Nucleic Acid

Nucleic Acid
1. Introduction Nucleic acids allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next. The nucleic acids are informational molecules because their primary structure contains a code or set of directions by which they can duplicate themselves and guide the synthesis of proteins. The synthesis of proteins, most of which are enzymes, ultimately governs the metabolic activities of the cell. In 1953, Watson, an American biologist, and Crick, an English biologist, proposed the double helix structure for DNA. This development set the stage for a new and continuing era of chemical and biological investigation. The two main events in the life of a cell, dividing to make exact copies of them, and manufacturing proteins, both rely on blueprints coded in our genes. There are two types of nucleic acids which are polymers found in all living cells. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is found mainly in the nucleus of the cell, while Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is found mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell although it is usually synthesized in the nucleus. DNA contains the genetic codes to make RNA and the RNA in turn then contains the codes for the primary sequence of amino acids to make proteins.

When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next generation. DNA contains the "programmatic instructions" for cellular activities. When organisms produce offspring, these instructions, in the form of DNA, are passed down. RNA is involved in the synthesis of proteins. "Information" is typically passed from DNA to RNA to the resulting proteins. Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers. Nucleotides have three parts: Five-Carbon Sugar A Phosphate Group

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A Nitrogenous Base

Five-carbon sugar is are also two known types as of pentose sugar. There pentose sugars found in nucleic acids. This difference is reflected in their names-deoxyribonucleic acid indicates the presence of deoxyribose; while ribonucleic acid indicates the presence of ribose. Phosphate group is a major requirement of all living things is a suitable source of phosphorus. One of the major uses for phosphorus is as the phosphate ion which is incorporated into DNA and RNA. Heterocyclic amines are sometimes called nitrogen bases or simply bases. The heterocyclic amines are derived from two root structures: purines or pyrimidines. The purine root has both a six and a five member ring; the pyrimidine has a single six member ring. There are two major purines, adenine (A) and guanine (G), and three major pyrimidines, cytosine (C), uracil (U), and thymine (T).

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Similar to what happens with protein monomers, nucleotides are linked to each other through dehydration synthesis. Interestingly, some nucleotides perform important cellular functions as "individual" molecules, the most common example being ATP.

2.0Types of Nucleic Acid 2.1 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) DNA is housed within the nucleus of our cells and contains the genetic information for the reproduction of life. The structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in the 1950's. It is shaped like a twisted double helix and is composed of long strands of alternating sugars and phosphate groups, as well as nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine). DNA controls cellular activity by coding for the production of enzymes and proteins. The information in DNA is not directly converted into proteins, but must first be copied into RNA in a process called transcription. As our genes are comprised of DNA, DNA is the hereditary material that is passed from parent to offspring. It is the sequence of nucleotide bases in genes that dictates the sequence of amino acids in the encoded protein product.

2.2 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) RNA molecules are single stranded nucleic acids composed of nucleotides. RNA plays a major role in protein synthesis as it is involved in the transcription, decoding, and translation of the genetic code to produce proteins. RNA nitrogenous bases include adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U). The five-carbon (pentose) sugar in RNA is ribose. RNA molecules are polymers of nucleotides joined to one another by covalent bonds between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of another. These linkages are called phosphodiester linkages. Although single stranded, RNA is not always linear. It has the ability to fold into complex three dimensional shapes and form hairpin loops. When this occurs, the nitrogenous bases bind to one another. Adenine pairs with uracil (A-U) and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C). Hairpin loops are commonly observed in RNA molecules such as messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).

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2.2.1

Types of RNA RNA molecules are produced in the nucleus of our cells and can also be found

in the cytoplasm. The three primary types of RNA molecules are messenger RNA, transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA. Messenger RNA (mRNA) plays an important role in the transcription of DNA. Transcription is the process in protein synthesis that involves copying the genetic information contained within DNA into an RNA message. During transcription, certain proteins called transcription factors unwind the DNA strand and allow the enzyme RNA polymerase to transcribe only a single strand of DNA. DNA contains the four nucleotide bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T) which are paired together (A-T and C-G). When RNA polymerase transcribes the DNA into a mRNA molecule, adenine pairs with uracil and cytosine pairs with guanine (A-U and C-G). At the end of transcription, mRNA is transported to the cytoplasm for the completion of protein synthesis.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) plays an important role in the translation portion of protein synthesis. Its job is to translate the message within the nucleotide sequences of mRNA into specific amino acid sequences. The amino acid sequences are joined together to form a protein. Transfer RNA is shaped like a clover leaf with three hairpin loops. It contains an amino acid attachment site on one end and a special section in the middle loop called the anticodon site. The anticodon recognizes a specific area on mRNA called a codon. A codon consists of three continuous nucleotide bases that code for an amino acid or signal the end of translation. Transfer RNA along with ribosomes read the mRNA codons and produce a polypeptide chain. The polypeptide chain undergoes several modifications before becoming a fully functioning protein.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of cell organelles called ribosomes. A ribosome consists of ribosomal proteins and rRNA. Ribosomes are typically composed of two subunits: a large subunit and a small subunit. Ribosomal

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subunits are synthesized in the nucleus by the nucleolus. Ribosomes contain a binding site for mRNA and two binding sites for tRNA located in the large ribosomal subunit. During translation, a small ribosomal subunit attaches to a mRNA molecule. At the same time, an initiator tRNA molecule recognizes and binds to a specific codon sequence on the same mRNA molecule. A large ribosomal subunit then joins the newly formed complex. Both ribosomal subunits travel along the mRNA molecule translating the codons on mRNA into a polypeptide chain as they go. Ribosomal RNA is responsible for creating the peptide bonds between the amino acids in the polypeptide chain. When a termination codon is reached on the mRNA molecule, the translation process ends. The polypeptide chain is released from the tRNA molecule and the ribosome splits back into large and small subunits.

Some RNAs, known as small regulatory RNAs, have the ability to regulate gene expression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a type of regulatory RNA that can inhibit gene expression by halting translation. They do so by binding to a specific location on mRNA, preventing the molecule from being translated. MicroRNAs have also been linked to the development of some types of cancers and a particular chromosome mutation called a translocation

2.3 RNA

Transfer

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an RNA molecule that assists in protein synthesis. Its unique shape contains an amino acid
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attachment site on one end of the molecule and an anticodon region on the opposite end of the amino acid attachment site. During translation, the anticodon region of tRNA recognizes a specific area on mRNA called a codon. A codon consists of three continuous nucleotide bases that specify a particular amino acid or signal the end of translation. The tRNA molecule forms base pairs with its complementary codon sequence on the mRNA molecule. The attached amino acid on the tRNA molecule is therefore placed in its proper position in the growing protein chain.

3.0

Comparison of DNA and RNA

Comparison Name Function

DNA DeoxyriboNucleic acid Long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms

RNA RiboNucleic acid Used to transfer the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosomes to make proteins. RNA is used to transmit genetic information in some organisms and may have been the molecule used to store genetic blueprints in primitive organisms. A-form helix

Unique Features B-form double helix Predominant Features Composition of Bases and Sugars

DNA is a double-stranded molecule RNA is a single-strand helix consisting of a long chain of consisting of shorter chains of nucleotides. nucleotides Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar Phosphate backbone Phosphate backbone Nitrogenous Base: Nitrogenous Base: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Adenine (A), Guanine (G),

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Cytosine (C), Thymine (T)

Cytosine (C), Uracil (U)

Propagation Base Pairing Reaction

DNA is self-replicating. A-T (adenine-thymine) G-C (guanine-cytosine) The C-H bonds in DNA make it fairly stable, plus the body destroys enzymes that would attack DNA. The small grooves in the helix also serve as protection, providing minimal space for enzymes to attach.

RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis. A-U (adenine-uracil) G-C (guanine-cytosine) The O-H bond in the ribose of RNA makes the molecule more reactive, compared with DNA. RNA is not stable under alkaline conditions, plus the large grooves in the molecule make it susceptible to enzyme attack. RNA is constantly produced, used, degraded, and recycled. Compared with DNA, RNA is relatively resistant to UV damage.

Ultraviolet Damage

DNA is susceptible to UV damage.