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The Physics Classroom(/) » Physics Tutorial(/class) » Circular Motion and Satellite Motion(/class/circles) » Amusement Park Physics

Circular Motion and Satellite Motion - Lesson 2 - Applications of Circular Motion

Roller Coasters and Amusement Park Physics

Newton's Second Law - Revisited(/class/circles/Lesson-2/Newton-s-Second-Law-Revisited)
Amusement Park Physics
Analyzing Circular Movements in Athletics(/class/circles/Lesson-2/Athletics)

People are wild about amusement parks. Each day, we flock by the millions to the nearest park, paying a
sizable hunk of money to wait in long lines for a short 60-second ride on our favorite roller coaster. The
thought prompts one to consider what is it about a roller coaster ride that provides such widespread
excitement among so many of us and such dreadful fear in the rest? Is our excitement about coasters
due to their high speeds? Absolutely not! In fact, it would be foolish to spend so much time and money
to ride a selection of roller coasters if it were for reasons of speed. It is more than likely that most of us
sustain higher speeds on our ride along the interstate highway on the way to the amusement park than
we do once we enter the park. The thrill of roller coasters is not due to their speed, but rather due to
their accelerations and to the feelings of weightlessness and weightiness that they produce. Roller
coasters thrill us because of their ability to accelerate us downward one moment and upwards the next;
leftwards one moment and rightwards the next. Roller coasters are about acceleration; that's what
makes them thrilling. And in this part of Lesson 2, we will focus on the centripetal acceleration
experienced by riders within the circular-shaped sections of a roller coaster track. These sections
include the clothoid loops (that we will approximate as a circle), the sharp 180-degree banked
turns(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#turns), and the small dips and
hills(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#dips) found along otherwise straight
sections of the track.

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 The Physics of Roller Coaster Loops
The most obvious section on a roller coaster where centripetal acceleration occurs is within the so-
called clothoid loops. Roller coaster loops assume a tear-dropped shape that is geometrically referred
to as a clothoid. A clothoid is a section of a spiral in which the radius is constantly changing. Unlike a
circular loop in which the radius is a constant value, the radius at the bottom of a clothoid loop is much
larger than the radius at the top of the clothoid loop. A mere inspection of a clothoid reveals that the
amount of curvature at the bottom of the loop is less than the amount of curvature at the top of the
loop. To simplify our analysis of the physics of clothoid loops, we will
approximate a clothoid loop as being a series of overlapping or
adjoining circular sections. The radius of these circular sections is
decreasing as one approaches the top of the loop. Furthermore, we
will limit our analysis to two points on the clothoid loop - the top of
the loop and the bottom of the loop. For this reason, our analysis
will focus on the two circles that can be matched to the curvature of
these two sections of the clothoid. The diagram at the right shows a
clothoid loop with two circles of different radius inscribed into the
top and the bottom of the loop. Note that the radius at the bottom
of the loop is significantly larger than the radius at the top of the loop.
As a roller coaster rider travels through a clothoid loop, she experiences an acceleration due to both a
change in speed and a change in direction. A rightward moving rider gradually becomes an upward
moving rider, then a leftward moving rider, then a downward moving rider, before finally becoming a
rightward-moving rider once again. There is a continuous change in the direction of the rider as she
moves through the clothoid loop. And as learned in Lesson
1(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l1b.cfm), a change in direction is one
characteristic of an accelerating object. In addition to changing directions, the rider also changes speed.
As the rider begins to ascend (climb upward) the loop, she begins to slow down. As energy
principles(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/energy/) would suggest, an increase in height (and
in turn an increase in potential energy) results in a decrease in kinetic energy and speed. And
conversely, a decrease in height (and in turn a decrease in potential energy) results in an increase in
kinetic energy and speed. So the rider experiences the greatest speeds at the bottom of the loop - both
upon entering and leaving the loop - and the lowest speeds at the top of the loop.
(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/energy/ce.cfm)

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 This change in speed as the rider moves through the loop is the second aspect of the acceleration that a
rider experiences. For a rider moving through a circular loop with a constant speed, the acceleration can
be described as being centripetal or towards the center of the circle. In the case of a rider moving
through a noncircular loop at non-constant speed, the acceleration of the rider has two components.
There is a component that is directed towards the center of the circle (ac) and attributes itself to the
direction change; and there is a component that is directed tangent (at) to the track (either in the
opposite or in the same direction as the car's direction of motion) and attributes itself to the car's
change in speed. This tangential component would be directed opposite the direction of the car's
motion as its speed decreases (on the ascent towards the top) and in the same direction as the car's
motion as its speed increases (on the descent from the top). At the very top and the very bottom of the
loop, the acceleration is primarily directed towards the center of the circle. At the top, this would be in
the downward direction and at the bottom of the loop it would be in the upward direction.

Force Analysis of a Coaster Loop

We learned in Lesson 1 that the inwards
acceleration(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l1b.cfm) of an object is caused by an
inwards net force(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l1c.cfm). Circular motion (or
merely motion along a curved path) requires an inwards component of net force. If all the forces that act
upon the object were added together as vectors, then the net force would be directed inwards.
Neglecting friction and air resistance, a roller coaster car will experience two forces: the force of
gravity(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/newtlaws/u2l2b.cfm) (Fgrav) and the normal
force(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/newtlaws/u2l2b.cfm) (Fnorm). The normal force is
directed in a direction perpendicular to the track and the
gravitational force is always directed downwards. We will concern
ourselves with the relative magnitude and direction of these two
forces for the top and the bottom of the loop. At the bottom of the
loop, the track pushes upwards upon the car with a normal force.
However, at the top of the loop the normal force is directed
downwards; since the track (the supplier of the normal force) is
above the car, it pushes downwards upon the car. The free-body
diagrams for these two positions are shown in the diagrams at the
right.
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 The magnitude of the force of gravity acting upon the passenger (or car) can easily be found using the
equation Fgrav = m•g where g = acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2). The magnitude of the normal force
depends on two factors - the speed of the car, the radius of the loop and the mass of the rider. As
depicted in the free body diagram, the magnitude of Fnorm is always greater at the bottom of the loop
than it is at the top. The normal force must always be of the appropriate size to combine with the Fgrav in
such a way to produce the required inward or centripetal net force. At the bottom of the loop, the Fgrav
points outwards away from the center of the loop. The normal force must be sufficiently large to
overcome this Fgrav and supply some excess force to result in a net inward force. In a sense, Fgrav and
Fnorm are in a tug-of-war; and Fnorm must win by an amount equal to the net force. At the top of the loop,
both Fgrav and Fnorm are directed inwards. The Fgrav is found in the usual way (using the equation Fgrav =
m•g). Once more the Fnorm must provide sufficient force to produce the required inward or centripetal
net force.
(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/circmot/rcd.cfm)

Earlier in Lesson 2(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l2a.cfm), the use of Newton's

second law and free-body diagrams to solve circular motion diagrams was illustrated. It was emphasized
at that time that any given physical situation could be analyzed in terms of the individual forces that are
acting upon an object. These individual forces must add up as vectors to the net force. Furthermore, the
net force must be equal to the mass times the acceleration. The process of conducting a force analysis
of a physical situation was first introduced in Unit 2 of The Physics
Classroom(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/newtlaws/). Now we will investigate the use of
these fundamental principles in the analysis of situations involving the motion of objects in circles. We
will utilize the basic problem-solving
approach(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l2a.cfm) that was introduced earlier in
Lesson 2. This approach can be summarized as follows.

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 Suggested Method of Solving Circular Motion Problems
1. From the verbal description of the physical situation, construct a free-body diagram.
Represent each force by a vector arrow and label the forces according to type.
2. Identify the given and the unknown information (express in terms of variables such as m=
, a= , v= , etc.).
3. If any of the individual forces are directed at angles to the horizontal and vertical, then
use vector principles(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/vectors/u3l3b.cfm) to
resolve such forces into horizontal and vertical components.
4. Determine the magnitude of any known forces and label on the free-body diagram.
(For example, if the mass is given, then the Fgrav can be determined. And as another
example, if there is no vertical acceleration, then it is known that the vertical forces or
force components balance, allowing for the possible determination of one or more of the
individual forces in the vertical direction.)
5. Use circular motion
equations(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l1e.cfm) to determine any
unknown information.
(For example, if the speed and the radius are known, then the acceleration can be
determined. And as another example, if the period and radius are known, then the
acceleration can be determined.)
6. Use the remaining information to solve for the requested information.
a. If the problem requests the value of an individual force, then use the kinematic
information (R, T and v) to determine the acceleration and the Fnet; then use the free-
body diagram to solve for the individual force value.
b. If the problem requests the value of the speed or radius, then use the values of the
individual forces to determine the net force and acceleration; then use the
acceleration to determine the value of the speed or radius.

Combine a force analysis with the above method to solve the following roller coaster problem.
Sample Roller Coaster Problem
Anna Litical is riding on The Demon at Great America. Anna experiences a downward
acceleration of 15.6 m/s2 at the top of the loop and an upward acceleration of 26.3 m/s2 at
the bottom of the loop. Use Newton's second law to determine the normal force acting upon
Anna's 864 kg roller coaster car.
Steps 1 and 2 involve the construction of a free body diagram and the identification of known and
unknown quantities. This is shown in below.
Given Info:
m = 864 kg
atop = 15.6 m/s2 , down
bottom = 26.3 m/s2 , up
Find:
Fnorm at top and bottom
Step 3(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the suggested
method would not apply to this problem since there are no forces directed "at angles" (that is, all the
forces are either horizontally or vertically directed). Step
By4(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the
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involves the determination of any known forces. In this
run effectively. case, the force of gravity can be determined
Acknowledge
 from the equation Fgrav = m • g. Using a g value of 9.8 m/s2, the force of gravity acting upon the 864-kg
car is approximately 8467 N. Step
5(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the suggested method
would be used if the acceleration were not given. In this instance, the acceleration is known. If the
acceleration were not known, then it would have to be calculated from speed and radius information.
Step 6(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the suggested
method involves the determination of an individual force - the normal force. This will involve a two-step
process: first the net force (magnitude and direction) must be determined; then the net force must be
used with the free body diagram to determine the normal force. This two-step process is shown below
for the top and the bottom of the loop.
Bottom of Loop Top of Loop
Fnet = m * a Fnet = m * a
Fnet = (864 kg) * (26.3 m/s2, up) Fnet = (864 kg) * (15.6 m/s2, down)
Fnet = 22 723 N, up Fnet = 13478 N, down
From FBD: From FBD:

Fnorm must be greater than the Fgrav by Fnorm and Fgrav together must combine
22723 N in order to supply a net together (i.e., add up) to supply the required
upwards force of 22723 N. Thus, inwards net force of 13478 N. Thus,

Fnorm = Fgrav + Fnet Fnorm = Fnet - Fgrav

Fnorm = 31190 N Fnorm = 5011 N

Sensations of Weightlessness
Observe that the normal force is greater at the bottom of the loop than it is at the top of the loop. This
becomes a reasonable fact when circular motion principles are considered. At all points along the loop -
which we will refer to as circular in shape - there must be some inward component of net force. When at
the top of the loop, the gravitational force is directed inwards (down) and so there is less of a need for a
normal force in order to meet the net centripetal force requirement. When at the bottom of the loop,
the gravitational force is directed outwards (down) and so now there is a need for a large upwards
normal force in order to meet the centripetal force requirement. This principle is often demonstrated in
a physics class using a bucket of water tied to a string. The water is spun in a vertical circle. As the water
traces out its circular path, the tension in the string is continuously changing. The tension force in this
demonstration is analogous to the normal force for a roller coaster rider. At the top of the vertical circle,
the tension force is very small; and at the bottom of the vertical circle, the tension force is very large.
(You might try this activity yourself outside with a small plastic bucket half-filled with water. Give extra
caution to stay clear of all people, windows, trees and overhead power lines. Repeat enough cycles to
observe the noticeable difference in tension force when the bucket is at the top and the bottom of the
circle.)
If you have ever been on a roller coaster ride and traveled through a loop, then you have likely
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the loop. The normal force provides a run

feeleffectively. Acknowledge
for a person's weight. (As will be discussed later in Lesson
 4(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l4d.cfm), we can never
feel our weight; we can only feel other forces that act as a result of contact with
other objects.) The more you weigh, the more normal force that you will
experience when at rest in your seat. But if you board a roller coaster ride and
accelerate through circles (or clothoid loops), then you will feel a normal force
that is constantly changing and different from that which you are accustomed
to. This normal force provides a sensation or feeling of weightlessness or weightiness. When at the top
of the loop, a rider will feel partially weightless if the normal forces become less than the person's
weight. And at the bottom of the loop, a rider will feel very "weighty" due to the increased normal
forces. It is important to realize that the force of gravity and the weight of your body are not changing.
Only the magnitude of the supporting normal force is changing! (The phenomenon of weightlessness
will be discussed in much more detail later in Lesson
4(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l4d.cfm).)
There is some interesting history (and physics) behind the gradual usage of clothoid loops in roller
coaster rides. In the early days of roller coaster loops, circular loops were used. There were a variety of
problems, some of which resulted in fatalities, as the result of the use of these circular loops. Coaster
cars entering circular loops at high speeds encountered excessive normal forces that were capable of
causing whiplash and broken bones. Efforts to correct the problem by lowering entry speeds resulted in
the inability of cars to make it around the entire loop without falling out of the loop when reaching the
top. The decrease in speeds as the cars ascended the large circular loop resulted in coaster cars turning
into projectile cars (a situation known to be not good for business). The solution to the problem involved
using low entry speeds and a loop with a sharper curvature at the top than at the bottom. Since clothoid
loops have a continually changing radius, the radius is large at the bottom of the loop and shortened at
the top of the loop. The result is that coaster cars can enter the loops at high speeds; yet due to the large
radius, the normal forces do not exceed 3.5 G's. At the top of the loop, the radius is small thus allowing a
lower speed car to still maintain contact with the track and successfully make it through the loop. The
clothoid loop is a testimony to an engineer's application of the centripetal acceleration equation - a =
v2/R. Now that's physics for better living!

Physics of Coaster Dips and Hills

The above discussion and force analysis applies to the circular-like motion of a roller coaster car in a
clothoid loop. The second section along a roller coaster track where circular motion is experienced is
along the small dips and hills. These sections of track are often found near the end of a roller coaster
ride and involve a series of small hills followed by a sharp drop. Riders often feel heavy as they ascend
the hill (along regions A and E in the diagram below). Then near the crest of the hill (regions B and F),
their upward motion makes them feel as though they will fly out of the car; often times, it is only the
safety belt that prevents such a mishap. As the car begins to descend the sharp drop, riders are
momentarily in a state of free fall (along regions C and G in the diagram below). And finally as they reach
the bottom of the sharp dip (regions D and H), there is a large upwards force that slows their downward
motion. The cycle is often repeated mercilessly, churning the riders' stomachs and mixing the
afternoon's cotton candy into a slurry of ... . These small dips and hills combine the physics of circular
motion with the physics of projectiles in order to produce the ultimate thrill of acceleration - rapidly
changing magnitudes and directions of acceleration. The diagram below shows the various directions of
accelerations that riders would experience along these hills and dips.

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 Force Analysis of Coaster Hills
At various locations along these hills and dips, riders are momentarily traveling along a circular shaped
arc. The arc is part of a circle - these circles have been inscribed on the above diagram in blue. In each of
these regions there is an inward component of acceleration (as depicted by the black arrows). This
inward acceleration demands that there also be a force directed towards the center of the circle. In
region A, the centripetal force is supplied by the track pushing normal to the track surface. Along region
B, the centripetal force is supplied by the force of gravity and possibly even the safety mechanism/bar.
At especially high speeds, a safety bar must supply even extra downward force in order to pull the riders
downward and supply the remaining centripetal force required for circular motion. There are also
wheels on the car that are usually tucked under the track and pulled downward by the track. Along
region D, the centripetal force is once more supplied by the normal force of the track pushing upwards
upon the car.

The magnitude of the normal forces along these various regions is dependent upon how sharply the
track is curved along that region (the radius of the circle) and the speed of the car. These two variables
affect the acceleration according to the equation
a = v2 / R
and in turn affect the net force. As suggested by the equation, a large speed results in a large
acceleration and thus increases the demand for a large net force. And a large radius (gradually curved)
results in a small acceleration and thus lessens the demand for a large net force. The relationship
between speed, radius, acceleration, mass and net force can be used to determine the magnitude of the
seat force (i.e., normal force) upon a roller coaster rider at various sections of the track. The sample
problem below illustrates these relationships. In the process of solving the problem, the same problem-
solving strategy(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) enumerated
above will be utilized.

Sample Roller Coaster Problem

Anna Litical is riding on The American Eagle at Great America. Anna is moving at 18.9 m/s
over the top of a hill that has a radius of curvature of 12.7 m. Use Newton's second law to
determine the magnitude of the applied force of the track pulling down upon Anna's 621 kg
roller coaster car.
Steps 1 and 2 involve the construction of a free body diagram and the identification of known and
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unknown quantities. This is shown in below.
run effectively. Acknowledge
 Given Info:
m = 621 kgv = 18.9 m/s
R = 12.7 m
Find:
Fapp at top of hill
Step 3(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the suggested
method would not apply to this problem since there are no forces directed "at angles" (that is, all the
forces are either horizontally or vertically directed). Step
4(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the suggested method
involves the determination of any known forces. In this case, the force of gravity can be determined
from the equation Fgrav = m * g. So the force of gravity acting upon the 621-kg car is approximately 6086
N. Step 5(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the suggested
method involves the calculation of the acceleration from the given values of the speed and the radius.
Using the equation given in Lesson
1(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l1e.cfm#acceln), the acceleration can be
calculated as follows
a = v2 / R
a = (18.9 m/s)2 / (12.7 m)
a = 28.1 m/s2

Step 6(http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L2b.cfm#psmethod) of the suggested

method involves the determination of an individual force - the applied force. This will involve a two-step
process: first the net force (magnitude and direction) must be determined; then the net force must be
used with the free body diagram to determine the applied force. This two-step process is shown below.
Fnet = m • a
Fnet = (621 kg) •
(28.1 m/s2, down)
Fnet = 17467 N,
down

As shown in FBD at
right:
Fapp and Fgrav must combine together (i.e., add up) to supply the
Fapp = Fnet - Fgrav
required downwards net force of 17467 N.
Fnorm = 11381 N
This same method could be applied for any region of the track in which roller coaster riders
momentarily experience circular motion.

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Check Your Understanding

1. Anna Litical is riding on The Shock Wave at Great America. Anna experiences a downward
acceleration of 12.5 m/s2 at the top of the loop and an upward acceleration of 24.0 m/s2 at the bottom
of the loop. Use Newton's second law to determine the normal force acting upon Anna's 50-kg body at
the top and at the bottom of the loop.

See Answer

2. Noah Formula is riding a roller coaster and encounters a loop. Noah is traveling 6 m/s at the top of the
loop and 18.0 m/s at the bottom of the loop. The top of the loop has a radius of curvature of 3.2 m and
the bottom of the loop has a radius of curvature of 16.0 m. Use Newton's second law to determine the
normal force acting upon Noah's 80-kg body at the top and at the bottom of the loop.

See Answer

3. Noah Formula is riding an old-fashioned roller coaster. Noah encounters a small hill having a radius of
curvature of 12.0 m. At the crest of the hill, Noah is lifted off his seat and held in the car by the safety
bar. If Noah is traveling with a speed of 14.0 m/s, then use Newton's second law to determine the force
applied by the safety bar upon Noah's 80-kg body.

See Answer

4. Anna Litical is riding a "woody" roller coaster. Anna encounters the bottom of a small dip having a
radius of curvature of 15.0 m. At the bottom of this dip Anna is traveling with a speed of 16.0 m/s and
experiencing a much larger than usual normal force. Use Newton's second law to determine the normal
force acting upon Anna's 50-kg body.
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See Answer
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 Next Section: Analyzing Circular Movements in Athletics(/class/circles/Lesson-2/Athletics)
Jump To Next Lesson: Gravity is More Than a Name(/class/circles/Lesson-3/Gravity-is-More-Than-a-Name)

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