Loop Design1

ME 297 Roller Coaster Dynamics Purdue University Fall 2010

Layout of a simple roller coaster track with lift hill/first drop and loop

Primary reference: Pendrill, A.-M., 2005, Rollercoaster loop shapes, Physics Education, 40(6), pp. 517-521.

Review In the last class, we discussed three different ways of describing the kinematics for the planar motion of particles: Cartesian, path and polar. The results are summarized below:

path of P

path of P

y et P s O

path of P

j P y i

C en

er P r x e Polar description

x Cartesian description Path description

velocity vector

acceleration vector

!i+y ! j v=x = v et !e ! er + r! =r !

; Cartesian ; path ; polar

a = !! x i + !! yj v2 ! et + =v e ! n ! 2 e + ( r# !! + 2 r !) e !# = !! r " r# r #

; Cartesian ; path ; polar

Path geometry The path of a rollercoaster cart is probably most easily visualized in terms of its ( x, y ) coordinates since having detailed information on the path y = y ( x ) allows us to accurately draw the shape of the path. However, the path description is the most logical choice in terms of a performance-based design. The fundamental parameters for the path description are introduced below and related back to the more physically realizable Cartesian coordinates ( x, y ) (see figure below): inclination angle, ! : the angle between the x-axis and the tangent to the path:
tan! = dy dx

distance traveled along the track, s : ds =

( dx )2 + ( dy )2 . Alternately,
(1) (2)

radius of curvature of the path, ! : The radius of curvature of the path is the radius of a circle tangent to the path and having the same curvature as the path. Since the arc length of a circle is found by ds = ! d" , we have d! 1 = (3) ds "

C
y ( or, h )

path : y = y ( x )

!
!

y0

s=0

ds
x

dy

x0

!
dx

Path design The design of a coaster track is typically done in terms of prescribing (or deriving) the radius of curvature of the track ! as a function of the distance traveled s along the path. In other words, we will start out of a desired function ! ( s ) and will end up with an equation of the path in Cartesian coordinates ( x, y ) . To this end, we do the following: 1. Using the known ! ( s ) , determine the inclination angle by integrating equation (3):

! ( s ) = !0 + #

where ! 0 is the inclination angle at the start of the segment of track. 2. Once we know ! ( s ) from equation (3a) above, we can determine the equations for the ( x, y ) components of the track by integrating equations (1) and (2):

ds " (s) 0

(3a)

x ( s ) = x0 + " cos! ( s ) ds y ( s ) = y0 + " sin! ( s ) ds

(1a) (2a)

where ( x, y ) = ( x0 , y0 ) are the coordinates at the start of the segment of track. From this we see that if one is given the radius of curvature of a path ! ( s ) , along with initial conditions ( x0 , y0 ) and ! 0 , one can construct the equations describing the Cartesian components of the path.

Note that the integrands of equations (1a), (2a) and (3a) are typically complicated enough that we will often need to resort of numerical means for performing these integrations.

TRACK DESIGN #1: circular path

( x0 , y0 )

s=0 !0 = 0

Say that the cart starts with a speed of v0 at s = ! 0 = 0 where the path has a desired constant radius of curvature ! = r . As the cart moves beyond the starting point, the speed is given governed by the conservation of energy equation:
1 2 1 2 mv0 = mv + mgh 2 2
2 v 2 v0 ! 2 gh = r r

2 v 2 = v0 " 2 gh

As the cart moves along the path, its centripetal component of acceleration is given by:

an =

The path of cart can be derived from the fundamental equations (3a), (1a) and (2a) as:

ds ds ! ( s ) = !0 + # =# " (s) 0 r 0 x ( s ) = x0 + " cos! ( s ) ds = " cos! ( s ) ds y ( s ) = y0 + " sin! ( s ) ds = " sin! ( s ) ds
0 0 0 s 0 s s s

Numerical results for v0 = 30 m / sec

an 0 = 2 g

an 0 = 3g

an 0 = 4 g an 0 = 4.5 g

TRACK DESIGN #2: path with constant centripetal acceleration

!0

!0
s=0

Say that the cart starts with a speed of v0 at s = 0 where the path has a desired radius of curvature !0 and inclination angle ! 0 . As the cart moves beyond the starting point, the speed is given governed by the conservation of energy equation:
1 2 1 2 mv0 = mv + mgh 2 2
2 v 2 v0 " 2 gh an = = ! !

2 v 2 = v0 " 2 gh

As the cart moves along the path, its centripetal component of acceleration is given by:

The centripetal component of acceleration at the start (! = ! 0 , ! = !0 and h = h0 = 0 ) is therefore:

In order for the particle to maintain a constant centripetal component of acceleration throughout the path, we need to have:
an 0 = an =
2 v0 ! 2 gh "

"=
=

2 v0 ! 2 gh an 0 2 v0 gh h !2 = "0 ! 2 an 0 an 0 ( an 0 / g )

This result says that in order for the cart to maintain a constant normal g-level, an 0 / g , the radius of curvature must DECREASE at a linear rate with the change in elevation h .

Numerical results for v0 = 30 m / sec

an 0 = 4 g

an 0 = 4.5 g

an 0 = 3g

an 0 = 2 g

TRACK DESIGN #3: path with constant normal force (constant apparent weight)
y ( or, h ) y ( or, h )

path

path

!0
!0
s=0

!
mg

Say that the cart starts with a speed of v0 at s = 0 where the path has a desired radius of curvature !0 and inclination angle ! 0 . As the cart moves beyond the starting point, the speed is given governed by the conservation of energy equation:
1 2 1 2 mv0 = mv + mgh 2 2 !
2 v 2 = v0 " 2 gh

If we sum forces on the cart in the direction normal to the path, we get:
v2 ! Fn = N " mgcos# = m $ %

# # v2 & v 2 ) 2 gh & N = m % gcos! + ( = m % gcos! + 0 ( "' " $ $ '

# v2 & N 0 = m % gcos! 0 + 0 ( "0 ' $

#=

2 v0 " 2 gh

g ( cos! 0 " cos! ) +

#0 ( an 0 / g ) " 2 h #0 " 2 h / ( an 0 / g ) = cos! 0 " cos! + ( an 0 / g ) 1 + ( cos! 0 " cos! ) / ( an 0 / g )

2 v0 #0

Numerical results for v0 = 30 m / sec

an 0 = 4 g an 0 = 4.5 g an 0 = 3g

an 0 = 2 g

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TRACK DESIGN #4: path with linearly-decreasing radius of curvature (clothoid)

path

!0
!0
s=0

Say that the cart starts with a speed of v0 at s = 0 where the path has a desired inclination angle ! 0 . As the cart moves beyond the starting point, the radius of curvature of the path decreases with s as:

! (s) =

1 bs

where b is a design parameter for the loop. Note that ! ( 0 ) = " . Equation (3a) gives:

The ( x, y ) coordinates of the path for this design can then be found from equations (1a) and (2a) as:

1 ! ( s ) = ! 0 + " bs ds = ! 0 + bs 2 2 0

x ( s ) = " cos! ( s ) ds = " cos ! 0 + bs 2 / 2 ds

y ( s ) = " sin! ( s ) ds = " sin ! 0 + bs 2 / 2 ds

Unfortunately, this integrals cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions2. Therefore, numerical integration is needed to determine the ( x, y ) coordinates of the path for a given parameter value b . However, we do know that, by definition, this path has a monotonically-decreasing radius of curvature as one moves along the path. In simple terms, these equations represent a spiral, commonly referred to as a clothoid. A figure representing the general shape of this spiral is shown below.

These integrals are known as the Fresnel integrals. Numerical values for these integrals can be found in tabulated form in many handbooks and Matlab routines exist for their evaluation.
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! ="

!=0

For our application to the design of coaster loops, we will take the segment from ! = 0 to ! = " and join it with its mirror image, as shown below to produce a symmetrical clothoid loop.

! ="
symmetrical clothoid loop

!=0

! = 2"

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b = 0.001

b = 0.002 b = 0.003
b = 0.004

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Summary: numerical results for v0 = 30 m / sec and an 0 = 4 g

circular

clothoid (b = 0.003)

const . normal acc. const . normal force

clothoid (b = 0.003)

const . normal force

const . normal acc.

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