Wave set-up and set-down

When waves break on a beach, they produce a set-up, a rise in

the mean water level above the still-water elevation of the sea.
(Komar)

Accompanying the set-up, is a region called the set-down, where
the mean elevation of the sea is depressed, as one would expect
from continuity. The figure below is taken from Bowen et al.
(1968) and Komar. It illustrates the general trend of the mean
water surface quite well.



To estimate both the set-down and the set-up, we need to look at
an energy balance. Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1962) did this
in their original derivation of radiation-stress theory.

In the cross-shore direction, the conservation of momentum
becomes

( h g
x
S
+ =

)
(1)

where

( )
x
gh
dx
dh
h g
x
S
x
S
xx

(2)

Substituting (2) into (1)

x
gh
x
S
xx

(3)

Integrating both sides yields

kh
kH
2 sinh 8
2
= (4)


Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1962) assumed that inside the
surf-zone, we have bores corresponding to the relation

( ) h H + =
(4)

But we know that for shallow water waves, the radiation stress
in the x-direction becomes

2
3
2
1
2
E
C
C
E S
g
xx
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= (5)

Substituting into (5) into (1) and being approximately constant
(remember,
5 . 0 ~ 42 . 0 =
from the Gidget episode), we find

x
h
x

+
=

2
3 8 1
1

(6)


where
tan =

x
h
, the beach slope. The theoretical result in (6),
led Guza and Thornton to postulate the dependence on the
incoming wave field. Their empirical results

=
s
H 17 . 0
max

(7)

but a more useful (and physically descriptive) result is the
dimensionless expression:

45 . 0
max
s
H
(8)

which makes sense, since the Iribarren number is the best
descriptor of the type of breaker (and thus the best measure of
the dissipation both continuous and mean).



Wave run-up

Of course, individual waves progress further up the beach slope
than is dictated by the wave setup. The typical criterion used is
the height that is exceeded by 2% of the waves . % 2
R


The best way to describe the characteristics of is in the
form
% 2
R

p
C
H
R
=
% 2
(9)

where C is some empirical constant and
p

is the Irribarren
number defined by the offshore significant height s
H
.

As with set-up, the Irribarren number is the most effective
descriptor of wave-breaking dissipation.

The value C varies depending on the substrate type, with
rougher beaches having 8 . 0 = C , while smooth surfaces have C
values as high as 1.5.

Characterizing the statistics of wave runup, its correlation to
sediment transport and the final manifestation of these processes
in the topography of a beach is a topic of ongoing research.


Backwash and Undertow

These two quantities are fundamentally different, but they
produce the same effect; namely, offshore sediment transport.

Backwash is the seaward return of water from run-up swash.
It is often supercritical which explains why backwash has a
cross-hatched appearance. Komar uses this observation to
explain why beach deposits are generally massive.

Undertow is the return flow near the bottom induced by wave-
setup. Mechanically similar to secondary circulation in
meandering channels, undertow is a complicated process that
often has a strong relation to larger-scale circulation within the
nearshore.


Infragravity waves

Infragravity waves literally encompass all waves with periods
greater than 10-20 sec. This can include many phenomena,
including tides, Rossby waves, etc. However, for our purposes,
we will discuss only waves that are manifestations of gravity
waves that are trapped by topography.


These waves are called edge waves.

Results of a linear model (Van Dongeren and Svendsen, 2000)

dge waves are an extremely popular topic in recent and


E
ongoing beach studies. Most of the effort is focused on
identifying the dominant mode of the waves.

( ) | |

1 2 sin
2
+ = n
gT
L
e
e
(10)

describes an unconstrained system, where T
e
is the period of the
edge wave, is the slope (in radians) and n is the mode of the
wave.

Often there are motions associated with the 0 = n mode. These
motions are said to be subharmonic edge waves.

Because energy collects in low frequency motions,
subharmonic edge waves can oftentimes have larger peak
energies than the primary edge waves they result from.


If resistant headlands dominate the landscape, the shore-parallel
distance between the headlands confines the edge waves to
wavelengths corresponding to

n
L
e

=
2
(11)

Some have argued (including Komar) that edge waves can
manifest themselves as beach cusps. Well discuss this and
other possibilities later in a discussion of oscillatory bedforms.


Nearshore circulation

Whether dictated by geology, infragravity-wave-induced
sediment transport, or large-scale bedforms, the shoreline and
the offshore bathymetry often has quasi-periodic appearance.


s a result, there is a longshore distribution in the wave energy. A


Rip currents are commonly produced at the antinodes of edge
waves. It is in these areas of low wave setup that cellular
longshore currents converge.

Komar notes that these effects disappear outside the surf zone.

Remember,

(

=
kh
kh
gH S
yy
2 sinh 8
1
2

(12)

so

(

kh
kh
y
H
gH
y
S
yy
2 sinh 4
1

(13)

and the longshore pressure gradient resulting from variations in
the set-down is

( ) ( )
y
H
kh
kH
h g
y
h g

+ =

+
2 sinh 4

(14)

which becomes the opposite of (13), if you assume that the set-
down is a small fraction of the total depth h.

However, the large set-down in (14) becomes a large setup
inside the surf-zone changing the sign of (14) and ultimately
causing addition of the two effects.


Many models have been proposed to describe the spacing on
geologically unconstrained beaches. These models typically
rely on the instability (and stability) of the cells that are
produced from a natural spectrum of waves. The rip-current
spacing is generally slightly larger than the width of the surf-
zone with most models predicting the increase in length
between 1.5 and 8. Komar presents an excellent summary of
these models and the conditions under which they apply.


The strength of the nearshore cell-circulation is also somewhat
regulated by the approach angle , or obliquity, of the wave
field. If the waves are oblique, a strong longshore current
dominates surf-zone motion.