Wind velocity:

Q1-What is the fetch in wind speed?

Fetch length, along with the wind speed (wind strength), determines the size
(sea state) of waves produced. The wind direction is considered constant. The
longer the fetch and the faster the wind speed, the more wind energy is
imparted to the water surface and the larger the resulting sea state will be.

Q2-What is the wind duration?

The time for which that wind blowing over water.

What is time lag of wind speed?

an interval of time between two related phenomena (such as a cause and its effect)

Q3-What is the Current Ocean and current?

An ocean current is the general movement of a body of sea-water on a permanent, semi-permanent or
seasonal basis. A current is different from a tidal flow which is subject to hourly changes and which is
caused by the gravitational effects of heavenly bodies. A tidal stream is the resultant of the tidal flow
and the current in a particular coastal area, which changes every hour and is described in tidal stream
atlases.

Q 4–what are the factors to be considered when observing wind speed?

Fetch
•Duration of wind
•Current/tidal stream
•Local winds close to shore
•Rain –Soothing effect
•Visibility
•Time Lag
•Shallow water

Q-5
List the precautions you would take when using Beaufort Wind scale to ensure accuracy of your
estimations.

When estimating wind speed from the appearance of the sea, keep the following considerations in mind:
• Wind and sea state may not match close inshore where winds of a local nature are likely.
• An off-shore wind does not produce its appropriate sea close inshore but requires certain fetch before its
full effect is produced.
• Swell is not taken into account when estimating wind speed.
• Tides affect the appearance of the sea surface. Wind blowing against a tidal stream or current produces
more chop or disturbance.
• Heavy precipitation produces a soothing effect.
• There may be a time lag between the start of wind and sea increasing.

Q6 - What are the publications Useful for OOW to get weather information’s to draw safe passage plan? 

1-weather routing charts.

2-Mariner hand book

3-List of radio signal volume

Volume 3 Maritime safety information’s services

Volume 4 Met observation stations .

Volume 5 GMDSS

4-Pilot book (Admiralty sailing directions 74 volume ).

5-Guide to port entry.

6-world Ocean charts.

7- Ocean passage of the world.

8-tidel atlas chart.

 Section 1 (EARTH CLIMATE)

Q1-Briefly distinguish between “weather” and “climate”?

Climate is the sum of all the weather recorded over a long period of time: average
or most common conditions, or extremes, or frequencies.

Weather is a description of conditions over a short period of time - a "snap shot" of

atmosphere at a particular time.

Climate is what you expect

Weather is what you get.

Climate is about long-term records, trends & averages;

Weather is the day-to-day experience.

Q2-With the aid of a sketch (graph), outline the structure and the composition
of the standard Atmosphere?

Atmosphere: Consists of an ocean of air, extending out to hundreds of kilometres from surface.

A thin gaseous envelope comprised of mixture of gases, dust, liquid & solid particles

Layers defined by variation of air temperature with height.

For Standard Atmosphere, layers are:

1. Troposphere - Surface of earth to 12 km (the tropopause).

2. Stratosphere - Tropopause to 47 km - then stratopause.

3. Mesosphere - Stratopause to 80 km - then mesopause.

Q3-Briefly explain what is meant by “diurnal variation of atmospheric
temperature”. Why is it?
Diurnal variation of atmospheric temp happens once per day and the difference between
maximum and minimum values is called diurnal range of atmospheric temperature .
Temperature reaches its maximum about 1400 hrs Local Time, & reaches its minimum about
half hour after sunrise.

Greater over land than at sea?

 Land is solid so it heats or cools quickly
 Heat coming from the sun is absorbed by land
 Negligible evaporation
Q4-Define “Atmospheric Pressure”. Give units of measurement?
 Force exerted by air, per unit area.
 Weight of column of air above a unit area from sea level up to the top.
 Pressure decreases as Ht. increases.
 Pressure is expressed in “Pascal”
 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 1 hPa = 100 N/m2
 1 hPa = 1 mb
 1000mb = 1 bar

Q5-Define “Pressure Tendency”?

Its also called Barometric tendency , It’s the Difference between Pressure at the time of
Observation & 3 hours earlier.
Its useful for predicting the movement of pressure system its expressed in hPa and decimals

Q6-Briefly explain what is meant by diurnal range of atmospheric pressure?

It’s a variation of pressure during one 24-h period. Except when weather systems are present,
there are two maximum and two minimum pressures per day, and they occur at a constant local
time every day.
 Maximum about 10 & 22 hrs
 Minimum about 04 & 16 hrs Local Mean Time.
 Range is more in Tropics than in middle Latitudes
  In higher latitudes, it is negligible & frequently masked by fronts & frontal depressions.

Q7-Briefly explain what “insolation” is?

All forms of energy received by earth from sun, by radiation.

- Includes: visible light, ultra-violet rays, infra-red rays, etc.

Electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. Releases energy when absorbed by an object.

Energy of such short wave length passes through without heating the medium.

• Sun energy arrives as ultra-violet, visible and infra-red energy.

• 50% is absorbed by surface & re- radiated.

(5) major factor that affect the amount of solar radiation received at the earth's surface

 Output energy of sun (varies with sunspot activities - more radiation during).
 Distance from sun.
 Altitude of sun (depends on latitude, season & time of day).
 Number of hours of daylight.
 Transparency of atmosphere.

Q8-Briefly explain why Polar Regions are colder than tropical regions?
Polar regions are colder than tropical regions because of:
 Energy spread over a larger surface area
 Larger Atm to penetrate
 High reflection from ice

Q9-Define the following:

a. Absolute Humidity:
Mass of water vapour in a sample of air. Expressed in gm/m3 (i.e. Water Vapour Density)

b. Relative Humidity:
Percentage ratio of actual water vapour in a sample of air, to the maximum quantity the sample
can hold at that temperature.

c. Saturation:
If a sample of air is progressively cooled, its RH steadily increases. At some Temp, air would
become wet i.e., its RH becomes 100%. Air is then saturated.

Q10-Define “visibility”?
 Transparency of Atmosphere
 Maximum distance, an object can be clearly seen & distinguished in normal day-light.

Visibility can be reduced by:

(a) Mist or Fog

(b) Precipitation
(c) Spray
(d) Smoke,
(e) Dust, Volcanic ash, etc.

SECTION 2 (OCEANGRAPHY):

Q1- What is oceanography?

- Scientific study of the oceans.

- Covers Geology, Chemistry, Metrology, Biology.
- A biological oceanographer focuses on organisms in the deep while marine biologists tend to
study organisms close to shore.

Geological Oceanography
- History of the ocean basins
- Plate tectonics
- Sediments and rocks of the seafloor
- Coastal/shoreline processes: Beaches/Barrier Islands, Deltas, Estuaries, Reefs
Q2- ocean temperature variation (curve)?
Surface layer temperatures:
 Varies with the amount of solar radiation received, which is a function of
latitude.
 Middle latitudes ( near the equator ) have higher temperatures , and vice
versa.

Temparature variation with depth:

Colder water is denser than warmer water, so cold water will sink.
Deeper = colder
Three Temp. Layers:
Surface layer (warmest)
Thermocline (300 – 1000m) rapid change of temp. With depth creating a barrier
to many of marine life
Bottom layer (coldest)
In Polar Regions there will be no thermocline nor surface layer because its too
cold.

Q3- shallow water waves?

Waves form in water shallower than 1/20 of original wavelength are shallow-water
wave.
Waves feel bottom as they move
Examples of shallow water wave:
-Breaking waves
-Tides
-Tsunamis
Q4-significant wave?
is defined traditionally as the mean wave height (trough to crest) of the highest third of
the waves (H1/3). Nowadays it is usually defined as four times the standard deviation of
the surface elevation.

Q5- salinity?
The total amount of solid material dissolved in water.
Seawater is about 96.5% water and 3.5% dissolved salts.
Average salinity : 35 ppt (35%)

Q6 –ocean and temperature?

Temperature and density share an inverse relationship. As temperature increases,
the space between water molecules increases—also known as density, which therefore
decreases.
If the temperature of water decreases its density increases. But only to a point.

At a temperature of 4°C   pure water reaches its maximum or peak density,

cooled further it expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding water which is
why when water
freezes at 0°C   it floats.

Q7- what are the common various sources for oceanography data?
the methods of collecting oceanography data's ?
1. Conventional meteorological observation can be recorded on hourly basis at fixed
internationally agreed upon times per day on several stations.
These stations they record the minimum and maximum temperature while the other they
record the wider range variables which include precipitation surface pressure , humidity ,wind
speed , direction cloud cover snow and depth and visibility and solar radiation these
measurement at atmosphere lever and record two to four times per day.

2. Irregularly spaced observational data are frequently interpolated to regularly or near

regularly
Spaced arrays (grids) using computer based on analysis algorithm these analyses produce global
field. Some algorithm are simple and others complicated many these gridded dataset derived
by different national meteorological forecast because of numerical models make the forecast
require initial data and these gridded initial condition are the best to estimate state of
atmosphere at particular time.

3. The satellites they provide information on range of geophysical quantities such as

vertical distribution of atmosphere , temperature and moisture clouds winds, atmosphere gases
and sea surface temperature. The instruments on satellites to detect electromagnetic energy of
a specific range of wavelength which reflect by atmosphere or earth ocean surface.
4. climate can run for many hours the super computers produce gridded arrays of basic
changing. They calculate temperature, geopotential height, humidity, winds and vertical motion
at number of different levels. Oceanographic models include ocean temperature, salinity, and
horizontal and vertical motion different depths.

Q8 - what are the ocean data problems and characteristics?

Data Problems and Characteristics:

• No observational dataset is perfect. Conventional observational atmospheric and

oceanographic
• datasets , satellite data and analyzed datasets all have
• problems which are briefly discussed in subsequent chapters.
• Users of the data should be aware of the deficiencies within the datasets.
Unfortunately, metadata (i.e., information about the
• data) is often either unavailable or difficult to obtain. Metadata can be critical for
correctly interpreting the observations or derived results.
• Atmospheric and oceanographic datasets share many characteristics. They can be very
large;
• many span limited time periods and have limited spatial extent; missing data and
outliers are common.
• the spatial distribution of various observational networks is uneven; and, often, time
• series of data are not homogeneous. The datasets contain variables which are
(generally) not independent in time or space; thus, most variables should be viewed within a
multivariate context.

Section 3

Q1-Berifly explain the Coriolis force?

Coriolis Force is an Apparent force due to Earth’s rotation Caused by rotation of Earth.
Zero at equator & increasing with Lat, to a max at poles.

• Increases with increase of speed of moving object.

• Always acts at right angles to direction of moving object. Hence, only influences
direction & not speed.

• Deflects objects moving (in any direction) to left in Southern Hemisphere & vise versa.

• Amount of deflection depends on: rotation, Lat & object’s spd.

Q2- what is the isobars? How it’s drawn?

Lines drawn on weather map thru places having same atm. pressure.

 Drawn at 4 hPa intervals.

 The numbers measure the atmospheric pressure in millibars

Q3- WHAT is the BUY ballot law?

The relation of wind direction with the horizontal pressure distribution:
Face true wind & LP area is on your RIGHT in Northern hemisphere,
(Left in Southern hemisphere)
Caution :

1. Should not be applied within a few degrees of equator as CF is negligible there &
winds blow directly across isobars from HP to LP areas.

2. Vicinity of land, wind experienced may not be free unobstructed wind.

Q4- what are the isobaric patterns?

Lines on a weather map of constant barometric pressure drawn on a given reference
surface. The isobaric pattern on a constant-height surface is extremely useful in
weather forecasting because of the close association between pressure and weather.

Q5- briefly explain and draw sketch (SHOW THE FLOW OF AIR) about LOW/HIGH
PRESSURE?
On Earth’s surface, winds always try to blowfrom a HP area towards a LP area,
because of Gradient Force.

Whilst blowing from HP to LP areas, Coriolis or Geostrophic Force deflects wind.

SECTION 4

Q1 – Briefly explain the wind origin and global availability? Aid your answers by
sketch?
The regions around the equator, at 0 latitude, are heated more by the sun than the rest
of the globe. Hot air is lighter than cold air; it will rise into the sky until it reaches
approximately 10 km altitude and will spread to the North and the South. If the globe did
not rotate, the air would simply arrive at the North Pole and the South Pole, sink down,
and return to the equator.
 Since the globe is rotating, any movement on the Northern hemisphere is diverted to
the right, if we look at it from our own position on the ground. (In the Southern
hemisphere it is bent to the left).

This apparent bending force is known as the Coriolis force, named after the French
mathematician Gustave Gaspard Coriolis.

Q2- Briefly explain the wind local effects and origin? State examples?
Winds are very much influenced by the ground surface at altitudes up to 100 m.
The winds are slowed down by the earth’s surface roughness and obstacles.
There may be significant differences between the direction of the global or geostrophic
winds because of the earth’s rotation (the Coriolis force), and the wind directions near
the surface. Close to the surface of the earth,

Q3 – Give examples of wind flow local effect and explain one of it? Aid your
answers by sketch?
Sea Breeze
Land Breeze
Mountain Breeze
The monsoon (specific period of the year the when majority of rainfall occurs) in India and all
of South-East Asia is in reality a large-scale form of the sea breeze and land breeze, varying in
its direction between seasons, because land masses are heated or cooled more quickly than
the sea.

Q4-Explain the sea breeze? Aid your Answers by sketch?

Land masses are heated by the sun more quickly than the sea in the daytime. The air
rises, flows out to the sea, and creates a low pressure at ground level which attracts the
cool air from the sea. This is called a sea breeze. At nightfall there is often a period of
calm when land and sea temperatures are equal. At night the wind blows in the opposite
direction. The land breeze at night generally has lower wind speeds, because the
temperature difference between land and sea is smaller at night.

Q5- explain the mountain breeze? Aid your Answers by sketch?

When the slopes and the neighboring air are heated, the density of the air decreases,
and the air ascends towards the top following the surface of the slope. At night the wind
direction is reversed, and turns into a down-slope wind. If the valley floor is sloped, the
air may move down or up the valley, as a canyon wind. Winds flowing down the leeward
sides of mountains can be quite powerful.

Q6 – Briefly explain the wind Rose? Aid your Answer by sketch?

It can be noticed that strong winds usually come from a particular direction. To show the
information about the distributions of wind speeds, and the frequency of the varying
wind directions, one may draw a so-called wind rose

Section 5: (weather data)

Q1- what are the Metrology equipment’s on board to obtain the weather data
information’s?
 Barometer
  Wind Instruments
  Clouds and sea surface
  Weather facsimile – prints onboard weather charts
  VHF radio -- local area broadcasts
  SSB radio -- HF weather broadcasts
  Satellite phone or cell phone
  Reeds Nautical Almanac – provides weather fax

Q2- what are the meanings of the various words and phrases
commonly used in forecast and situation reports to shipping in UK
waters?

Q4- What are the Admiralty publication used for Metrology information’s?
SOLAS
Nautical Almanac
Mariner Handbook
List of Radio Signals
Tidal stream ATLAS
Notice to mariners
Tide tables

Q5- What is meaning of any of the Nautical Weather Sayings?

-Red sky at night, sailor’s delight. Red sky in the morning, sailor take warning.
Red sky at night : high pressure and stable air coming in from the west. Basically good
weather will follow.
Red sky in the morning : that could only mean that a low, and very likely an
associated storm, is moving toward you from the west.

-Mackerel skies and mare’s tails make tall ships carry low sails.
The mackerel scales are cirrocumulus clouds that are being influenced by shifting wind
directions and high speeds and are typical of an advancing low pressure system.

- First rise after very low indicates a stronger blow.

When barometer reading is very low then suddenly increasing.
Section 6 (clouds)

Q1- Classified the clouds as per appearance?

(a) Cirrus: Silvery cloud in the form of feathers or fibre seen high up in blue sky
(Thread)

(b) Cumulus: White cloud, shaped like a cauliflower. can have great vertical extent.
(Heap)

(c) Stratus: Even layer of gray cloud, not giving rain.

(d) Nimbostratus: Even layer of gray cloud

Q2-Classified the clouds according to heights?
A) High : bases between 6km and the tropopause
(1 – cirrus 2 – cirrostratus 3 – cirrocumulus)
B) Medium : bases between 2km and 6 km
(1 – altostratus 2 – altocumulus)
C) Low: bases between sea level and 2km
1 – stratus 2 – stratocumulus 3 – nimbostratus
D) Special, Low: bases at low cloud level but tops may extend well into high
cloud level
(1 – cumulus 2 – cummulomibus)

Q4-What are the four methods of cloud formation? Explain one of these
methods?
• Turbulance:
• Orographic Lifting
• Convection (Thermal Uplift)
• Frontal lifting
• Cooling at upper levels
• Air stream collision
Orographic lifting:
 Warm, moist wind sliding up mountainside
 Cools to Dew Pt., forming orographic clouds (Stratus)
 Clouds forms steadily on windward side, & dissipates at same rate on leeward
side

• Turbulance: Uneven ground deflect wind upwards. Cools below dew point forming stratus
with base generally about 600m from surface.

Q5- What are the weather associated with following types of clouds:

-Stratus clouds:
 If very low; visibility may be affected
 Stable air mass
 Drizzle
 -Nimbostratus:
• Generally bad weather
• Rain

-cumulus:
• Fair weather if small
• If large: strong convection; Showers; sudden squally wind

-Stratocumulus:
• Indicates stability
• Occasional light rain or drizzle

-Cirrus
• Growth indicates approach of windy & bad weather
• Warning of TRS if followed by falling pressure

Q6- what are the weather associated with thunderstorms?

Storm of short duration, accompanied by lightning & thunder from a
Cumulonimbus cloud.

Torrential rain – Zero visibility

Interference with radio communication

thunderstorms Favourable conditions:

(i)Warm, unstable conditions

(ii) High RH - as much as 75%.
(iii). High surface Temp
(iv). Little surface wind
(v). Trigger Action to lift air

1- TRS

 Briefly explain “Tropical Revolving Storms – TRS”

The tropical revolving storm is an intense area of low pressure where the
associated maximum wind speed is at least Beaufort Force 12. It is referred to as a
typhoon in Western North Pacific, hurricane in North Atlantic and Eastern North
Pacific, and cyclone in Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South Indian and South
Pacific Oceans.

 Origin:

 TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° and travel between

W and WNW in the NH and between W and WSW in the SH,
at a speed of about 12 knots. Somewhere along their track, they
curve away from the equator – curve to N and then recurve to
NE in the NH; curve to S and then recurve to SE in the SH.

 Movement:

 The recurving is such that the storm travels around the oceanic
high (which is situated at about 30°N and 30°S in the middle of
large oceans). After recurving, the speed of travel increases to
about 15 to 20 knots. Sometimes, a TRS does not curve or
recurve at all, but continues on its original path, crosses the
coast and dissipates quickly thereafter due to friction and lack
of moisture. It is important to note that all TRSs do not follow
such definite paths and speeds.

 Life Span:

  In their initial stages, occasional storms have remained

practically stationary or made small loops for as long as four
days.
  Structure:

 The center of a TRS consists of an “eye” (or vortex) within

which winds are light and variable and the sky is partly cloudy.
There are heavy confused swells in the eye that can sometimes
be mountainous. The diameter of the eye varies from 10 to 40
miles. The eye is surrounded by dense, dark wall clouds called
bar with very high vertical extent. The eye is an area of
descending air.

State the ideal conditions for the formation of a TRS?

 Due to instability in low latitudes (Heat).

 Never originate over land.
 Energy source : Latent Heat. Needs water supply.
 Western edges of oceans – Long passage for trade winds
 High humidity
 Sea surface Temp (at least 27C).
 Whirling motion caused by CF (5-20° Lat)
 Late summer
 Light surface & upper air (During change of Monsoon Seasons?)
 Not in South Atlantic Ocean (inter-tropical front)

1- Briefly describe “Thunderstorms”. The description should cover, favourable

conditions for formation, process of formation, structure of it and the weather
associated.

A) Storm of short duration, accompanied by lightning & thunder from a Cumulonimbus

cloud.
B) Favourable conditions: (i) Warm, unstable conditions (ii) High RH - as much as 75%.
(iii). High surface Temp (iv). Little surface wind, Trigger Action to lift air

 TRS Weather Warnings Signs

• Cessation of semi-diurnal pressure

• Heavy swell
• Changed wind strength & direction
• Clouds - Cirrus
• High Relative Humidity
• Unusual clarity of atmosphere, remarkable visibility.

• Storm warnings

Use all available means to determine the location and path of TRS using weather charts, satellite images,
weather reports, radio navigational warnings and storm warnings. Read the barometer and apply the
appropriate corrections. For a precision aneroid barometer, this means corrections for height above mean
sea level, index error, and diurnal variation of pressure. Compare the corrected reading with the mean
pressure for the time of the year. If the corrected pressure is more than 3hPa below normal, beware. If it is
5hPa or more below normal, the vessel is probably on the outskirts of a system. Other warning signs are: •
An appreciable change in the direction and strength of the wind. • Unusual clarity of the atmosphere,
remarkable visibility. • Extensive high cirrus cloud, pointing towards storm centre, and reflecting lurid
colourings at sunset and sunrise. • In the open sea, swell from the direction of the storm centre.

 Estimating Location:

1. Determine the bearing of the storm centre, and estimate its distance.
2. Determine the semicircle in which the ship is located.
3. Plot the probable path.

What is the tropical storms ?What are the characteristics of TRS? 

The tropical revolving storm is an intense area of low pressure where the associated maximum wind
speed is at least Beaufort Force 12. It is referred to as a typhoon in Western North Pacific, hurricane in
North Atlantic and Eastern North Pacific, and cyclone in Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South Indian and
South Pacific Oceans.

Gale force winds are likely up to 100 – 200 miles from the centre of storm at latitudes less than 20. At
greater latitudes, these distances are likely to be doubled. Hurricane force winds are likely within 80
miles of a storm centre in the tropics.
TRS develops much stronger winds than temperate depressions of similar low pressure. This is because
the diameter of a TRS is much smaller; typically 500 miles as compared with 1500 miles. Therefore the
pressure gradient is very steep.

TRS are accompanied by heavy rain, often with thunder and lightning. In the outer regions of TRS, rain
tends to occur in spiral bands. Rain becomes more intense closer to the centre of the TRS, reaching a
maximum in the eye-wall. Visibility near the storm centre may be seriously affected due to torrential
rain and spray.

The centre of a TRS consists of an “eye” (or vortex) within which winds are light and variable and the sky
is partly cloudy. There are heavy confused swells in the eye that can sometimes be mountainous. The
diameter of the eye varies from 10 to 40 miles. The eye is surrounded by dense, dark wall clouds called
bar with very high vertical extent. The eye is an area of descending air.

TRS Weather:

Visibility:

Near centre is poor (rain & spray).

Storm Surges & Tidal Waves:

 Mountainous waves.
 Strong currents results in storm surges & tidal waves in coastal areas.

Clouds & Precipitation:

Cirrus in outer fringes pointing towards centre. Cb at Eye wall gives torrential rain. Directly above Eye, a
small patch of blue sky.

When occurrences ?

TRS can occur at any time, but they are least likely in September-October and most likely May-June.

TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° and travel between W and WNW in the NH and between W
and WSW in the SH, at a speed of about 12 knots. Somewhere along their track, they curve away from
the equator – curve to N and then recurve to NE in the NH; curve to S and then recurve to SE in the SH.

1. Warm(over 27C) moist air rises from the surface of the sea.
2. As it rises it meets cooler air and condenses to make clouds and rain.
3. This condensation releases huge amounts of energy, producing strong winds.
4. The winds are driven by the spin of the earth and go round and round.
 5. As the earth rotates the winds are sucked violently upwards in a vortex which can be
1,000km wide. Wind speeds can be as high as 200km per hour.
6. These storms are fuelled by damp air when they reach land, dry air is being sucked up and
they loose energy.

what the are the common names in the different parts of the world ?

 Hurricane
 Typhoons
 Cyclones

The name "hurricane" is given to systems that develop over the Atlantic or the eastern Pacific
Oceans. In the western North Pacific and Philippines, these systems are called "typhoons" while in
the Indian and South Pacific Ocean, they are called "cyclones".

Other names of TRS:

“Cordonazo” is used on the eastern side of North Pacific.

“Willy – willy” is used on the eastern side of South Indian Ocean.

 Briefly explain what a “Tornado” is.

A tornado is a violent whirlwind of the cyclonic type, anticlockwise in the NH and

clockwise in the SH.

 ISOBARIC PATTERNS AND WIND

Q1-Berifly explain the Coriolis force?

Coriolis Force is an Apparent force due to Earth’s rotation Caused by rotation of Earth. Zero at
equator & increasing with Lat, to a max at poles.

• Increases with increase of speed of moving object.

• Always acts at right angles to direction of moving object. Hence, only influences direction & not
speed.

• Deflects objects moving (in any direction) to left in Southern Hemisphere & vise versa.

• Amount of deflection depends on: rotation, Lat & object’s spd.

Q2- what is the isobars? How it’s drawn?

Lines drawn on weather map thru places having same atm. pressure.

 Drawn at 4 hPa intervals.

 The numbers measure the atmospheric pressure in millibars

Q3- WHAT is the BUY ballot law?

The relation of wind direction with the horizontal pressure distribution:
Face true wind & LP area is on your RIGHT in Northern hemisphere,
(Left in Southern hemisphere)
Caution :

3. Should not be applied within a few degrees of equator as CF is negligible there & winds
blow directly across isobars from HP to LP areas.

4. Vicinity of land, wind experienced may not be free unobstructed wind.

Q4- what are the isobaric patterns?

Lines on a weather map of constant barometric pressure drawn on a given reference surface.
The isobaric pattern on a constant-height surface is extremely useful in weather forecasting
because of the close association between pressure and weather.
 Q5- briefly explain and draw sketch (SHOW THE FLOW OF AIR) about LOW/HIGH
PRESSURE?
On Earth’s surface, winds always try to blowfrom a HP area towards a LP area, because of
Gradient Force.

Whilst blowing from HP to LP areas, Coriolis or Geostrophic Force deflects wind.

 WHAT IS THE Angle in draft?

(Actual angle, wind makes with isobars)

on surface, depends on:

(i) PGF, which depends on pressure gradient

(ii) Latitude - greater the latitude, bigger the CF, & vice versa. (iii) Friction - more friction when
blowing over land than sea.

Thumb rule: for Angle of In-draft: about 30° over land,

about 10° over sea.

1- Briefly explain the terms:

 Isobars: Lines drawn on weather map thru places having same atm. pressure.

 Pressure Gradient and Pressure Gradient Force

a) PG: Fall of pressure with distance, as shown on a weather map. If distance between
consecutive isobars is small : PG is high, & strong winds expected to blow Perpendicular
to isobar.
C) Pg force: Air flows out of a high or anticyclone. Air flows into a low or cyclone.

2- State what geostrophic wind is. What factors do you use to estimate wind speed over
land and over sea once you have measured the geostrophic wind?
An air parcel initially at rest moves from HP to LP because of PGF. As it moves, it is deflected
by CF. As wind gains speed, deflection increases until CF equals PGF. At this point, wind blows
parallel to straight isobars.

Katabatic winds:

On clear nights, the land surface radiates its heat into space very quickly
resulting in a cold layer of air next to the land surface.
Anabatic winds :

During day time, the land surface gets heated quickly, resulting in a layer of
warm air next to the land surface.

3- Differentiate between: (i). sea waves and swell (ii). gust and squall (iii). veering and
backing.

Sea (waves) : Waves, on sea-surface, created by wind presently blowing. Height of sea
disturbance, in open waters is directly related to wind force as per Beaufort Scale.

Swell : Waves on sea-surface, formed by wind which has subsequently stopped blowing or is
blowing at some far away place. Swell travels radially outwards from a storm & is usually the
first indication of its presence & bearing.

Gust : Sudden increase of wind speed for a very short period of time, caused by terrestrial
obstructions to the flow of wind.

Squall : Sudden increase of wind force by at least 3 stages of Beaufort scale (by at least 16
knts), reaching to at least force 6 (22 knots) & lasting at least 01 minute. Squall is different from
a gust by its longer duration.

Veering : Clockwise change of wind direction.

Backing : Anti-clockwise change of wind direction.

4- With the aid of sketches differentiate between the following:
(i). Land and sea breezes

Land breeze:

Over land, the diurnal range may be as high as 20°C whereas over sea, it is less
than 1°C. Land and sea breezes are experienced only where large expanses of
both water and land meet. It is because of land and sea breezes that coastal
regions do not experience great heat or extreme cold

Sea breeze :

During the day, the land gets extremely hot and the air in contact with it gets
heated, resulting in a low pressure over land. The temperature of the sea surface,
and hence the temperature of the air over it, remains fairly constant resulting in
a relatively high pressure over sea
5- Briefly explain the formation and the seasons of the (i). SW Monsoons; (ii). NE
Monsoons, in the waters of the S/SE Asian region

SW Monsoons: During northern summer, The SW Monsoon blows from June to

October and brings heavy rain to the west coast of India, Bangladesh and Burma. The
wind force is about 7 to 8 in the Arabian Sea and about 6 or 7 in the Bay of Bengal. The
same SW Monsoon is also experienced in the China Sea.

NE Monsoons: During northern winter, In the China Sea the pressure gradient is
larger, resulting in wind force between 5 and 7. The wind direction in this region is
between north and north-east.

Straight Isobars
• PG is usually low resulting in low wind speeds.
• Wind velocity remains constant so long as isobars remain unchanged.
• Weather depends on properties of air-mass.

Cyclone ( low pressure centered)

• Winds blow spirally inwards.
• PG is usually high, resulting in strong winds.
• Strong upward current, results in cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds & heavy precipitation.
• Thin downward stream of air exists at centre.
• Sign of bad weather: strong winds, clouds, precipitation, etc.

Anti-cyclone ( high pressure centered )

Winds blow spirally outwards. • PG is usually low, resulting in low wind speeds.
• Divergence at sea level- downward air flow at centre.
• Descending air warms up & becomes drier.
• Sign of good weather: light winds, no clouds (blue sky), no precipitation, good visibility,
• Mist or fog may form on outer fringes.

Col : Sudden change of weather is likely; depending on the relative position of ship
Ridge or Wedge: Area of HP jutting into areas of LP.
Weather is similar to anti-cyclone: light winds, no clouds and no precipitation
Trough: Area of LP jutting into areas of HP.

PG is fairly high resulting in strong winds.

• Before the trough, pressure falls & weather deteriorates.
• After the trough, pressure rises & weather improves.

Prediction of wind speed

On weather map, a geostrophic wind scale may be provided, drawn to scale of map.
Because of friction, surface wind speed over land is about half of geostrophic wind speed & over sea,
about two-thirds.

Earth Environment:
Q1-why colder region are colder than equatorial?
Since the earth is so far away from the sun, the sun's rays may be assumed to be parallel to each other
when they arrive. That half of the earth which is towards the sun gets sunlight, during daytime, as shown
in the figure. It will be noticed that each pole receives sunlight only during its summer but not during its
winter. This is one of the reasons why the poles are cold.
Imagine two identical, parallel, equidistant sets of rays, one set reaching perpendicular to the earth's
surface (AB) and the other set reaching at a slant (CD). The heat received by CD is equal to the heat
received by AB but because of the slant, arc CD is larger than arc AB and the heat received is thus spread
over a larger area. Surface temperature of CD is therefore less than that of AB. The more the slant away
from the perpendicular, the greater the surface area heated by the same rays and the less the surface
temperature.
Over the equator, the sun's rays are never more than 23½° away from the vertical. The equatorial region is
hence warm throughout the year.
This is why polar regions and high latitudes are colder than equatorial regions. This is also why the
northern hemisphere is warmer when the sun is north of the equator (northern summer) and vice versa.

Q2-breifly explain the atmospheric greenhouse effect?

The foregoing phenomenon is called greenhouse effect because this principle is used to grow tropical
plants in cold regions, in a special structure called a greenhouse. A large room is built with a glass roof
and glass sides with small windows for air circulation, Sunlight (insolation) easily enters the room
through the roof or the sides. Terrestrial radiation from the floor of the house cannot pass easily
through the glass and gets trapped inside the room, thereby raising the temperature of the room.

Q3-What cloudy night are warmer than clear night?

On striking the earth's surface, most of the insolation is directly reflected off and only a small fraction is
absorbed. If this was not so, the earth's surface would melt due to the great heat. The energy thus
absorbed by the earth, is re-radiated by it. This re-radiation, called terrestrial radiation, is of very much
longer wave length than insolation (infra-red) and hence cannot easily penetrate the atmosphere.
Terrestrial radiation, therefore, heats up the atmosphere. Whereas insolation can easily penetrate through
clouds, terrestrial radiation cannot. That is why cloudy nights are much warmer than nights with clear
skies, as terrestrial radiation trying to go out to space at night is reflected back towards the earth's surface
by the clouds.

Q4-What are the disadvantages of greenhouse gases?

1- Summers will be warmer with natural disasters. Hurricanes and cyclones
will become common.
2- Water level balance on the earth will get disturbed.
 3- Life and ecosystem will get disturbed
4- Affect the weather pattern, rainfall will become erratic in many parts of
the world.
5- Enhanced greenhouse effect : human lives and world economy will suffer.
Rise in the temperature will reduce global output by 2 to 3 percent

Q5- What are the greenhouse effect on atmosphere?

1-solar radiation passes through the clear atmosphere.
2- Net incoming solar radiation.
3- some solar radiation is reflected by the atmosphere and earth surface .
4-solar energy is absorbed by the earth surface and warms it .
5- Some of infrared radation is absorbed and reemitted by greenhouse gas molecules.the
direct effect is the warming of the earth surface and troposphere.
6- Some of infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere and lost in space .

Q6-What are the different between the global warming and the greenhouse effect?
-The global warming refers to the rise in the temperature of the surface of the earth.

-An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases leads to an increase in magnitude of the
greenhouse effect. (called enhanced greenhouse effect).

Q7-What is results (comparison) of greenhouse gases and global warming on the earth?
Pros :
• Plants can grow nicely because of humidity
• without greenhouse effect will be another ice age
• Estimate climate of earth without greenhouse would be 0-4^F

Cons :
• After precipitation patterns, wind patterns, and ocean currents and level
• Polar ice caps would melt sea levels will rise and flood the coasts
• Areas will be begin to have a lot of rainfall
• Tropical place will experience heavier monsoons
• Higher climates will worsen dryness, creating bigger deserts, drier soil, and drought.

Q8- what are the impact of greenhouse gases on Environment?

 Overall average annual temperatures are expected to increase

 Global warming will decrease snow, sea ice & glacier coverage, resulting in rising sea
levels & increase coastal flooding.
 Rising temperature will also thaw permafrost in the artic
 Storm & heat waves are likely to increase in frequency & severity.
 Many wild species will have difficulty adapting to a warmer climate & will likely
experience greater stress from disease and invasive species.

Q9- How can atmosphere warm up?

1. Increased solar input
2. Less reflected shortwave, less sulfate aerosols, darker surface of Earth (land-cover change)
3. More absorbed longwave more “greenhouse gases”

Q10- Earth’s climate is now warmer than at any time in the last 1000 years?

1. Increased solar input (small warming effect)

2. Increased sulfate aerosols reflects radiation (small cooling effect)
3. Increased greenhouse gas concentrations (large warming effect)
4. Land-cover change creates a darker surface (large warming effect

Ocean circulation and waves and tides:

4 movement of ocean: waves tides currents upwilling
Waves:
-Rhythmic movement that carries energy through space or matter
• Generated mainly by wind
• As a wave passes water move in circle return to its original position.
• The water doesn't move forward only the energy.

Measurement:
• Highest point = Crist, lowest point = trough
• Distance from Crest to trough = wave height
• Distance from Crest to Crest or trough to trough
Wave Speed decreases with the wavelength

Ship performance curves (speed curves) are used to estimate the ship’s Speed of Advance
(SOA) while transiting the forecast sea states. The curves indicate the effect of head, beam, and
following seas of various significant wave heights on the ship’s speed.

Oceans affect terrestrial climate by

1. High heat capacity of water
2. Currents
3. Upwelling

Eccentricity: The Earth's orbit around the sun is an ellipse. The shape of the elliptical orbit,
which is measured by its eccentricity, varies through time.
The eccentricity affects the difference in the amounts of radiation the Earth's surface receives
at aphelion and at perihelion.
When the orbit is highly elliptical, one hemisphere will have hot summers and cold winters; the
other hemisphere will have warm summers and cool winters.
When the orbit is nearly circular (now), both hemispheres will have similar seasonal contrasts in
temperature.
II.B. Interannual Variation – El Niño Southern Oscillation
The Pacific Ocean strongly influences the global climate system because it is the largest ocean
basin.
- Normal ocean current and wind direction in central Pacific is easterly

Changes in climate :
o Seasonal (see I.B.)
o Yearly (interannual)
o Millenial scales
o Human impacts

E. Landform effects on climate

Mountain effects:
– Orographic precipitation
– Rain shadow
– Effects of aspect
– Air drainage (inversion, arising due to topography, where cold air settles in
valleys, for example)

Oceans affect terrestrial climate by:

1. High heat capacity of water
2. Currents
3. Upwelling

weather routing :
Q1: what do you understand by weather routing?

A1: weather routing is makes use of the actual weather and the forecast weather in the vicinity of the
anticipated route. By using weather forecast to select a route. By using weather forecast to select a
route and modifying the route as necessary as the voyage proceeds and decide the optimum route.

++geographic constraints: draught and loadline restrictions will restrict option, ocean current may also
effect the choice of route.
++operational limitational: consideration weather important maintenance or the other work is to be
carried on exposed areas of the vessel.

++vessel characteristics: ability of the vessel to go through ice or to a TRS.

++comfort: important consideration when carrying passenger or live stock.

++economy: fuel cost should be kept at minimum

++ safety of vessel: route should avoid rough weather areas minimize damage to vessel and cargos.

++time taken for the passage : short time is after major consideration and important.

Q2: what are the publication useful for planning weather routing?

A2: - list of radio signal – sailing direction – ocean passage of the world – list of light and radio signal –
tide tables – mariner hand book – weather routing charts.

Q3: what are the types of weather roating ?

A3: - meterological office – weather facsimile receiver – digital weather receiver – ships weather code
for sending reports – coding and deroding of weather – weather reporting and recording – weather
observation reports – voluntary observing ships.

Q4: what are the points to be considered to draw least time in weather routing?

A4 : - pressure stems, weather depressions , anticyclones, wind speed and direction

- environmental condition establish synoptic, prognostic surface and apper air chart.
- Icing and reduction of visibility due to fog or heavy precipitation.
- Cold front and warm front
- Initial route objects passage and environmental coditions

state the five (5) major factor that affect the amount of solar radiation received at the earth's
surface
- 1.out Put energy of Sam (varies with sunspot actives -more Radiationduring
- 2.Distance from the sun
- 3.Altitude of surf depends on latitude, season and time of day
- 4.Number of hourg of dat light
- 5. Trans Don darcy of atmosphere