~

1
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ATMOSPHERIC OSCILLATIONS

by A . J. Lineberger and H. D. Edwards

Georgia Tech P r o j e c t A-652-001

GPO PRICE $ I
I

OTS PRICE(S) $ 1
I

Contract NO. m19(628)-393

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Prepared f o r
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Washington 25, D. C.

IACCtSSION N U M B E R ) ITHRUI

L (CODE)

ICATEdOORY)

April 1965

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.
*
ATMOSPHFRIC OSCILLATIONS

by

A . J . Lineberger and H. D. Edwards

Georgia Tech P r o j e c t A-652-001

Prepared for

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington 25, D. C.

Contract No. NsG 304-63

April 1965

*The s t u d i e s reported here were a l s o supported by t h e

A i r Force Cambridge Research Laboratories under
Contract n19( 628)-393.
.
ATMOSPHERIC OSCILLATIONS

C' Aileen J. Lineberger and Howard D. Edwards

Space Sciences Laboratory
Georgia I n s t i t u t e of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia

ABSTRACT

The development of present theories o f atmospheric o s c i l l a t i o n s i s outlined

i n t h e following r e p o r t with s p e c i a l emphasis being given t o p o i n t s of i n t e r e s t

t o persons studying upper atmospheric motions. The general mathematical a t t a c k

has been summrized and references t o complete derivations have been included.

Current research on atmospheric o s c i l l a t i o n s has been r e l a t e d t o s t u d i e s of atmos-

pheric phenomena conducted i n t h e Georgia Tech Space Sciences Laboratory. Parti-

c u l a r a t t e n t i o n has been given t o t h e r e l a t i o n of postulated g r a v i t y waves t o

observed wind motion with reference t o t h e following: a downward propagation of

g r a v i t y wave phase velocity, a phase change i n the region of a negative tenrpera-

. t u r e gradient, and t h e energy f l u x f r o m the lower atmosphere t o t h e upper atmos-

phere.

1
 *

'

INTRODUCTION

I .' Evidence of periodic changes i n the atmosphere w a s f i r s t obtained from baro-

metric observations m d e i n the 18th century. In 1882 Kelvin w a s able t o demon-

strate t h a t t h e f l u c t u a t i o n of barometric pressure through the day was the sum

of Fourier components with 24, 12, and 8 hour periods. He noted t h a t i n high

l a t i t u d e s the 12 hour component was l a r g e r than t h e 24 hour component. The reverse

of t h i s observation would be expected i f the forcing function f o r t h e o s c i l l a t i o n

was s o l a r d i u r n a l heating. Kelvin attempted t o explain t h i s e f f e c t by a "reso-

nance theory" i n which he postulated a f r e e period of the atmosphere close t o 12

hours. Wilkes [19491 noted t h a t t h e maximum of t h e pressure v a r i a t i o n occurred

a t approximately 10 a.m. and 10 p.m.

The argument for a resonance of the atmosphere w a s based on t h e following.

If t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s of the sun and moon dominated t h e pressure v a r i a t i o n ,

then t h e lunar force, having almost twice t h e e f f e c t i v e force on t h e earth, should

be the primary cause of o s c i l l a t i o n . Consequently one should observe changes i n

pressure t o have a period of 12.5 hours. However, t h e period of semidiurnal

o s c i l l a t i o n w a s found t o be much closer t o 1 2 hours than 12.5 hours.

* Thus, it

may be concluded t h a t the influence of t h e sun must be stronger than t h a t of the

moon. For t h i s t o be the case, the temperature e f f e c t must be l a r g e r than t h e

gravitational effect. The telrperature v a r i a t i o n i s diurnal, however. Therefore,

t h e r e must be a strong resonance of approximately I 2 hours, such t h a t the 12 hour

I - component of temperature v a r i a t i o n would be l a r g e r than t h e 24 hour component.

Pr.ioiq t o :<eIvin' G icvest.igsti ons, Laplace had worked out, under simplifying

assumptions, t h e equations of o s c i l l a t i o n of a homogeneous ocean of uniform

depth. He w a s a b l e t o apply h i s r e s u l t s t o t i d e s of a uniform isothermal atmos-

*Chapman [1941] quoted Hough as computing t h a t the f r e e period must be within

2 or 3 minutes of t h e 12 hours observed.

2
 phere, i f he m d e the assumption t h a t the s c a l e height of t h e atmosphere was the

equivalent depth f o r which t h e atmosphere would obey the ocean approximtion. The
2
s c a l e height, H, equals c/yg, where c i s t h e speed of sound, y i s t h e r a t i o of

t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t s and g is t h e acceleration of gravity. Iamb [1932] l a t e r assumed

t h a t pressure changes i n t h e atmosphere occurred a d i a b a t i c a l l y and came t o t h e con-

c l u s i o n that t h e equivalent depth of the atmosphere w a s equal t o t h e s c a l e height,

which s u b s t a n t i a t e s Laplace's assumption. For t h e semidiurnal v a r i a t i o n t o be

predominant, i , e . f o r a 12 hour period, Iamb [1932] computed t h e equivalent depth

t o be approximately 26,000 f e e t ,

Later evidence showed a f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n period of 10.5 hours which seemed

t o c o n t r a d i c t Lamb's v u r k . 'Ihe ,ei-itd,ct uf' 10.3 hsurs vas computed from t h e time

that w a s required for t h e waves generated by a p o i n t pulse t o t r a v e l around t h e

earth. The point pulses which were large enough t o be observed were the eruption

C' of t h e volcano Krackatoa i n 1883, t h e Great Siberian Meteor i n 1908, and s e v e r a l

Soviet megaton nuclear explosions i n 1951 t o 1962. These pulses were analyzed

r e s p e c t i v e l y by Pekeris [1939], Donn and G i g [1962l, and Press and Harkrider

[I962 3

The e a r l y t h e o r i e s of atmospheric o s c i l l a t i o n s were based on Lamb's work.

In 1936 Taylor used t h e m t h e m a t i c a l device of approximating t h e depth of t h e

e a r t h ' s atmosphere by i t s equivalent depth as an ocean. He approximated t h e

Lernperat,ure as a function of a l t i t u d e , the v e l o c i t y and pressure a s functions of

t h e a l t i t u d e and l a t i t u d e , and t h e variations of v e l o c i t y end pressure 86 functions

oi e i'O + '@) ~ F x r e2 ; ; / c is t h e perinrl nf oscillation, (0 i s t h e longitude, t i s

t h e t i m e , and s i s a constant. H e then explained t h e lO.5 hour f r e e period

observed i n terms of t h e f r e e period of an o c c ~ ~ofn cyuivnlenL d e p t h .

The 10.5 and 12 hour periods were explained by I'ekeris [lc)37J by assuming

3
 a layered atmosphere with s e v e r a l equivalent depths. He approximated the tempera-

t u r e by a function of a l t i t u d e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 1. The changes i n t h e tem-

perature gradient from negative t o zero ( p o i n t s A and D) i n t h e temperature versus

a l t i t u d e curve gave two equivalent depths. Pekeris a l s o found t h a t o s c i l l a t i o n s

t r a v e l i n g upward would experience phase s h i f t s a t p o i n t s A and D. The o s c i l l a t i o n s

would a l s o be amplified due t o t h e decreasing density and pressure by a f a c t o r of

100 a t 100 km. In a paper i n 1939 Pekeris examined the records of pressure

f l u c t u a t i o n s excited by t h e Krackatoa eruptions t o a s c e r t a i n i f modes of the 12

hour component could be detected. He had computed the r a t i o of t h e 10.5 hour com-

ponent t o t h e 12 hour component t o be 5 : 2 . I n t h e barographic records the f l u c t u a -

t i o n s caused by the 12 hour component were too small t o be p o s i t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d ,

but t h e r e w a s no evidence t o contradict t h e existence of a 12 hour component.

The next s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p was mde when Weeks and Wilkes [19471 organized
the theory developed up t o that time and analyzed the energy trapped i n a c e r t a i n
I'
region of the atmosphere, between a temperature minimum and the e a r t h . They used

a d i f f e r e n t i a l analyzer t o study the f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t given tempera-

ture distributions. They assumed t h a t most of the energy supplied t o the atmosphere

e n t e r s t h e lower atmosphere i n the more dense regions as g r a v i t a t i o n a l energy.

Later Wilkes [19511 extended the mathemtical a n a l y s i s t o include s o l a r thermal

input.

The energy forcing function (thermal o r g r a v i t a t i o n a l ) i s -understood t o

e x c i t e a series of modes of o s c i l l a t i o n which depend on l a t i t u d e and longitude.

The energy f o r each mode i s introduced a t low a l t i t u d e and spreads as a s p h e r i c a l

wave f r o n t i n t h e atmosphere. 'Yhe motion of tile aii- paLrtizlz hzs cmp0Eent.s h0t.h
c'

p a r a l l e l t o and perpendicular t o the d i r e c t i o n of propagation. One w i l l r e c a l l

t h a t a sound wave i s considered t o be a compression and r a r e f a c t i o n longitudinal

t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of propagation.

4
.
According t o Weeks and Wilkes [19471 t h e d i u r n a l mode of o s c i l l a t i o n i s
damped out by v i s c o s i t y a t 100 t o 300 km. The semidiurnal o s c i l l a t i o n s , because
. of t h e i r periods, a r e r e f l e c t e d i n the 50-100 km region by the temperature minimum

and negative temperature gradient. Modes with periods of t h e order of those o f t h e

semidiurnal modes w i l l be trapped and multiply r e f l e c t e d between t h e e a r t h and the

temperature minima a t 30 and 80 km. The multiple r e f l e c t i o n allowed pressure

o s c i l l a t i o n s caused by Krackatoa and similar sources t o propagate around the

e a r t h s e v e r a l times. With each r e f l e c t i o n some f r a c t i o n of t h e energy w a s t r a n s -

mitted and m i g h t then be observed i n the upper atmosphere.

M. L. White [1955, 1956, 1960aI f u r t h e r developed the theory t o cover o s c i l -

l a t i o n s caused by g r a v i t a t i o n a l forces a t low a l t i t u d e s and thermal input a t a l l

altitudes. Recently White [1960b 1 combined thermally and g r a v i t a t i o n a l l y excited

o s c i l l a t i o n s with t h e ionospheric dynamo e f f e c t f o r an e l e c t r o n and p o s i t i v e ion

gas i n an imposed s t a t i c magnetic f i e l d .

Recently enough data from r a d i o wave r e f l e c t i o n techniques of E-region d r i f t

have been collected t o imply that the o s c i l l a t i o n phase i n t h e a l t i t u d e region

95-115 km i s c o n s i s t e n t with the phase observed a t the ground. Studies from

meteor trails show t h a t a phase r e v e r s a l e x i s t s a t 85 km a s would be expected

i n conjunction with the temperature minimum. The temperature v a r i a t i o n s would

a f f e c t t h e phase angle and amplitude. The region of t h e m 1 input would a l t e r

t h e r a t e of change of amplitude and of phase with height.

Superposed on t h e periodic p a t t e r n of o s c i l l a t i o n s are seemingly random

oscillations. The random o s c i l l a t i o n s may be grouped i n t o acoustic and g r a v i t y

. waves according t o t h e i r frequency. ,Tne acoustic aiid gavit.; mves IT^ derived

from dynamical equations and a r e governed by g r a v i t a t i o n a l and compressional

forces. These o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l be described l a t e r m a t h e m t i c a l l y . Depending

on frequency, these random modes may be r e f l e c t e d or transmitted a t c e r t a i n

5
a l t i t u d e s under the same conditions a s the periodic modes. Thus, random a s w e l l

as periodic o s c i l l a t i o n s should be observed i n t h e upper atmosphere.

Gossard [19621 observed g r a v i t y waves i n t h e troposphere which p e r s i s t e d

f o r 10 t o 12 hours. H e attempted t o show t h a t g r a v i t y waves generated i n the

troposphere m i g h t propagate i n t o the upper atmosphere. Gossard 11962 1 l i s t e d

t h r e e p r i n c i p a l mechanisms for generating random i n t e r n a l g r a v i t y waves i n the

troposphere. F i r s t , i n t e r n a l g r a v i t y waves may be generated as standing waves

i n t h e l e e of topographic f e a t u r e s . Second, i n t e r n a l g r a v i t y waves may be pro-

duced by t h e motion of a boundary between two c e l l s of a i r of d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t i e s

inverted with respect t o d e n s i t y . I n t h i s second case a very regular, sinusoidal

g r a v i t y wave t r a i n m y be generated as t h e wake, i f t h e v e l o c i t y of the boundary

i s of t h e proper magnitude r e l a t i v e t o t h e height and i n t e n s i t y of the inversion

and t o the slope of t h e boundary. Third, l a r g e t r o p o s m e r i c storms and l a r g e

s c a l e f e a t u r e s associated with s t a b l e l a y e r s i n t h e lower atmosphere will produce

o s c i l l a t i o n s of long duration.

I n some r a r e instances the gravity waves may be v i s i b l e i n the lower atmos-

phere as layering i n cloud f o r m t i o n s . Gossard has photographs of t h e waves on

page 747 of h i s 1962 a r t i c l e . Hines a l s o mentions that noctilucent clouds

occasionally r e v e a l t h e g r a v i t y wave p a t t e r n . The noctilucent clouds occasional-

l y form i n long p a r a l l e l bands 9 k m apart.

One, then, should observe continuous periodic motion i n the upper atmosphere

from t h e transmitted d i u r n a l and semidiurnal modes as w e l l a s random o s c i l l a t i o n s .

The wavelength of t h e random modes of o s c i l l a t i o n should be roughly t h e same

mgnitude a s t h e periodic modes or o s c i l l a t i o n , since r e f l e z t i c x by the t.hem.1

g r a d i e n t and d i s s i p a t i o n by viscous, eddy, and kinematic e f f e c t s remove a l l but

c e r t a i n wavelengths a t high a l t i t u d e s .
 E s s e n t i a l l y a l l of t h e energy of t h e atmosphere comes from r a d i a t i o n or

g r a v i t a t i o n a l forces with t h e motion being caused by t h e conversion of t h i s

energy t o k i n e t i c energy. There i s l i t t l e generation of entropy. The n e t

heating of the atmosphere i s due t o the d i f f e r e n c e between solar r a d i a t i o n

absorbed and infrared r a d i a t i o n emitted by t h e atmosphere. The next s e c t i o n

describes the governing equations f o r t h i s motion which i s found t o be o s c i l l a -

t o r y i n many considerations. The o s c i l l a t o r y motion i s broken i n t o i n t e r n a l

g r a v i t y wave motion and acoustic wave motion by most authors.

7
 DYNAMICS OF THE ATMOSPHERF:

Equations describing o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e atmosphere were f i r s t obtained by

adapting hydrodynamic equations of nonviscous, compressible f l u i d s , i .e. gases.

Laplace performed t h e f i r s t major work i n t h i s a r e a by r e l a t i n g t i d e s of an ocean

t o an atmosphere of an equivalent depth.

I a m b ’ s book, Hydrodynamics [1932] i s a c l a s s i c i n t h i s f i e l d and i s t h e b a s i s

f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work of Taylor, Pekeris, Wilkes, and others. Lamb r e l a t e d

hydrodynamic equations t o atmospheric t i d a l o s c i l l a t i o n s f o r a number of s p e c i a l

cases. He made t h e j u s t i f i a b l e approximation t h a t , f o r changes i n t h e atmosphere

as a whole, v i s c o s i t y and nonadiabatic l o s s e s my be neglected. Only i n a highly

t u r b u l e n t region i s t h i s approximation poor. This approximation i s used i n a l l

of t h e work considered unless stated otherwise.

The mathematical manipulations were c a r r i e d out i n e i t h e r rectangular o r

s p h e r i c a l coordinates. For a viscous, compressible f l u i d undergoing changes

a d i a b a t i c a l l y , one may obtain the equations governing the motion of t h e atmosphere

from t h e following t h r e e equations. The equations are 1, t h e equation of motion;

2, t h e equation of continuity, and 3, t h e equation of a d i a b a t i c state.

I n t h e above equations -
v = ui + v-j + w&, i s t h e velocity, p i s t h e density,

p i s t h e pressure, c i s the speed of sound, CD i s t h e angular v e l o c i t y of t h e

8
earth, and Fr i s the f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e . Also, g i s t h e "observed g r a v i t a t i o n a l
2
force" which i s the sum of - @ and w R, t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l and the

centrifugal force.

To solve t h e above s e t of equations one commonly uses a p e r t u r b a t i o n

a n a l y s i s and l i n e a r i z e s t h e r e s u l t i n g equations. One considers the s t a t i o n a r y

values, po, p
0
, To, and v
-0
f o r density, pressure, temperature, and velocity,

and l e t s p', p', T', and -

v t be the perturbation of these q u a n t i t i e s . The l i n e a r

approximation i s f a i r l y good below 100 km where f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the density a r e

l e s s than 10 per cent. According t o Hines [19601 the d e n s i t y m y f l u c t u a t e as

much a s 20 p e r c e n t above 100 km. I n t h e regions above 100 km the l i n e a r

approximation i s not as good.

If one replaces p, p, and x, i n equations 1, 2, and 3, by p

0
+ p', po + pt,

and v
- 3
+- v' and s i m p l i f i e s one obtains t h e following:

at = -
aw i
w
aZ
+ g p' - 2 w ( - cos a)u' (44

a t+ v
= - . v p o = c2 1%. -
v *v
where a i s the l a t i t u d e , and v
-0
i s s e t equal t o zero.

One may now solve t h e equations as they a r e w r i t t e n above, as Wilkes [19491

outlines. An a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o f u r t h e r simplify the equations by m k i n g approxi-

9
mations on both t h e equations and t h e model of t h e atmosphere described. The

simplified equations w i l l be discussed f i r s t ; then t h e more general approach

w i l l be described.

A model frequently used i s t h a t of a f l a t , nonrotating earth. The tempera-

t u r e i s assumed e i t h e r t o be constant,to increase o r decrease monotonically with

a l t i t u d e , or t o be s t r a t i f i e d . Gravity i s u s u a l l y considered t o be constant.

Density and pressure a r e u s u a l l y considered t o vary exponentially with a l t i t u d e .

The most one can p r o f i t a b l y simplify t h e problem i s t o consider an isothermal

atmosphere, plane l e v e l surfaces, and a nonrotating earth. This case has been

handled by Eckart [1960], Lamb [1932], and Hines [l96O]. The s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s

not v a l i d f o r small e f f e c t s , but general, l a r g e e f f e c t s m y be described and

discussed. Hines t r i e d with apparent success t o r e l a t e h i s r e s u l t s t o e f f e c t s

observed experimentally. Eckart went over n e a r l y t h e same d e r i v a t i o n as Hines

but included more d e t a i l . However, Hines used n o t a t i o n that i s mbre p h y s i c a l l y

meaningful. Both used l i n e a r i z e d equations f o r small perturbations on a s t a t i o n a r y

system. Eckart used entropy concepts, while Hines used t h e approximation of a n

adiabatic s t a t e . Both found a high and low s e t of allowed frequencies separated

by a region of forbidden frequencies. Waves with frequencies below the forbidden

region were c a l l e d g r a v i t y waves and waves with frequencies above t h e forbidden

region were c a l l e d acoustic waves.

I n p a r t i c u l a r Hines assumed wave s o l u t i o n s f o r density, pressure, v e r t i c a l ,

and h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y t o be of t h e form C
j
-t
exp i (a - Kx X - KZ 2 ) . He

s u b s t i t u t e d t h i s i n t o t h e equations w x -
4, 5 , and 6, neglected - v terms, and

o"vtaiiied 2 dispzroim relztim

where w i s t h e frequency of o s c i l l a t i o n , y i s t h e r a t i o of s p e c i f i c heats, and

10
K and K a r e wave numbers given by ~ T Tt i m e s inverse wave l e n g t h s . To i n t e r p r e t
X Z

the dispersion r e l a t i o n Hines assumed t h a t K is real = k and, therefore, K is

X X Z

purely imaginary or i s = k
Z
+-
iyg
2
where k i s r e a l .
Z
Hines chose t h e second
2,c
a l t e r n a t i v e t o allow f o r v e r t i c a l phase propagation. A s a r e s u l t of t h i s assum-p-

t i o n Hines was able t o i n t e r p r e t t h e phase change i n the o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e

upper atmosphere as g r a v i t y waves. He noted t h a t i n t h e absence of g r a v i t y t h e

2 2 2
dispersion r e l a t i o n becomes w = ( k z + K ) c which i s t h e familiar equation
z
f o r sound propagation. Then f o r simple sound waves Kx and K would be r e a l .
Z

When Hines solved the dispersion r e l a t i o n under t h e condition KZ = kZ + k/2H

he found t h a t 4
m has two p o s i t i v e roots, and i s double valued f o r r e a l wave
number p a i r s ( k k Z ) . He designated t h e two choices of w as corresponding t o

acoustic or g r a v i t y waves.
* The frequencies f o r acoustic waves a r e g r e a t e r than

w = yg/2c and t h e frequencies f o r i n t e r n a l g r a v i t y waves are less than

a
w = ( 7 - 1)1/2 g/c. Since y< 2 then wa > w .
There i s a gap of forbidden
g g
frequencies w such t h a t w < wi< wa. Recently Pitteway and Hines [19631 extended
i g
t h e i r model t o include viscous damping of atmospheric g r a v i t y waves.

Eckart [l960]went through a second d e r i v a t i o n i n which the e f f e c t of the

e a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n was included. The other conditions a r e the same as the f i r s t

case discussed. He again found t h a t c e r t a i n frequencies a r e not allowed and the

acoustic and g r a v i t y waves a r e similar t o the ones already described. Figures

2 and 3 show these allowed frequencies versus wave number i n t h e cases of a non-

r o t a t i n g and a r o t a t i n g e a r t h . The unshaded a r e a represents an imaginary propa-

gation surface.
*
There e x i s t s some ambiguity i n tne use of t'ne Leiziii gi-&\-iQ VZ'V'S for vzrious xxediz >
i . e . l i q u i d s or gases. A surface gravity wave must be distinguished from a n in-
t e r n a l g r a v i t y wave with which w e are concerned. Also, d i f f e r e n t terms may appear
i n t h e equations of motion of gravity waves depending upon t h e assumptions made
and t h e media described. It appears t o be usual, however, t o c a l l the s e t of
waves with lower frequency, of t h e two s e t s of allowed frequencies, g r a v i t y waves.

11
 The g r a v i t y wave propagates energy upward i n modes whose phase progression

i s downward, while acoustic wave energy propagates i n nearly t h e same d i r e c t i o n

a s the phase.

Acoustic and g r a v i t y waves are governed by compressional and g r a v i t a t i o n a l

forces; the r o t a t i o n a l force modifies but does not change the type of wave which

i s found. Eckart described one important difference between acoustic and

g r a v i t y waves. On page 120, Eckart [1960l discussed the idea t h a t g r a v i t y waves

with s h o r t wave lengths "have one outstanding c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which d i s t i n g u i s h e s

them from sound waves.

* I n the l a t t e r , the r a t i o of p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y t o pressure

amplitude i s very small--on the order of mgnitude of l/pc. I n the g r a v i t y waves

t h i s r a t i o becomes much l a r g e r and approaches i n f i n i t y f o r s h o r t wave lengths.

This i s a l s o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n wind v e l o c i t y t h a t occur

without marked pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s . One may therefore make a t e n t a t i v e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the g r a v i t y waves with the f l u c t u a t i n g component of the wind."

A more general approach uses spherical coordinates. Wilkes 119491 outlined

the basic mathematical equations i n h i s book, and ramifications were developed

i n papers by Wilkes [1951] and by White [1955, 1956, 1960a, 1960bl. The basic

equations of motion a r e taken t o be, i n t h e linearized, perturbation form,

au
-
at -2wvc0se = - -ai -
aae (t +n)

-
av
at +2wvcose = - 1
a sin 8
a ( P,2 + n )

*Eckart used the term sound wave i n the sense i n which t h i s paper uses acoustic
wave.
where a i s t h e radius of t h e earth, cois t h e angular v e l o c i t y of t h e earth, 8 i s

the latitude, 4 i s t h e longitude, z i s the height above t h e e a r t h ' s surface, u

i s t h e southward component of a i r velocity a t ( z , 8, 4), v i s t h e eastward com-

ponent, w i s t h e v e r t i c a l l y upward component, c i s t h e v e l o c i t y of sound a t height

z, and R i s t h e t i d e producing potential, g r a v i t a t i o n a l i n o r i g i n . I n t h e above

the e a r t h i s considered t o be spherical, and t h e v a r i a t i o n of radius vector,

gravity, and an with height are neglected. Also, t h e v e r t i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n i s

considered t o be n e g l i g i b l e . Temperature, density, and pressure are functions

of t h e a l t i t u d e . The equation of continuity becomes

The a d i a b a t i c gas l a w i s

i f t h e thermal f o r c i n g function i s ignored. If one considers a thermal f o r c i n g

function, Q, one must use

where Q = Q ( z , 8, 4 ) . Note that i n t h i s a n a l y s i s t h e forcing functions are

considered, while Hines simply looked f o r allowed motions under c e r t a i n condi-

tions. Wilkes considered only t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l rviiciiig f i i i i c t l o n ; Sz:: zzd Vkite

119551 considered thermal and g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c i n g functions a c t i n g a t ground

level. White [19561 extended t h e theory t o include a ground l e v e l g r a v i t a t i o n a l

f o r c i n g function and a thermal forcing function which v a r i e s with a l t i t u d e .

13
Solutions t o these d i f f e r e n t i a l equations a r e worked out i n the papers referenced.

The N S wind v e l o c i t y w a s found by White [19561 t o be

When the r a t i o of N S t o Ew v e l o c i t y i s formed t h e dependence on a l t i t u d e cancels.

The r a t i o of t h e N S t o EW v e l o c i t y components i s

V
e -
a iut
sin e '10,"( 0 )
S
de + -
COS
i ( - e
f

where (J = 27r/period of o s c i l l a t i o n , s i s a constant, r i s t h e component of

o s c i l l a t i o n considered, w = angular v e l o c i t y of earth, f = (J/2 we, and 8 = co-

e
2 2 2
l a t i t u d e . Also, 0 = P2 ( e ) - B P4 ( e ) f o r the s o l a r semidiurnal o s c i l l a t i o n .

i s t h e associated Legendre function and B i s a constant determined empiri-

Pf
c a l l y from experimental data. These equations may be used t o make approximations

t o wind motions.

P e k e r i s solved t h e governing equations f o r t h e case of a purely g r a v i t a t i o n a l

f o r c i n g function. In h i s s o l u t i o n s he derived an expression for t h e pressure.

27-
For c h a r a c t e r i s t i c values of t h e period, 7 , he showed t h a t t h e amplitude becomes
i n f i n i t e , and a f r e e period, o r resonance occurs.

Lower boundary conditions are usually s e t by specifying that the v e r t i c a l

v e l o c i t y must be zero a t the e a r t h ' s surface. To s e t t h e upper boundary condition

14
it i s u s u a l t o consider the r a t e of flow of energy i n a column of a i r of constant

cross s e c t i o n . One considers the horizontal energy flow t o be constant and

assumes the energy t o decrease v e r t i c a l l y , going t o zero a t i n f i n i t y . Since

energy i s assumed t o e n t e r a t t h e low a l t i t u d e s it i s apparent t h a t a t some high

a l t i t u d e t h e energy must be flowing outward only, which j u s t i f i e s the assumption

t h a t t h e energy w i l l go t o zero a t i n f i n i t y . Wilkes E19491 on page 49 of h i s

book obtained t h e r e f r a c t i v e index for atmospheric waves by m k i n g an analogy t o

electromagnetic waves. He found the r e f r a c t i v e index p t o be given by

2 1
v = Y

2
If p, i s negative a t c e r t a i n a l t i t u d e s some of the energy w i l l be transmitted

and some w i l l be r e f l e c t e d . Low temperatures and negative temperature gradients

2
may cause p t o become negative. For various values of h, which i s a function

of t h e mode of o s c i l l a t i o n and arises as a separation constant i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l

equation, some waves will be r e f l e c t e d and some transmitted.

 CORREZATION WITH EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION

Several authors have conducted t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s which can be c o r r e l a t e d

with experimental observations carried out i n our laboratory. Motions character-

i s t i c of gravity waves were evident i n our d a t a .

Several analyses w i l l be discussed, but the one described by Hines [1960]

was t h e most successful i n r e l a t i n g experimental observations t o a model. Gossard

[1954, 19621 r e l a t e d t h e energy f l u x from t h e troposphere i n t o the upper atmosphere

t o g r a v i t y waves. White [l960b] expanded t h e theory t o cover the dynamo e f f e c t

and has graphically r e l a t e d t h e theory of semidiurnal t i d a l components t o experi-

mental observation.

Hines l i s t e d s i x observed properties which he c o r r e l a t e d with a simplified

model of the atmosphere. The p o i n t s were (1)wide v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e wind compo-

nent with a l t i t u d e , ( 2 ) persistence of a wind p a t t e r n f o r time i n t e r v a l s as l a r g e

a s 100 minutes, ( 3 ) a r a t i o of horizontal s c a l e s i z e t o v e r t i c a l s c a l e s i z e of

20 t o 1, (4) dominant h o r i z o n t a l motions and n e g l i g i b l e v e r t i c a l wind accelera-

tions, ( 5 ) increasing speed of dominant i r r e g u l a r winds with a l t i t u d e , ( 6 ) smallest
v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s i z e increasingwith a l t i t u d e . Hines obtained these p r o p e r t i e s

from experimental observations made before 1959. These p r o p e r t i e s a r e c o n s i s t e n t

with our data, and it i s then reasonable t o assume t h a t h i s model w i l l hold f o r

t h e winds observed by t h i s laboratory-.

Upon analyzing a dispersion relation, Hines f i n d s t h a t t h e r e e x i s t two sets

of allowed frequencies, g r a v i t y waves and acoustic waves. A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

t h e g r a v i t y waves i s t h a t while energy i s c a r r i e d upward the phase propagates

downward with time.

This laboratory has attempted t o demonstrate t h e existence of g r a v i t y waves

i n t h e following manner. Our observations show t h a t t h e wind vector viewed from

above performs clockwise r o t a t i o n with increasing a l t i t u d e a t a given time, and

16
performs clockwise r o t a t i o n with time a t a given a l t i t u d e . More than 75% of t h e

wind data show anticyclonic motion between 100 and 115 km, and over 90% of the

wind data show anticyclonic motion between 110 and 112 km. One may r e l a t e the

two observed r o t a t i o n s of t h e wind vector by assuming t h a t g r a v i t y and t i d a l waves were

propagating upward with an a t t e n d a n t downward propagation of phase i n t h e region

under observation.

Under t h e above assumptions t h e phase v e l o c i t y was computed f o r two s e t s of

sodium r e l e a s e data obtained from rocket f l i g h t s over Eglin A i r Force Base,

Florida. For t h e f i r s t s e t released on 3 December 1962 a t l7:2O, 1 8 ~ 0 1 ,21:45,

and 22:45 CST, t h e r a t e of r o t a t i o n of t h e wind vector a t a given a l t i t u d e as a

function of t i m e , and a t a given time as a function of a l t i t u d e was computed.

Averaged between 98 and 113 km t h e wind vector was found t o r o t a t e 15' per km

change i n a l t i t u d e and 0.4' p e r minute a t a given a l t i t u d e . Over t h i s a l t i t u d e

range the wind vectors c o n s i s t e n t l y moved clockwise with increasing a l t i t u d e and

with increasing time. Upon dividing one obtains a v e r t i c a l phase v e l o c i t y of

0.03 km/min or approximately 0.44 m/s. A similar a n a l y s i s w a s performed on t h e

f o u r r e l e a s e s on 17 May 1963 a t 1 9 ~ 0 6and 22:19 CST and on 18 May 1963 a t 0 2 ~ 5 6

and 04:06 CST. Averaged between 106 and 113 km the wind vector w a s found t o

rotate 1
0' per km and 0.52' p e r minute.

The phase v e l o c i t y i n t h i s case was 0.8 m / s . One my assume t h a t t h e wind

p a t t e r n i s descending a t t h e above r a t e s and compare t h e wind component curves

f o r t h e two s e t s of f o u r wind determinations. I n Figures 4 and 5, each of the

wind curves has been s h i f t e d up along t h e z a x i s a d i s t a n c e corresponding t o i t s

computed descent i n the elapsed time between wind measurements. A s one observes

t h e r e i s d e f i n i t e l y a c o r r e l a t i o n i n the two s e t s of f o u r wind p a t t e r n s . In

Figure 4 the t o t a l descent of the wind p a t t e r n between t h e 1 9 ~ 0 6wind determination

and t h e 04:06 wind determination w a s 27 km. I n Figure 5 t h e t o t a l descent of the

17
wind p a t t e r n between l7:20 and 22:45 was 8.5 km.

A downward s h i f t of the wind p a t t e r n has been discussed i n the paper by

Rosenberg and Edwards [19641. A study of t i m e and s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s of winds

was r e c e n t l y m d e by Rosenberg, Edwards, and J u s t u s [ i n p r e p a r a t i o n ] . The s i n g l e

sodium t r a i l release on 17 May 1963 a t l 9 : 0 6 CST w a s observed t o e x h i b i t the same

r o t a t i o n previously discussed and t o reveal a wind p a t t e r n with a downward motion

of 1 . 3 m/s over an observed period of approximately 15 minutes. The downward

v e l o c i t y of t h i s s i n g l e release of the 17 May 1963 s e r i e s i s l a r g e r than the

average phase v e l o c i t y computed f o r a l l f o u r r e l e a s e s . The phase v e l o c i t i e s ob-

served seem t o vary over a f a i r l y narrow range f o r the winds observed thus f a r .

The v a r i a t i o n m i g h t be explained a s the changing superposition of a number of

g r a v i t y waves.

Gossard [l9&1 observes t h a t f l u c t u a t i o n s of pressure due t o random g r a v i t y

waves i n t h e lower atmosphere a r e seen t o p e r s i s t a s long as 10 t o 12 hours.

Since random o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e superposed on d i u r n a l and semidiurnal wind motion,

it would seem t h a t one should observe b e t t e r c o r r e l a t i o n between wind p a t t e r n s

measured a t c l o s e l y spaced i n t e r v a l s than widely spaced i n t e r v a l s b u t t h e r e should

s t i l l be observable c o r r e l a t i o n throughout t h e day. The determination of the ro-

t a t i o n of t h e wind v e c t o r with time a t a given a l t i t u d e f o r the two sets of f o u r

0
rocket r e l e a s e s averages t o approximately 0.5 /min or a p p r o x i m t e l y two revolu-

t i o n s p e r day. Apparently t h i s r o t a t i o n i s predominantly a semidiurnal e f f e c t .

The wind motion i s considered t o be t h e sum of a general d r i f t , a periodic

o s c i l l a t i o n and a random component. No e f f o r t has been m d e y e t t o separate these

mnt.ic?ns in cnnnect.inn w i t h t h e Fhase v e l o c i t y computed here.

One m y make a comparison between the energy which would be c a r r i e d by the

g r a v i t y waves from the troposphere t o t h e ionosphere and the energy d i s s i p a t e d

by turbulence i n the ionosphere. Gossard [l962] considers a n e g l i g i b l y viscous

18
atmosphere and neglects energy reflected by thermal barriers. H e notes t h a t t h e

l a r g e r waves become nonlinear above c e r t a i n a l t i t u d e s and deposit some of t h e i r

energy i n t h e turbulence spectrum. For s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t observations he computes

the t o t a l energy d e n s i t y of t h e gravity wave t o range between 0.73 ergs/cm3 and

3.2 ergs/cm 3 . On days of high gravity wave a c t i v i t y the mximum energy f l u x i s

2
on the order of several hundred ergs/cm see. If one takes the energy d e n s i t y

of t h e g r a v i t y wave t o be approximately 1 erg/cm 3 and the energy f l u x t o be

2
approximately 100 ergs/cm see, then 100 ergs must be c a r r i e d through a cubic

centimeter i n one second. This implies t h a t the v e l o c i t y of the energy being

transported i s 100 cm/s.

J u s t u s and Edwards [NASA Technical Note i n P r e s s ] have shown t h a t a t 100 km

the energy d i s s i p a t i o n i s approximtely 0.1 j/kg sec . From t h i s value one may

compute the energy d i s s i p a t i o n per u n i t volume p e r u n i t time t o be 4.97 x lo-"

ergs/cm3 see. The energy f l u x which Gossard shows m y leave the troposphere i s

seen t o be much l a r g e r than the d i s s i p a t i o n due t o turbulence i n the ionosphere.

Turbulent d i s s i p a t i o n i s low between the troposphere and the ionosphere. As

Gossard mentions, energy w i l l be l o s t due t o r e f l e c t i o n and turbulence. The amount

of energy d i s s i p a t e d by turbulence decreases from t h e ionosphere t o the upper trop-

osphere according t o t h e limited data a v a i l a b l e i n t h e study by Justus and Edwards.

Energy d i s s i p a t i o n increases q u i t e rapidly, however, i n the region above 100 km.

Reflection w i l l probably be t h e p r i m r y mechanism which keeps energy from t h e trop-

osphere from reaching the ionosphere.

Gossard [1962l a l s o computed the amplification of t h e g r a v i t y waves which

reach t h e ionosphere. The v e r t i c a l wave lengths and wind v e l o c i t y perturbations

which Gossard computed a r e the same mgnitude a s the wave lengths which we observed.

Another method. f o r determining phase v e l o c i t i e s i s suggested i n a paper by

Axford [19633 i n which the Dungey process f o r t h e f o r m t i o n of sporadic E i s de-

scribed. This process i s simply t h a t the component of t h e e l e c t r i c a l l y n e u t r a l

wind p a r a l l e l t o t h e magnetic f i e l d drives t h e f r e e ions and e l e c t r o n s along

f i e l d l i n e s and the perpendicular component d i s t o r t s t h e f i e l d s l i g h t l y . Thus,

i f t h e wind p r o f i l e i s sinusoidal along the v e r t i c a l axis, t h e f r e e ions and

e l e c t r o n s w i l l be forced t o t h e point where the v e l o c i t y i s zero u n t i l t h e i r

p a r t i a l pressure gradient balances the f o r c e exerted by t h e n e u t r a l p a r t i c l e s .

Then, i f the phase v e l o c i t y i s downward, and the p o i n t s of zero v e l o c i t y move

downward with time, the ionization w i l l tend t o move down with t h e zero p o i n t s .

Then, l a y e r s of sporadic E separated by h a l f the wave length of t h e g r a v i t y wave

should move down with a v e l o c i t y equal t o t h e phase v e l o c i t y of t h e g r a v i t y wave.

A layering of sporadic E has been observed. A t the present no systematic review

of t h e l i t e r a t u r e has been undertaken t o c l a r i f y t h e motion of t h e l a y e r s .

Axf'ord [19631 presents a table which includes the following "typical" values.

Altitude km 145 120 100

Horizontal v e l o c i t y m/s 50 50 30
Phase v e l o c i t y m/s 1 1 0 -5

Wave length km 12 10 5
The nagnitude of h i s "typical" phase v e l o c i t y i s very close t o t h e phase v e l o c i t y

a t the corresponding a l t i t u d e s and horizontal v e l o c i t i e s .

20
 CONCLUSIONS

The s t u d i e s presented here indicate t h a t winds observed i n t h e upper atmos-

phere may be composed of d i u r n a l and semidiurnal motions upon which a r e super-

posed random g r a v i t y waves. If t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n given i n t h i s paper r e l a t i v e

t o phase v e l o c i t y i s correct, then the propagation of t h e phase downward and

energy upward m i g h t be r e l a t e d by means of t h e observed r o t a t i o n of t h e wind

vector and used t o demonstrate t h e existence of g r a v i t y waves. Further study

m y r e l a t e t h e rate of change of the phase of t h e wind vector t o temperature

gradients. I n addition, one m i g h t be able t o r e l a t e t h e energy d i s s i p a t e d i n

turbulence i n t h e ionosphere t o t h e energy f l u x which i s generated from t h e lower

atmosphere and c a r r i e d t o t h e upper atmosphere. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the motion of

sporadic E may a l s o be r e l a t e d t o t h e g r a v i t y waves.

21
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We a r e indebted t o Professor C . 0. Hines of t h e University of Chicago f o r

reviewing t h e d r a f t and f o r o f f e r i n g many h e l p f u l suggestions. Much c r e d i t i s

due our colleague, C . G . J u s t u s f o r discussions during t h e study.

Financial support f o r the work has been supplied by the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration under Grant NsG-304-63 and by the A i r Force Cambridge

Research Laboratories under Contract AF l9( 628) -393.

22
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Res ,
2

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-J

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--- . .
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9
-

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Res , -,

25
 Figure 1. The Assumed Temperature Variation as a Function of A l t i t u t e .

26
 .

Figure 2. Wave Number, k, as a Function of Frequency, o, for an

Isothermal Atmosphere.

w t

Figure 3. Wave Number, k, as a Function of Frequency, o, for an

I - Isothermal Atmosphere Rotating About a Vertical Axis
~

~ 5 t Pzg1da.r
h Velocity 66.
 118
I
116
17, 18 MAY 1963
I\
114

112

110
19:06
108
-- 22:19
----- 02:56
106
--- 04:06
104

102

=
5
100

W
5 98
t
<
I-
96

94

92

90

88

86

84

82

80 / I
78 I I I I I \I/ 1 1 1 1 1
- 10 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 20 40 60 80 100
NORTH-SOUTH VELOCITY (misj 4

Figure h. The North-South Components of Wind Velocity Shifted

Along the Ordinate Relative t o t h e 04:06 Release.
North i s Taken as Positive.

28
 118
.
116
17, 18 MAY 1963

114

112

110
19:06
-- 22: 19
108
-- --- 02:56
106 --- 04:06

104
----.
102

2 100
s
w
5 98
k
I-
J
a 96

94

92

90
(

88

86

84
(’
82
\
80
/
\
78 I I ~ ~~

- 0 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

EAST-WEST VELOCITY (m/s) _c

Figure 4b. The East-West Components of Wind Velocity Shifted

Along the Ordinate Relative t o t h e 04:06 Release.
East i s Taken as Positive.

29
.
126

124

122

120

118

116

114

112

110

108
ti.

-
I-
< 104

102

100

98

96

94

92

90

88

NORTH-SOUTH VELOCITY (rn/s) --c

Figure 5a. The North-South Components of Wind Velocity Shifted

Along the Ordinate Relative t o t h e 22:45 Release.
North i s Taken as Positive.
.

126

I
\
\
\
124
i \
\
\
122 I \
\
\

120
3 DECEMBER 1962 I \
\
\
\
\
118 \
I
17:20 i
116 -- 18:Ol
/

----- 21:45
--- 22:45

I
/
/*

,/’

I I I I I 1 I
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Figure 5b. The East-West Component o f Wind Velocity S h i f t e d

Along the Ordinate Relative t o the 22:45 Release.
East i s Taken a s P o s i t i v e .