaxial test

Shear strength Consolidated Drained triaxial test
8-7
CD-1
CD-2
CD-3
Cell pressure,
c (t/m2)
20
40
60
Deviator stress at failure, Pore pressure = Backpressure,

d 1 3 (t/m2)
u0 (t/m2)
12
10
23
20
36
30
cell pressure Deviator

1 () 3 Cell pressure (
) 8-50
Mohr's circle 8-50
c= 410 kPa
1= 410+241=651 kPa
1= 651-216.2
uf=216.2 kPa
=434.8 kPa
c= 410 kPa
c= 450 kPa
3= 410 kPa
3= 410-216.2
uf=216.2 kPa
1= 450+152.8
=193.8 kPa
1= 602.8-329.2
uf=329.2 kPa
=602.8 kPa
=273.6 kPa
c= 450 kPa
c= 420 kPa
3= 450-329.2
uf=329.2 kPa
3= 450 kPa
=120.8 kPa
1= 503.5-345.7
1= 420+83.5
uf=345.7 kPa
=503.5 kPa
=157.8 kPa
c= 420 kPa
uf=345.7 kPa
3= 420 kPa
8-50 consolidated drained triaxial test
325
3= 420-345.7
=74.3 kPa
(t/m2)
20
10
20
10
20
32
30
60
40
40
50
63
96
60
70
80
90
70
80
90
t (t/m2)
u0=10
u0 =20
u0=30
22
(t/m2)
20
10
10
10
22 30
20
20
30
66
43
40
50
60
(t/m2)

consolidated drained triaxial test
8.7 CU triaxial test

Shear strength Consolidated Undrained triaxial test
8-8
CU-1
CU-2
CU-3
Cell pressure,
c (kN/m2)
410
450
420
Deviator stress at failure,

d 1 3 (kN/m2)
241.0
152.8
83.5
326
Pore pressure at failure,

2
u f (kN/m )
216.2
329.2
345.7

1= 410+241=651 kPa
c= 410 kPa
1= 651-216.2
uf=216.2 kPa
=434.8 kPa
c= 410 kPa
3= 410 kPa
1= 450+152.8
c= 450 kPa
3= 410-216.2
uf=216.2 kPa
=193.8 kPa
1= 602.8-329.2
uf=329.2 kPa
=602.8 kPa
=273.6 kPa
c= 450 kPa
1= 420+83.5
c= 420 kPa
3= 450-329.2
uf=329.2 kPa
3= 450 kPa
=120.8 kPa
1= 503.5-345.7
uf=345.7 kPa
=503.5 kPa
=157.8 kPa
c= 420 kPa
3= 420-345.7
uf=345.7 kPa
3= 420 kPa
=74.3 kPa
8-52 consolidated undrained triaxial test
22.5
74.3
120.8
193.8
273.6
157.8
434.8

consolidated undrained triaxial test
8.8 unconfined compression
327
Unconfined compression test 46

90 63 8-9

8-9
(cm)
(kg)
(%)
Acurrent load (cm )
(t/m2)
0.000
0.051
0.102
0.152
0.203
0.254
0.356
0.457
0.584
0.737
0.914
1.143
1.397
1.651
1.778
0.000
0.772
1.672
2.572
3.344
3.987
5.016
5.595
5.981
6.045
6.045
6.045
5.917
5.917
5.788
0.000
0.564
1.129
1.693
2.258
2.822
3.951
5.080
6.491
8.184
10.160
12.700
15.522
18.344
19.756
16.619
16.713
16.809
16.905
17.003
17.102
17.303
17.508
17.773
18.100
18.498
19.037
19.673
20.353
20.710
0.00
0.46
0.99
1.52
1.97
2.33
2.90
3.20
3.37
3.34
3.27
3.18
3.01
2.91
2.79
qu 3.37 t/m 2
Axial stress (kPa)
Eu 84 t/m 2
1
0
0
10
15
20
Axial strain (%)
8-54
328
25
(t/sq.m.)
j= 0
1= 3.37 t/sq.m.
3=0
su= 1.68
2= 90
3=0
1=3.37
1.68
(t/sq.m.)

unconfined compression test
= 1.68 t/sq.m.
su= 1.68 t/sq.m.
1= 3.37 t/sq.m.
= 45
3=0
8-56 state of stress
8.7 Mohr-Coulomb
8.7.1.1 cohesion
state
of stress Mohr's circle
3 c
failure envelop 1 Friction angle ( j ) Major
principle stress ( 1 ) Minor principle stress ( 3 )
Mohrs circle 8-57
329
(kN/m2)
200
R
100
1 3
2
f R cosj
0
0
100
R
90 j
300
R
sinj
200
400
1
500
(kN/m2)
n f 1 3 1 3 sinj
2
1 3
8-57 Mohrs circle

sin j
( 1 3 ) / 2
( 1 3 ) / 2
1 3
1 3
1 1 sin j 3 3 sin j
11 sin j 3 1 sin j

1 sin j
1 sin j
1 3

n f
1 3
1 3
2
2
1 3
2
sin j
cos j
330

200
(kN/m2)
Fa
100
elo
pe
1 3
2
j
0
nv
ee
ilur
f R cosj
90 j
100
1 3
200
n f
300
R
sin j
1 3
2
1 3
400
500
(kN/m2)
sin j
8-58
sin j
( h v ) / 2
( h v ) / 2
h v
h v
h v sin j h h sin j
h 1 sin j v 1 sin j

1 sin j
1 sin j
h v

n f
h v
1 3
2
2
1 3
2
sin j
cos j
8.7.1.2 cohesion
Cohesion
8-59
331
8-59
8.8 Mohrs circle Pole method

Mohrs circle Pole method
6.11 Pole method
6.11
Pole
method 8-60
332
8-60 Pole method Mohrs circle
8.9
Normally consolidated clay Internal friction angle, j 25
a) Consolidated Undrained triaxial test cell pressure = 200 kN/m2
Deviator stress ( d )f
b) a)

1. Mohrs circle
2.
333
8
200
25
100
492 kPa
132 kPa
(kN/m2)
284 kPa
c 200
115.0
0
0
100
200
300
400
(kN/m2)
500
8-61 Mohrs circle

1
n f
45
1
45
j
2
j
2
n f
45
j
2
8-62
cell pressure = 200 kPa friction

angle = j 25
1 sin j
1 sin j
1 3
1 sin 25
492.78kPa
200

1 sin 25
n f 1 3 1 3 sin j
2
334
n f
492.78 200 492.78 200
sin 25 284.37kPa
2
2
f 1 3 cos j
2
492.78 200
cos 25 132.67kPa
2

492.78 kPa
132.67 kPa
7k
2.6
492.78 kPa
13
284.37 kPa
Pa
45 25 / 2 57.5
57.5
284
200 kPa
57.5
.37
200 kPa
kP
8-63
8.9 Direct shear

8-64 60
75
3
3

8-68
335
8-64 Direct shear
direct shear test Simple

shear test Direct shear test

(shear strain) simple
shear test

Horizontal
displacement
Shear
strain
Direct shear test
Simple shear test
8-65 Direct shear Simple shear
Permeability Excess pore pressure

Effective stress analysis
336
Shear strength parameter Effective stress

(In-situ test) Direct shear
test
8-66 Direct shear

, n
8-67
337
8
(Shear strength, max )
(max)A
Sample C, ('n)C
(max)B
(max)C
Sample B, ('n)B
(max)A
Sample C
j
(max)B
Sample B
(max)C
Sample A, ('n)A
Sample A
('n)A
('n)B
('n)C
(Normal stress, n)
A
B
C
8-68 direct shear test
8.10
B P
q 8-69 qult

su
B
qult
Action
Load
Resistance
RB
resist su
8-69 Free body diagram q qult
Free body diagram

338

B
qult B(1.0) su ( B)(1.0)( B) 0
2

qult 2 su 6.28su
Pult qult B 6.28Bsu
8.11
D L
Tult
su
a su a
Tult
Action
Resistance
max
resist
a su
8-70 Free body diagram T Tult

undrained c su j 0
339
Free body diagram Tult

( )
max
Tult ( resist
)( DL) 0
Tult (a su )( DL) 0
Tult a su DL
8.12
D L 8-71
Tult ,

Tult
Action
Resistance
z
max
resist
h tan(0.75j )
h K z
dz
8-71
8-71 T

z
dTresist ( D)dz
dTresist h tan(0.75j )( D)dz
340
h K ( z)
dTresist ( K z ) tan(0.75j )( D)dz
L
Tresist ( K z ) tan(0.75j )( D)dz

0
integrate
Tresist
1
( K z 2 ) tan(0.75j )( D)
2
Tult Tresist
1
( K L2 ) tan(0.75j )( D)
2

Tult
1
( K L) tan(0.75j )( D)( L)
2
Tult
1
( K )(vertical stress at piletip) tan(0.75j )(perimeter of pile)
2
8.10 Undrained shear strength Normally consolidated and over consolidated soil
8-72 Ko OCR

Ko 1
341
8
Failure in
compression
Normal
consolidated line
Ko 1 sin j
Ko 1
Ko 1
vo
Failure in
extension
ho
8-72 Ko OCR
8.10.1
su
Skempton (1957)
, v , Plasticity index
su
0.11 0.0037( PI )
v
(8.8)

Plasticity index
Ladd (1977)
OCR
( su / v )overconsolidated
(OCR)0.8
( su / v ) normally consolidated
(8.9)
8-73
-
OCR
342

1.10
Data from field vane shear test

PI 52% to 80%
at km 24
at km 30
at km 52
at km 2 (EGAT)
( su ) FV / vm
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
1
logOCR
8-73 ( su )FV / vm OCR

-
- (consistency) su
-
8-10 -
-
su (kPa)
(very soft)
20
(soft)
20 40
40 75
75 150
50
(medium stiff)
(stiff)
(very stiff)
8.10.2

8-74a
343
8
su
water content
desiccation
natural water
content
ln su
(a)
(b)
8-74 (a) , (b)

8-74b
8-75
4

4
field vane shear OCR
4 1 4

344

water content (%)
0.0
Ground surface
50
undrained shear strength

(t/sq.m)
100
OCR
4
4.0
Depth, m
10
14.0
15.0
15
8-75 dessication
3000
Azizi (Azizi 2000)

8.11
1. undrained shear strength, su
2. j
3. direct shear 60
c j
Effective stress
(kPa)
Shear strength (kPa)
1
2
3
75.0
150.0
225.0
51.2
82.7
110.1
345
4. Friction angle, j 30 F
0.4 0.4
60 kN
h (kN)
60
6m
=?
8-76
3. Field vane shear 8-77

(Cross blade) (Torque)
(Fail) (Vane) su
su
su
su
T
HD 2 D 3
(
)
2
6
T = H = , D =
346
Casing
Rod
vane
8-77
4. unconfined compresstion test unconfined

compressive strength kPa undrained shear strength
6. 6.1
60
17.3 kN/m3
6.1
j 30
P
P?
T
N
8-78
347
P
A
V

Normal strain
Shear strain
u z
Young's modulus
Shear modulus
L
L0
Friction law
F N
Classical equations and boundary-value problem
Parabolic
Hyperbolic
Elliptic
One-dimensional heat
One-dimensional flow of water
One-dimensional wave equation
Laplaces equation in two dimensions

Flow of water in two-dimensional
x (spatial dimesion) t
a2
2u u
x 2 t
2u 2u
x 2 t 2
2u 2u
0
x 2 y 2
Laplace equation
2u
2u 2u
u 2 2
x y
2
2u
2u 2u 2u
x 2 y 2 z 2
349

Rule for Professional Attitude
by Karl Terzaghi
(considered by many to be the "Father" of modern soil mechanics
1. Engineering is a noble sport which calls for good sportmanship. Occasional blundering is part of the
game. let it be your ambition to be the first one to discover and announce your blunders. If somebody else
gets ahead of you, take it with a smile and thank him for his interest. Once you begin to fell tempted to
deny your blunders in the face of reasonable evidence you have ceased to be a good sport. You are already
a crank or a grouch.
2. The worst habit you can possibly acquire is to become uncritical towards your own concepts and at
the same time skeptical towards those of others. Once you arrive at that state you are in the grip of senility,
regardless of your age.
3. When you commit one of your ideas to print, emphasize every controversial apsect of your thesis
which you can perceive. Thus you win the respect of your readers and are kept aware of the possibilities
for further improvement. A departure from this rule is the safest way to wreck your reputation and to
paralyze your mental activities.
4. Very few people are either so dumb or so dishonest that you could not learn anything from them.
Overview of Scientific Articles and their Structure:

Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion and
Conclusion, Reference
dilatancy ......................................................................... 309

Soil Structure.....................................................................42
Thixotropy .........................................................................36
.................................................................. 39
...................................................................... 32
.............................................................313
351

Azizi, F. (2000). Applied analyses in geotechnics. London and New York, E&FN Spon.
Balasubramaniam, A. S. and R. P. Brenner (1981). "Consolidation and settlement of soft clay in soft clay
engineering." Development in Geotechnical Engineering, Elsevier.
Balasubramanium, A. S. and A. R. Chaudhry (1978). "Deformation and strength characteristics of soft Bangkok
clay." Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE Vol 104: 1153-1167.
Barnes, G. (2000). Soil Mechanics: Principles and Practice: 2nd edition, Macmillan Press Ltd.
Clayton, C. R. I., J. Milititsky, et al. (1993). Earth pressure and Earth-retaining structures, Spon Press.
CUR_Rport_162 (1996). Building on soft soils: Design and construction of earth structures both and into highly
compressible subsoils of low bearing capacity, A. A. Balkema.
Das, B. M. (1995). Principles of Foundation Engineering - 3rd edition, PWS Publishing.
EKA The European Kaolin Association.
Head, K. H. (1980). Manual of soil laboratory testing. London, Pentech Press.
Lambe, T. W. and R. V. Whitman (1969). Soil Mechanics, SI version. New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Lambe, W. and R. Whitman (1928). Soil Mechanics, SI Version, John Wiley & Sons.
Newmark, N. M. (1935). Simplified computation of vertical pressure in elastic foundations, Univ. Illinois Eng.
Exper. Sta. Circular 24.
USACE (1990). EM 1110-1-1904: Engineering Design; Settlement analysis, Department of the Army, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.
Vogt, N. (2003). Grundbau und Bodenmechanik. Munich, Lehrstuhl und Pruefamt fuer Grundbau,
Bodenmechanik und Felsmechanik.
, ., . , et al. (2550).
12, . 24
(-). " " ,

.
353

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Effective normal stress

5.13 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD ..........................................159

1.6 Soil mechanics ?

1-13 (CUR_Rport_162 1996)

1.7 Soil mechanics in summary

1-15 (Seta) (a) , (b) 400 , (c) 1500

2.2 Rock Cycle

2.3.1 (Mechanical Weathering)

2.3.2 (Chemical Weathering)

Oxidation- Ion Oxygen

Carbonation - + Carbondioxide -> Carbonic Acid

2.4 Soil Formation

2.4.1 Residual Soil

2-5 (Residual Soil) (Ruxton et al., 1957)

2.4.2 Sediment Soils (Transported Soils)

Marine Marine Clay

2-9 (Balasubramaniam and Brenner 1981)

Assumed marine/terrestrial break

Soil data from NEDECO (1965)

Yellow, red and brown

2-10 (NEDECO, 1965)

Grey brown, very stiff, silty clay

Brown, stiff, silty clay

Brown sandy clay

Yellow brown, stiff, silty clay

Yellow brown, hard clay

Brown hard clay

Brown, stiff clay

Aeolian Loess (Silt)

(fine grained soil) (coarse

2.5 (Clay Mineral)

2-16 Silica tetrahedron (a) (b) Silica

2.5.2 Alumina Octahedron

2-17 Alumina Tetrahedron (a) (b)

Basic sheet structure bonding

Variable from 9.6 A

2-18 (a) (b) (c)

2-19 Kaolinite 6 ( 3333 )

2-20 Shear Strength

2-21 Thixotropy Thixotropy

Thixotropic regain (%)

2-25 X-ray diffraction Montmorillonite

Slab and wall

Pier drops no adhesion

2.6 adsorbed water

2-27 (a) 1cm1cm1cm (b)

2-29 (Polar molecule)

Water in this zone

Clay particle (not to scale)

Diffuse double layer

2-31 (Head 1980)

2-32 Double-layer water

2.7 Soil Structure Soil Structure

2.7.2 (Cohesive soil)

2-35 Flocculated Dispersed

Void ratio Porosity

(Moisture content or water content, w )

(Total unit weight, t )

(Dry unit weight, d )

void ratio water content

0.001 6.011104 3.989 104 m3

c) Unit weight water content = 0