_ - ___-. - T-I&&.

Man, Climate and Architecture .

bY

B . GIVON-I
B.Sc. (Arch.), M.Sc. (Hygiene), Ph.D. (Public Hedth)

Building Research Station

Technion, Israel Institute of Technoiogy

ELSEVIER P U B L I S H I N G COMPANY LIMITED

AMSTEWAM -LONDON -NEW YORK
1969
\
 Principles of Design and Selection of Materials
to Adnpt Building to Climate

APPLIC,\TION T O SPECIFIC CLISIATIC TYPFS

In this concluding chapter. the aspects of human thermai

rcqutremenrs Lmd the design characteristics aimed to jattsty them
u ill be revieived and appiied to various climatic tvpes. It is of course
impossible to deal with every combination of elements which make up
the immense variety of weather distributed over the earth. and so
certain “ideal” climatic types are considered. to illustrate the applica-
tion methodology of the principles and approaches discussed in the
preceding chapter. As the experience of the aurhor is largely refared
lo jub-tropical a n d o t h e r bot climates. t h e s e parttcuiar tb’pes \\iil
+~\e :IS primary wamples for demonstrating methods OI‘ ~pplic::-
Il0ll.
lt hhould be noted that the numerous combinattons oi‘~!imattc
\.~r~aRlts mab be classified according to many diherent crtterta.
dependenc on the purpose for which such categorization is necessar!.
As the principal aim of this book is to provide guiding prtncipl~s
tòr butldtng design for comfort. it is attempred in thc classihcation
used here to emphasize those climatic characteristics cuerttng intiu-
ence on ph>siological comfort and. on the other hand. on tl:e thcrmai
response or behaviour of buildings.
I‘;-om the aspect of building design. t h e neccssar! climattc
control is enttrely different in hot and in cold conditions. and this
rherefore provides a basic distinction for classification. The rhermal
etfect ot‘ materials in buildings without air-conditioning III ;L \varm
climate IS d e p e n d e n t primarily on t h e diurnal temprrature range.
\vhich in turn depends mainlv on the vapour pressurc Icvsl. III this
na\’ temperature a n d humidity a r e interconnected III J~rcrrnintn~
311
 MAN. <‘LIMA TE ANI> ARCHITECTURE

the t-pe of the climate. Prevention of water penetrarion is rt require-

ment in all areas with rnins. irrespective of the seüsons at which they
come. Condensation occurs mainly under cold conditions. but the
severity of the problem depends on the ambient humidity. Thus -
wetness (rain) and humidity give two more classifying criteria.
After considering these tàctors. it was decided to adopt the
classificatron developed by Miller [ 17. lo], with some abbreviation
and modificarion. The following groups ofclimatic types are specitied.
for each ot‘which a different approach to thermal design is appropriate.

A. Hot climares
1. Hot-dr!,: hot deserts
? Warm-wet: equatoriai- and tropical-marine
-.
3. Hot-drk and \Larm-wet: tropicai-continental. and mon~oon.

B . Ltúrtx-re/r)perarc climares
4. Western margm type
i. Mediterranean continental
ii. Mediterranean marine
iii. Mediterranean mountains

c. C~lol-i<'tl?/l('t~df<' < li/llcric.c

6. Cool-temperate iontlnental
7. Cool-(emperale marlne.

D. C o/(l <~litr,orc.s
Y. Cold c‘onrlnental : Sibcrian
9. Cold marlnr: Uornegian
10. Coid deserr
I 1. Xrctic.

Of (hese zroups. three :(re discussed in some detail: the hot-dry. the
warm-wet. and the Mediterranean ciimates. For each. the analysis
is developed from thc point of view of climatic characteristics.
through :he human requirements. to give principies and certain
details for buildin_c design and construction.
 I’KlX(‘lP1.115: \l’f’l.l<~A rlON TO SIW’II’IC <‘LIXlATIi’ f-SI’liS

17.2.1. ~‘Lf\lATl~ CH,\KACTEKIST~(~ .\st) THEIK c;E~(;KAI~HIcAL

I~ISTRIR~TIOS.-Hot dry deserts are found in the sub-tropical regions
i,t‘ .Africu. central and w e s t e r n A s i a . n o r t h - w e s t e r n and s o u t h e r n
\mera. and in c e n t r a l a n d w e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a [17.10]. I n all these
<ases t h e characteristic a r i d c o n d i t i o n s are caused by t h e Trade
\\inds. blowing South-\vest and north-west towards the equator.
losing mosr of their wnter vapour content over the vast continental
areas. I n addition. t h e sub-tropics are regions of high barometric
pressure. and with the doivn-tlorv from the upper atmosphere. which
¡S a characteristlc uf these regions. the nir becomes heated and dried
1 jf~f’ Srction 1 .-Ib.
The aridity mentioned is accompanied by jeveral characteristics
&,i‘ importance to human comforr a n d t o buiiding design. Direct
alur radiarlon is intense. u p t o 700 or YO0 kcailm’ h on the hori-
zontal surfxe. and 1s further augmented by radiation reflected from
the barren. light-coloured rerrain. The sky is without cioud for the
sreater part of t h e year. h u t dust hxze :lnd storms are frequent.
cau$?d b!,con~ection currents d u e t o intens1t.e heating o f t h e :tir
w:\r che sround: the‘;e occur mainlv 11~ rhe :ifternoon.
Th- io:\ hurnidlt\ xnd :~b>r’ncL’ clt‘ Lloud result in .I \‘er!’ \\ide
<m?er;lture r-anfe: !n jummer the u n o b s t r u c t e d !,olar rays heat t h e
i:rnd .iirr‘:\ce up to about 70 C ( 158 F) .tt mldduy. whiie at night
(he ~rap~d li>s< ot‘ thls hect bu lon_a\\;tve rxiintlon cool~ the surfaces to
15 C (59 1‘1 o r belo\\. The tluctuatlonh in ;ur t e m p e r a t u r e are much
\malle: I>I‘ aura. hut even 5s) ;I diurna1 range of 10 deg C (36 deg F)
I> not uncommc)n: t h e summer t e m p e r a t u r e s during t h e day are
.tround X-3) c‘ (IO&122 1-j. .knd ;It nlght wlthin t h e ran_oe 15-15-C
i c--7 1-1.
t-he ;Innual range I, Intlurnced b> the ~eographical latitude.
\\~th i\ hlch the >ummer temperxtura varv Iess than those in winter.
Y) th~t \\ Irh ;ncre:wng latltude t h e \Clnters become relatively much
iolder than do the summers. ;tnd the annual runge thereiore greater.
T h e \‘;tpour pressure ib tàlrl‘ steady. varying w i t h t h e location
and \e;l>on f r o m about 5 to 15 m m H g . T h e relative humidity
thcreiore Hucruates with rhe ;ur t e m p e r a t u r e . possibly ranging f r o m
helo\4 ‘O”,, 111 the afternoon to over JO”,. at night. .A change in t h e
314 \l:\N. c‘L.ll\l,\rE .\NI> :\RCItITECl-CRE

wind direction m;t\ hring ;tir I’roni the Se3 and with it ;t rise in the
humidity. Rains are few and t’ar between. and :tlthough precipitation
sometimes starts at ;1 high altitude. the w:tter usually evaporutes com-
pletely beforereaching the ground. But occasional violent Hash storms
do occur. breaking suddenly nnd ktsting only R few hours.
The wind speed is generally low in the moming. rising towards
noon to reach ;t maximum in the ufternoon. frequently accompanied
by whirlwinds of sand and dust.

17.2.2. HUMAY REQUIREXIESTS FOR cOslFoRT.-For physiological

comfort in hot dry climates. buildings must be adapted to the sum-
mer conditions, as in general the winter requirements will be satistied
by a butlding in which comfort i$ cnsured for rhe ~ummer. Referente
to the Building Bioclimatic Chart (sre Fig. 16.1) shows that the hot-
dr; conditions are included in area EC. indicating thar durtng the
hottest season comfort ij not attatnable wirhour mechanlcal means
of cooling. However. a bearable interior slimate can be clchieved.
and stress minimized during the hottest period. Gth caret‘ul selection
of mnterials and details of the drstgn.

reduces thts potential control of Internai temoemture‘;. then

when wind velocities are htgh. Con\~ccttv~e hect loss t’rom thr bod‘ is
very low :tt the high daytime temperatures. even \vhen rhe Ar speed is
high. and when the air temperature is :tbove 35 C I‘onvccttve heat
g a i n increases t h e phvsiologtc:tl lo;td. On t h e other hand. t h e Iow
hnmidity in t h e d e s e r t allows :tn adequ:tte \\veat cvaporntlon rnte
from t h e b o d y even in srill LLir. .~nd t h u s Sr motron n e e d not b e
zreat fo nrevent discomtòrt due to rnost $kin.
N a t u r a l ventilanon durin~ t!it! ciav 15 lherct’c~i-e iliintxesiary tòr
evaporative cooling and undesirablr for convectrve heat exchange.
a n d t h e a m b i e n t ;Ltr veloctty u n d e r “sriil” ;tir condltrons may h e
t a k e n ;1s 15 cm!sec. T h i s ,light ;ltr movemenr IZ r h e result ot‘ con-
v e c t i v e c u r r e n t s caused bu 5urf;lce (emperature discrepancies
between differently orientared WIIIS. and by alr mfiltrntion through
window cracks.
in the evening. with the drop III outdoor .ur temperature below
the level of both internai ;t(r and \urf:tces. \entilatlon crlable~ mpid
cooling 01‘ the interior. With the window open during the cvcning.
the air motion indoors depends on the outdoor wind \&xit- and the
quality of cross-ventilation provided. In a building well cr&ventj-
lated. the averape in
\vind speed quoted in meteorological data. If there is no cross-
\-encilation. only about 7”:, of the free wind speed can be expected
indoors (we Chapter 15). T’hus with a wind L,elocity of I 7 km;h (10
mph) the indoor air speed would be expecred to rnnge from 35 cm set
(70ft:min)withpoorventilation. toabout 150cm~sec~300ft~min) with
efFicient cross-ventilation. Hipher veloclties are not necessary for
comfort and may even be annoying.
At night windless periods are frequent 111 ‘orne regions. The
ionvecrive currents indoors rna!. cease :v~th the rsndenc! at‘ internol
zurface temperatures to equalize through rndiative he:tt sxchange.
.lnd if windows or jhutters a r e closed for prIvac\- :he i n d o o r air
\elocity late at night reaches a mlnimum lsvei of <tbour 5-Y cm sec.
The difference between Indoor and durdoor vapour pressure
depends on the ventilation conditlons. as tvell as on the densiry of
building &cupation and rhe habirs concerning bapour-zenerating
processes such as cooking and \~a>h~ng. wi:h onzn \vlndous [here is
\er\: little discrepancy. bur when theze :lre \hur Llt:rlnu :he da\-. rhe
i n d o o r vapour pressure m:í> b e l--I mm Hg .Ihcn c :hr our-Cr-- our
rYet.
-The air temperature requlred iòr corntòl-t I> ilttermrned h‘ rhe
pattern of ventilatron descrlbed .tbovc. The r~iat1~~114~!n ila> bcsn
esrimated from Fig. 5.7 as follo\\>.
At the Iow humidity level rile Ilmlrlng remperalure I‘or comi‘ort
during the day. when ventilarion 15 inad\~lsablr. 1s .lhout 27 C. but
up [o 29 C thermal s t r e s s is ver‘ hiight. In rhe cl:enlng. w~rh peor
Knd \vith ethclent ventilation r h e limlt‘; \houici Ix re~prctlvci\ 2’9
.:i~d 32 C. but ;LL this time the Interna1 ~urt‘xx - remperatures ~_ xre
*r-.- than thar ot‘the airand so-_--~
;L compensatorv reduc:lon oi I cieo _-C
\hould be allowed for when specifyin g .lir temprrature requlremenrì.
In spite of the lower metabolic rate ;It nlght. the Io\\ xr speed ;hnd
t h e radiant heat load from the tnternul surfaces oI‘ the s.xternal
\~alls and the roof. which reach rhen iheir rnaì(lmum. lo\ier the
limiting comfort temperature to abour 24-25 C.
III these desert region the problern ~>t‘~lu>t ~nrrrin~ :hc i~t~rlct~rlps
3 Ih W4N. C‘LIXIA Vii XNI) .\R<‘IllTIiCTURli

is considerable. This prohlem maq’ be controlled ~1 XXC‘KII kvels.

through town planning. through organisation ot‘ the layout of small
neighbourhoods. and through the details of design uf the individual
buildings.
Comfortable living in such ;I climate c a n Aso b e assisted by
adaptarion of individual living habits. for insrnnce b! restricting
outdoor activities to the mornings. late afternoon and evening to
uvoid the intense midday heat : sleepingoutdoors ininternal courryards.
tòr example. is also very pleasant.

17.2.3. PRIXCIPLES O F B U I L D I N G DESIGN AND CO‘STRC’CTIO~ IU

DESERT REGlONs.-Buildings in the desert are traditionally designed
\\lth tlar roofs and heavvweight material. and with ver! small openingi.
In rural area. the roots are composed of a thick laler ot‘ drled mud.
<overed hy a second i m p e r v i o u s Iayer. I n urban area rr~nt‘orced
concrete is usuallq- used for rooting contemporary buildingh.
The thick exterior wails and roof damp the temperature Huc-
tuatlons. stabilizing the interna1 temperatures ;:t ;I Is\ael cio~~ 10 rhe
aterage externa1 surface temperature.
Both the layout of the buildinos and their individua¡ \tl-tlc‘ture>
are compacr. t o expose t h e mimmum surface fo radiatlon .~nd [he
!lot .LIr autsrde. P;llios and interna1 courtvards :lrc ol’ten DI-O\ Ideii
!‘or social purposes 2nd ;ilso 2s sleepin g areas. Ventilation I\ reduced
to .I mlnlmum during the da\:. ro rxclude the hot. dusr-laden out-
door air from the interior.
Ho\\ever. rhe aim of this type of design to Iower da> llme tem-
peratures as fur as possible. is achieved at the expense of nocturnal
conditions. which are appreciably warmer than those out OI‘ doors.
In borne areas, cfven the da- temperatures are too high during severa¡
months ol‘ the vear. and here true comfort can onlv be achieved III
the traditlonal buiidings by an artificial cooling system. Occasionall>
underground rooms are provided. in which temperaturc tluctuations
are further htabilized. at ;1 level close t o t h e annual average: t h e
>umrner temperatures are therefore much lower than in bulldings
:lbove the ground. But usuallv where buildings are Lvithout mechan-
ical means uf cooling. the inhabitants have to sleep on the rool’s or
in the coutryardb.
T h e u s e of modern insulating materials in conjunct1on \virh
 ~hose of high heat capxity allows the openings to he larcer ,\hilc
mriintaining or even improving on the thermal conditions obr:~incd
in t h e traditional buildings. This is later discussed in dtwil c$,ub-
qection 17.1. I ).
I n selecting suitable building orientation in hot-dr! ;~re;~b. rhe
L)biect is to r e d u c e t h e interna1 daytime t e m p e r a t u r e s . ;~nd chus
:nimmiration uf solar heating is the primary concem. .-\ north-bouth
orientation is therefore preferable to one east-west (see Chapter I I ).
However. although consideration of wind orientation is unnecess;;lr!-
from the point of view of dayt’ime conditions. as \Lindo\\s are to be
C e p t c l o s e d at t h i s t i m e . i f ;L slight d e v i a t i o n t‘rom ;L north-bouth
direction iiould i m p r o v e t h e v e n t i l a t i o n durlng the ttr:lin~ :~nci
:light. thls would b e udvisable.
Th; low t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e \vindous maLe> :he~ !>rln-
:~pal routes tit‘the heat fow to the interior. even \\hen <h;ldcd as:llnbt
rolar radiarion and closed against air tlo\v from outside. The ektr‘nt
nt‘ the heat ftow and the resulting interior heating are proporrlonal
to (he size ot‘ the windows. The cross-ventilation required during rhe
evenlng and night necessitates the use of aperrures. but rhe :t;‘lclenc\
LlI. ventilution is n o t proportional t o rhsir sire (\etl Cliapter i4l.
\Lith correa coordination ot‘ the locanon and jhapt- ot‘ihc :t~ncio\~;.
EI~SZ rna! b e jmail enough -10 minimize hear ~lou. bur xilil ;>I-o\ ~de
::ìic:ent ~:entllutlon when o p e n .
The wndows jhould be designed and arrnnged MI li1;1[ A~~I-o\I-
matelv tquul areas a r e o p e n on t h e Lvindward and lewar-d .I~O t)t
ihe bulldlng. .ind 50 t h n t t h e ;ur streum is d i r e c t s d to ihe JIXI and
!evel of o c c u p a t i o n . T h i s is particularI> importnnt rn bedrooms.
xhere two h o r i z o n t a l s t r i p s of windows. p l a c e d in ditTerenr :\ail~
,JroLtde r h e moht a d e q u a t e a r r a n g e m e n t . ene LII the !lel:ht OI’ ihe
>ed\ and the other beloiv the ceiling. thus cawng xlr mo~1011 in the
Lwm b v thermal forte d u r i n g windle>s hours. The Ilo\\ LLI IIIL!~I 1)
:il\\:\rd ;~t the lower level 2nd outward through the upptr ~~pen~n~~r\.
The h o r i z o n t a l i t r i p s general11 r vive
p a b e t t e r dihtrlbutlon oI .tIr 110~
111 rhe occupied zone [han vertical enes.
With direct a n d reflected s o l a r radiation the rno,t 111ttlnv~c
zurces oïheating. the effect ofa light externa1 colour in mrnrmtLIng
/
InternaI dnytime temperatures. is I’ar grearer than that 01‘ Incrcaslng
::!her rhermal resistance or capacity. \vith the added aci~arl~age II~;II
3Is \I \S. (.‘LIXlA III .\ND .\R~‘IIITIX-TLIRE

comlòrt at night is also improved. But if not whitewashed frequentl~.

the building envelope absorbs enormous quantities of solar energy.
The stabilizing intluence of a thick envelope results in interna1
surface temperatures relatively constmt and close to the average
level of the externa1 surfaces: this level is particularly high for the
rooî when rt is not whitewashed and the ensuing elevation in the
average temperature of the ceiling above the level of other interna1
surfaces makes this an almost continuous heating element in the
house.
Composite elements provide a more satisfactory solution to the
problem. If a heavyweight layer is provided with an externa1 layer of
eficient insulating material. itself protected by a ~a:r:-;~:c’oi‘ licht-
coloured covering. hent flow during the day from externa1 to interna1
lakers is restricted bb, the insulation and only a small proportion of
the potenrlal heat 1s absorbed in the rlement. Even this heat can Iater
be removed by ventilating the interior during the evening and night.
rhus maintaining relatively cool conditions throught the day.

I ?.7.1. DEVELOPSlEST AND ,APPLIChTION O F PRIXCIPLES. T O

DFSIG\ \,ATURALL~~ C~OLED sciLolvcs.-Results o f recent investiga-
[ron ~1 the Bullding Research Station In Haifa [l7.7] indicate the
e!Ttctl\ene5b of the hea~~\~eight~insulation combination mentioned.
l.\hen usrd ivirh certaln specilic design features. in reducing the over-
:~jl intcrnal remperntures.
Su~tabie t’or rhlh purpose are high hent capacity concrete walls
~xternall~~ Insulated by rockwool or expanded plastics und covered
bb waterprooting ma~erlals. The required thickness of these materials
muy be compured. accordlng to the outdoor maximum and minimum
temperatura>. uslng Ihe :‘ormulae @ven earlier (.ser Section 16.5).
T h e Irnohng ~ilOLlld be ot a 9milar composite construction.
.~nd rhe !ntrrnai parrlrlons at‘ high h e a t capacity. All externa1 sur-
I‘XX bhould be \IY, ne;lr 10 white as possible. The heat entering the
hullding in che da‘ 13 therefore kept to a minimum. and the high
thermal capacit> of the concrete layer reduces the effect on interna1
remperatures ot‘ any hear which does penetrate.
Windows nla!’ be lurge but should be protected by movable
ln~ulated hhuttcrs: apart I‘rom small apertures for illumination. both
w~ndow~ and \hutter\ must be closed during the day.
 PRI‘CIPLES: \PPLI(:\TION TO SPECIFIC (‘LlJI:\ Ti<’ T\‘Pl:S

It is advisablr to provide an internai or semi-internd courtyard

w i t h xcess t o r h e r o o m s of the house through large o p e n i n g s .
i n s u l a t e d ~1s t’or t h e w i n d o w s . By o p e n i n g t h e w i n d o w s and thest:
apertures durine t h e eveningthe interior can h e cooled rapidlv
! t ‘ r o m severa1 sides.;The root‘ s h o u l d s l o p e d o w n t o w a r d s t h e c o u r t -
yard. and b e surrounded by a parrtpet at t h e u p p e r edges. Aithough
the tempernture ot‘the \vhitewashed roof will he close to that of the
o u t d o o r air d u r i n g t h e day. longwave r a d i a t i o n t o t h e sky r e d u c e s
this t o 6-10 d e g C below t h e o u t d o o r level at n i g h t . T h u s air in
contact w i t h t h e r o o f \vill b e cooled at n i g h t and channelled hy t h e
jlope into rhz courtyrd and then into the rooms. Heating hy warmer z
;.\i<: ;..>I .;.I 15 restricted by the parapet.
I ne 11e:lt esctrãnge jystems mvoived may b e s u m m u r i z e d b!,
‘ayng t’hat the buiiding 15 heated durinz the day only through the
insulared externni emciope. b u t IS cooled d u r i n g t h e evening and
night. primarily throqh rhe large openings. by nir at temperatures
below rhe amhienr ourdoor level.
With t h i s tvpe ot’ deslgn i t is possible t o obrain somfortable
c o n d i t i o n s in hot-dr! regions wirh summer maximum temperatures
u p t o ;Ibout 3 8 - C . Where t e m p e r a t u r e s are higher than t h i s . par-
rlcuiarl> ~f:he ntght temperacures are toa high. t‘urther cooling in the
:\enlng and ixlght ma\ be Areved hy more rrficlent use of the cold
.~II- in contact \LIth the root‘.
Tl115 .~ppraach !o rhe problem \V;LS esamlned b>, t h e B . R . S . in
tH;llt;t [ I7.S] <tnd in thc de>ert reglon ot‘ E l a t h : two alternative pro-
cedures ‘lppeared to b e ,tppllc:lble. (i) Instead of LL c o u r t y a r d i n t o
Ivhich r h e cooi .ur is dralned t ‘ r o m the roof. \rindows a r e p r o v i d e d
un the ront’ Itsttlf. :tt the uppcr and lower leveis of t h e blope. T h e s e
w~ndo\vs rernaln ciohed in the da\,tlrne and open at night. The whole
:CWI i\ then -ylernall\ covered b\ polythene >heeting 3t LI dktance
1. 10-20 cm .lbove the roel \urt;lce. Polythene (polyethylene) is
:hoxn bec:tu~r It is transparent t o rrtdiation ot‘ t h e \v;\velength
;irt>und IO rnlcrons emltted b!. ihe roel: placing little r e s r r i c t i o n on
radiau~e cooiing :it nighr.

In thl> iba!. the interior is insulated from the alr >p:lce berween
the rooi‘ a n d the polythene sheetin g while this ib bubject t o solar
healing. B u t \vhen t h e roel‘ cools d u r i n g t h e esening. the sk!,lights
lrc opened t o allow aoler air in the space betueen the pal! rhene
320 \l.\S. <‘LIMA l-1. \Sl> \R~‘lllTlf<‘TCKI:

and the rool’to enter the building through the lower opening. contact
vvith the hot external air being prevented by the polythene. The warm
air indoors then rises and Hows through the upper window into the
space above the roof. The rate of liow in this circuit can be increased
by using a small exhaust tàn.
The drnwback oE this method is the deterioration of the poly-
t h e n e s h e e t s w i t h e x p o s u r e t o r h e sun. s o t h a t t h e s e have t o b e
replaced at intervals.
(ii) The altemative is to use metal sheeting painted white in the
same way as the polythene. This has the advantage of permanente.
onlv requiring a
vearlv
. - renewal o f t h e w h i t e w a s h . B u t a s t h e
m e t a l is o p a q u e t o r a d i a t i o n . t h i s in effect becomes t h e externa1
surface of the roof. The daytime temperntures in the uir space hetween
the metal sheet and the structurai roor‘are r-elattvei‘ quite low. wirh a
c o n s e q u e n t r e d u c t i o n in the hect gain. Bur during the tught t h e
radiating surkace is exposed to the ambient air. and the air beneath it
c o o l s t o a lesser e x t e n t t h a n t h a t enclosed b! p o l y t h e n e . n n d t h e
resulting interior cooling IS smaller.

17.3. 1. CLI\IA\TE (-tl.~ll.-\c‘TI:;(l~rlCS \‘.II IHFIR i;EOGR>\PHI(‘AL

I)ISTRIBCTIOS.-T\~o c)t‘ the cItm;ktlC ib oeS >ll~!Ze;Ittd b‘ \d¡IIttf [ 1;. I 0 ]
mav b e t e r m e d “\varm-\vet” f r o m t h e point ot vtew ot‘ b u i l d i n g
design: the equatorial-marine and the tropical-marine.
T h e equatorial climate is char;tctertstic of ‘I relattvetv narrow
strip extending along either Gtle ot‘the cquator into Africa and South
America. T e m p e r a t u r e s ;tre high and Iòllow ;I ve:! conscant diurna1
pattern throughout the !e:tr. The annual meun temperature IS about
17 C (80 F) and rhe range ol‘ th e avcrage monthth temperature very
SmAl. at I-3 deg C (X-5.5 deg F). The diurna1 range. an the orher hand.
is about 8 deg C (t 5 deg 1-1. Mautmum temperatures ;tre usually
a b o u t 30 C . w i t h e x t r e m e t e m p e r n t u r e ai about 38 C ( 1 0 0 ’ F). I n
the mountainous areas temperatures ;tre lower. decreasing by about
0.4-O-5 d e g C p e r 100 metres a s c e n t (2.2-2.7 d e g F 1 0 0 0 t‘t). The
avcrage monthly t e m p e r a t u r e range is very \mall. b u t t h e diurna{
:tmplitude n-ta- b e morc than 15 deg (17 Jeg FI.
 Humidity and rainfall are high during most 01‘ thc !.car. and rhr
duily incidence ot’ rain is very regular in each particular location.
usually occurring in the afternoon. The temperature drops slightl\:
\\ith the rainfall. Precipitation is ofa convective nnture. caused when
air brought \rith t h e Trade winds f r o m r h e n o r t h a n d South hemi-
,pheres c o n v e r g e s on t h e equatorial z o n e a n d r i s e s at t h e inrer-
tropical front while expanding and cooling at the same time. These
rnins are accompanied by violent electric storms.
T h e constant heating a n d c o o l i n g p a t t e r n s of land a n d s e a
create regular Innd and sea breezes. but these are restricted to the
narrow coastal areas. I n l a n d r e g i o n s ma! b e completeI!- calm and
\\inds. if any. are very slight. Holrever. the ;~nnuul \.ariation in the
location of the low-pressure beit brin_os rach piace. !‘oI- wrne perlod
.II’ the year. ivithin the range of rhe Trads ~cinds. \t hen [he climate
,cnds to the tropical type described belo\v.
The tropical marine climate is found along the tastem mar@
of soythem .Af&?~ñd-South AmerIca. T e m p e r a t u r e s and ralniall
are s i m i l a r to t h o s e in t h e rquntorial regions. b u t r h e \vlnds show
Jifferent characteristics. In contrxt with the calms of rhe squatorial
climate. t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s ure atTecred b> :1x Trads winds. SU hich
hecome moist when passlfl e wer thr otean and produce :;Lln ::\ ihe\
wss over land. Hurrlcanes aíe xijo l‘requent 111 thcst .ire::>.
As the name suggests. :he vapo~tr content 01‘ the .ltmo<phere in
.ilI warm-wet r e g i o n s is ver! high. wth \apour preGbure5 ol‘ ;iDout
35 m m IHg which s o m e t i m e s I-I~C .~bove 3I m m H g . .tnd .I t‘reouent
r-elative humidity o f 90”x, and LIbove. The intenslr! of direct and
diffused solar radiation varles \\ldelk \\~th [he cloud conditwns. and
retkcted radiatkon f r o m t h e sround I\ usu;~lI!. Io\i JS wgetatwn IS
dense and the damp soil dark.
The high t e m p e r a t u r e and hurnldIt! /e\e:j, encourage lnxct-
>reeding and t h e growth ol‘ l‘ungl. T h e :ermltr‘> i’ound in man\ ot
,hese regions necessitate jpeclal precautlon; IO prorec: :\ooden bu~ld-
~ng components.

17.3.2. HLLIA\ ,AS» TI~EI~WAI. REQLIREVEYTS.-r\b t h e \e:tson;:/

climatic varlations in warm-wet regions are very 4ight. the phyjlo-
logical thermal requirements. and hence the building characteri~tics
necessarv to fulfl them. are ~irnilar ic)r the wholc ?wr.
 Thepredominunceofl~~ghl~umiditynecessitatesacorrespondingly
high air velocito to increase the efficiency of sweat evaporation. and
to avoid as far as possible discomfort due to moisture on skin and
clothes. Continuous ventilation is therefore the primary comfort
requirement and affects al1 aspects of building design. such as
orientarion. the size and location of Windows. layout of the sur-
roundings. etc.

/Tie. 17.1. .Air \peeds yelding EiEmax ratios 0i 0.1. 0.2 nnd 0.: 0t I-esrlng
peoplc at different air temperatures and vapour pressurcs.

In warm-wet areas torrential rains alternate frequently wvith

intense solar irradiation while humidity remains high. 2nd thus
provision must be made for protection from rain and sun \vithout
impairing ventilation conditions.
When the windows must be open day and night dnd the diurx\l
temperature range is small. little reduction in interna1 temperature is
possible; however. if the building is badly designed the internul
surface temperature may rise considerably above th;lt o u t d o o r s
causing discomfort particuiarly at night with the drop in wrnd speed.
Even with the maximum ventilation there are limits to the con-
ditions under which comfort can be achieved in a warm-wet climate.
 I’Rl\.(‘ll’l.liS: \PPLlCh-TION I’O SPKIFIC <‘LISIA YI<‘ rYl’l:s

Mere a practicable reduction in interna1 temperatures is impos~ible,

air-conditioning provides the only solution to this problem. /\n
indication of the limiting conditions is to be found by referente to the
Building Bioclimatic Chart (see Fig. 16.2). from which ic will be zeen
that warm-wet conditions fall into zones V and V’ (comfort possible
using ventilation) when the vapour pressure is beiow 75 mm Hg.
but above this level extend inro zone AC. indicuting rhe necessity for
air-conditioning. To fix the limiting temperature tór comfort at any
zAven leve1 of vapour pressure. more complex calculations musc be
made. using one of the thermal indices (see Chapter 5).
One of the chief causes of discomfort in warm-wet climates is
the subjective feeling of skin wetness. Ventilation should ensure LI
5weat evaporation rate sufficient not only t o maintain thermal
,-qu~i~bnum. bur to enable sweat evaporation as ths s\veat emerges
1‘rom the pores. withouc accumulating on the skin.
hs discussed in Section 3.7, the wetness of the skin depends on
the .ratio (E;E,,,) between heat stress on the body and the evapora-
tive capacity of the air. To ensure a dry skin the E.‘E,,,, ratio musr be
beiow 0.1. and to prevent the condition “skin clammy bur moisture
invisible” it should be below 0.2. But as in man\’ warm-wer con-
ditions rhis is unattainable without air-conditionlng the limiting
leve1 I‘or acceprable condittins might be taken as 0.3. The :ur velocirles
requlred to give E;I&,,, values ot‘ 0.1. 0.2 and 0.3. undzr 1:arious
combinations ot‘ air temperature and vapour pressure. .lre \ho\bn III
Fig. 17.1.

17.3.3. PRixci~~Es 0~ BUILDINC; txsicis.-lo summ;LrIze. the

requlrements to be satisfied by the design and construction 01‘ LI
building in a warm-wet climate are these: provision ofcontinuous and
rllìclent ventilntion: p r o t e c t i o n f r o m the sun. rain 2nd insects:
nrcx’entlon of interna1 temperature elevation during rhe da- and
~ninimizution during the evening and night.
T o adequately cross-ventilate t h e occupled areas OI’ :L hou~~.
rlther alt the rooms shouid be provided with doors. wlndows. etc..
on both windward and leeward sides of the building. or rhose room$
on the windward or leeward sides only should be given acccss through
large openings to rooms on the opposite pressure-re-ron \rde (WC
Chapters 14 and I 5).
 Open planning and wide. t‘ree spaces between buildings help t o
achieve good ventilation. Raising the building.on stilts is ako advan-
tageous in a warm-wet climate. Firstly. this enables better ventilation
by locating the windows above the zone of maximum wind-damping
hy the surrounding vegetation. und secondly. it enables cooling of the
tloor from below. which is particularly beneticiul at night. In addition.
the building is better protected from tloods and. Gth proper detail-
Ing. also better protected from termites. High buildings rising above
the leve1 of nearby trees and lower buildings. and which can be
spaced at w i d e r d i s t a n c e s w i t h t h e same t o t a l density. provide
improved ventilation conditions for t h e i r o c c u p a n t s . and may
also improve the ventilation conditions in the smaller bulldings
around them (sec, Chapter 15). and thus are prefernble in Lvarm-wet
climate>.
Orientarlon 11~ :t \barm-Lbet climate should b e a i m e d at pro-
vlding the best posslble ventilation and therefore the direction of the
prevalling winds should be carefully studied. Contrarv to common
bel-ì. yhisjoes not mean. that the wall with the inlet winyjoy~~@u¡d
face directly the prevalling wlnds. as at angles of up to about 50 on
e:lther slde of the wind direction jatisfktory ve~tilati6n conditiotis
L‘;LI~ ix xhleved (.SW Chapter 15 I. The direZ% ói-ihe ;ior%ís should
he :IIW rahen I~LI~ considerat!on rn arder t o m i n i m i z e t h e i r impact.
In rooms \\here rhe habltabie zone 1s ver? narro\vlb dehned. as
I I I bedrooms I~I- Inhlance. ~t is posslble t o a c h i e v e m a x i m u m con-
ccntrallon <II‘ ihe \\tnd h> provlding hmaller i n l e t s t h a n outlets and
thus concentrating (he incoming air flow. But in roomi where the
occupled zone ma! cstend over m o s t o t ‘ t h e i r area. as in t h e c a s e
o t ’ li\lng rooms. It 15 prcterable 10 have lnlets and outlets of Gmilar
i!Zt’.
L2r-ge openings. doors and windows. a r e o t ‘ advantage in a
i\;irm-wet 4lmate provrded that the)- are efiectively protected fr¿m
penetratlon OI‘ molar I-adiatlon. driving rain and intrusion of insects.
T h e advantage o t ‘ iarge o p e n r n g s 15 n o t only d u e t o t h e b e t t e r
ventllation condirlons that they provide. b u t also because t h e y
enable the achievement o t ‘ lower temperatures during the night.
When a given room does not have direct cross-ventilation. but
th: ;t~r tlow has to pass through another room on its wuy outwards.
it i\ i’sizntial that rhe openings between the t w o rooms be at least of