2013

Vibration analysis, control and optimum accelerometer placement for successful vibrations tests

7/10/2013 MILIT

A REPORT ON

Vibration analysis, control and optimum accelerometer placement for successful vibrations tests
BY

Vyankatesh Ashtekar 2011A4PS270G

Prepared in partial fulfilment of the Practice School-1 Course

AT Military Institute of Technology, Girinagar

A Practice School-1 station of

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, PILANI

10h July, 2013

Acknowledgements:
I thank BITS-Pilani for giving me the opportunity to work at MILIT. I also thank Commandant and Director, MILIT AVM P.P. Khandekar for accommodating us in the institution and allowing us to use various facilities at MILIT. My special thanks to Cdr. (Dr) Arnab Das for guiding me all the way till completion of my work. I would also thank Cdr. K.K. Mahapatra for giving me hints during the studies. Lastly I would not forget all those who smoothly catalysed the required office work at MILIT.

ABSTRACT
Noise and vibration analysis is a vital component in machine design procedure these days. Vibration analysis of a machine doesnt only help in crew comfort but also gives an idea about loss in efficiency due to unwanted oscillations and generated sound. Vibration analysis has several dimensions in civil as well as mechanical engineering. It can be carried out for preventing catastrophic failures in various structures, monitoring machine health, obtaining maximum efficiency during manufacturing processes, enhancing crew comfort and many more problems in real life. Accurate vibration measurement is the key to estimate the vibration test parameters. The popular method for analysis of vibrations is modal analysis. The modal parameters viz. stiffness (k), damping factor (c) and oscillations frequency (w) are the found out during an experimental modal test. Further one can find the shapes of oscillation modes. The shape of vibration mode can help in estimating the fatigue failure points and endurance life of a component. The report discusses how to solve SDOF oscillation systems theoretically along with the procedure of experimental modal analysis. Accelerometers are used to measure vibrations. Essentially vibrations are measured in terms of acceleration. The position of these accelerometers is of the most importance during an experimental vibration test. These positions can be better planned from theoretical analysis with the help of analytical methods, FEM (finite element analysis) or SEA (statistical energy analysis). The report comments on effective accelerometer placement instructions and throws a light towards the effects of commonly made mistakes during doing the same. Many times accelerometers are placed only for vibration monitoring purpose and not for specific test. Proper accelerometer installation procedure is needed in these cases and in modal tests after the positions have been decided. Various mounts and their operating frequency ranges have been discussed in the report. The need for proper positioning and installation guides is because; often vibration test rigs used on automobile platform are used on other platforms as well, such as ships. And the unskilled personnel carrying out test are not aware of the fact that the frequency ranges and amplitudes which they are handling can be different from the automobile ones. The literature on accelerometer placement is rare. The available literature is machine specific. This report has been developed so that, even a not-so-expert in vibration testing person dealing with these tests gets a brief idea and becomes aware of what s/he is dealing with. Further in the field of vibration isolation, the source path receiver modelling technique was studied. The Transfer Path Analysis (TPA) method for vibration control has been studied as well. The applications of this method are mentioned. The marine perspective is emphasized. A detailed study and comparison of popular presentation tools (computer software) is done along with my suggestions to present any technical work. This report consolidates the literature surveyed. We performed various things different from main project which enriched our experience. They are listed in Appendix A.

Table of Contents
SR. N O

CONTENTS
Introduction Objectives Vibration measurement- accelerometers Introduction Types of accelerometers Mathematical model Frequency range Accelerometer sensitivity Accelerometer installation General tips on accelerometer mounting and consequences of incorrect mountings Modal analysis introduction
Basics of modal analysis Mathematical modelling of accelerometer Experimental modal analysis

Page no.

1 2 3

5 7 8 8 8 9 13 14 15 19 23 23 23 24 27 30 30 30 31 31 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 40 41 43

Vibration Isolation Introduction Modelling problem for vibration isolation Approaches to solve a vibration control problem Steps in TPA Application area Vibration testing standards introduction Test method 514 Test method 527 Test method 528 Presentation tools Appendix A References Glossary

7 8 9 10

Introduction
Every person in todays world is very cautious while spending money for any product. The competition in every type of product is increasing day by day. If we observe the automobile sector, we can see companies are trying to provide more and more fuel efficient, spacious and comfortable cars. Generally, common people are not aware of advances in technologies of aircrafts and ship building. Still we have an idea that in recent years sailing and flight journeys have become more enjoyable and moreover enjoyable and luxurious in recent years. What features should an ideal car have? The first thing that comes in mind is a car with shock absorbers that absolutely separate you from bumpy road. So now one can understand the importance of studying vibrations! Vibrations not only cause user discomfort but also reduce efficiency of a machine. As we have the second law of thermodynamics saying a certain amount of heat cannot be completely converted to work unless some of it is exchanged with low temperature reservoir, in a same way we can also say that a machine cannot deliver work completely for required application, it has to exchange vibrational energy with its surroundings. After all heat is vibration of molecules. But we can certainly minimize these vibrations. Why did the Tacoma Narrows Bridge fall only after four months after its construction? The answer lays in the concept-resonance again a vibration phenomenon. So now we understand vibrations can be dangerous too. Let us consider one more example- Enemy mines are plotted underwater and the moment they detect the ship passing over, they will go off. This takes us to the military perspectivevibrations responsible for taking lives. The first step for curbing these vibrations is finding out their characteristics. How they are generated. How they propagate. For finding the characteristics of vibrations one needs to characterize the vibration in some parameters. Vibrations are measured in terms of acceleration, velocity or displacement. Some specific tests have been developed for measuring characteristics of vibrating objects. The level of vibrations can also be measured for preventive maintenance purpose. The starting point of vibration measurement is placing vibration transducers. Accelerometers are most popularly used to measure vibrations. Modal analysis is systematic mathematical method for finding out the vibration modes of a component. A machine working at some rpm can generate vibrations with frequency in multiples of the rpm. If any of these frequencies match with the natural frequencies of the machine, a catastrophic failure can take place. By carrying out modal analysis in early stage of machine design one can be aware of resonances than can possible occur. With powerful computers and advance techniques such as FEM, SEA such analyses can be carried out in virtual environment. Transfer path analysis is another method for finding out the critical paths that carry vibrations from a source to the receiver. Both the methods consist of the first step of vibration measurement using accelerometers. Further, the data is transformed from time domain to frequency domain and frequency response function is found out.

All the processing of data relies on noise free accurate vibration measurement. Therefore, proper placement of accelerometers on DUT is required. Also the accelerometer installation technique should be sound. The literature in this area of transducer placement is rare. It is machine specific. But for a versatile test rig, a general optimum accelerometer placement method must be generated which is not available in any book or research paper. This report will consolidate the data and information surveyed from various available literatures in this area. The report will also comment on correct installation of accelerometers. Some guidelines for choosing an appropriate accelerometer for specific test are also discussed.

Objectives

To understand various methods for vibration testing. To understand Modal analysis. To understand Transfer path analysis. Acquiring knowledge of accelerometers. Learn how transducers are placed for obtaining the right data. Find out common mistakes in accelerometer placement and provide solutions to them. Compare presentation tools and suggest appropriate software for presentation.

Vibration measurement: Accelerometers

Introduction
The three primary types of motion detected by vibration monitors are displacement, velocity, and acceleration. The choice between these three different types of motion transducers depends on the frequencies of interest and the signal levels involved. Displacement sensors are used for low frequency (1 to 100 Hz) measurements only and are useful for measuring very low amplitude displacements. They are employed in such applications as shaft motion and clearance measurements. Traditionally displacement monitors have employed noncontacting proximity sensors and eddy probes. Piezoelectric displacement transducers have recently been developed to overcome some of the mounting problems associated with non-contacting probes. Velocity sensors are used for medium to low frequency (1 to 1000 Hz) measurements. Because they filter out high frequency signals, they are less susceptible to amplifier overloads which can compromise the fidelity of low amplitude, low frequency signals. Velocity transducers are useful for monitoring and balancing operations on rotating machinery. Traditional velocity sensors employed an electromagnetic sensor to pick up the velocity signal. Now hardier piezoelectric velocity sensors are becoming more popular. Piezoelectric accelerometers are the most commonly used motion sensors for vibration monitoring applications. They are useful over a wide band of frequencies from very low to very high frequencies (1 to 20,000 Hz) and are available in a wide variety of application specific designs. Accelerometers are the workhorse of vibration monitoring systems.

Types of accelerometers:
Piezoelectric (PE) accelerometers
They are the most widely used accelerometers for test and measurement applications. These devices offer a very wide measurement frequency range (a few Hz to 30 kHz) and are available in a wide range of sensitivities, weights, sizes and shapes. These accelerometers should be considered for both shock and vibration measurements. PE accelerometers are available with a charge or voltage (IEPE) output.

Piezoresistive (PR) accelerometers

They generally have low sensitivity making them desirable for shock measurements. They are also used extensively in transportation crash tests. Because of the low sensitivity, they are being used less for vibration measurements. PR accelerometers generally have a wide bandwidth and the frequency response goes down to zero Hz (often called DC responding) or steady state, so they can measure long duration transients. 8

Variable capacitance (VC)

This is among the newer accelerometer technologies. Like PR accelerometers, they are DC responding. VC accelerometers have high sensitivities, a narrow bandwidth and outstanding temperature stability. These devices are highly desirable for measuring low frequency vibration, motion and steady state acceleration.

The piezoelectric accelerometer is widely accepted as the best available transducers for the absolute measurement of vibration because: 1. Usable over very wide frequency ranges. 2. Excellent linearity over a very wide dynamic range. 3. Acceleration signal can be electronically integrated to provide velocity and displacement data. 4. Vibration measurements are possible in a wide range of environmental conditions while still maintaining excellent accuracy. 5. Self-generating so no external power supply is required. 6. No moving parts hence extremely durable. 7. Extremely compact plus a high sensitivity to mass ratio

The piezoelectric material is used in shear mode in most of the accelerometers. These piezoelectric accelerometers are also known as seismic mass accelerometers. Analytically they can be treated as coupled oscillators. (Two masses joint with a linear spring) The operating frequency of accelerometers is determined by the natural frequency of the accelerometer. The natural frequency is determined by the seismic mass.

Mathematical Modelling:
Accelerometer can be modelled as two masses joined by a linear spring. The next few pages have scans of Bruel and Kjaer accelerometer manual-

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Frequency range:
The higher the mounted resonance frequency, the wider the operating frequencies range. However, in order to have mounted resonance frequency it is necessary to have either stiffer piezoelectric elements or a lower total seismic mass. The stiffness of the piezoelectric material is constant so the overall seismic mass should be lesser. Such a lower mass however would exert less force on the piezoelectric element and accelerometer would be consequently less sensitive. Hence, accelerometers with wide frequency are less sensitive. By the same logic we can also say that highly sensitive accelerometers do not have a high frequency range. Several useful frequency ranges can be defined from the frequency response curve of an accelerometer.

5% frequency Limit: It is the frequency at which there is a 5% deviation between the measured and the actual vibration level applied to the base of the accelerometer. The measured and the actual vibration level applied to the base of the accelerometer. The maximum vibration frequency which can be measured with this accuracy is approximately one fifth (0.22) of the mounted resonance frequency of the accelerometer. 10% Frequency Limit: It is the frequency at which there is a 10% deviation between the measured and the actual vibration level applied to the base of the accelerometer. The measured and the actual vibration level applied to the base of the accelerometer. The maximum vibration frequency which can be measured with this accuracy is approximately one third (0.30) of the mounted resonance frequency of the accelerometer.

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3db Frequency Limit: It is the frequency at which there is a 3db deviation between the measured and the actual vibration level applied to the base of the accelerometer. The measured and the actual vibration level applied to the base of the accelerometer. The maximum vibration frequency which can be measured with this accuracy is approximately half (0.54) of the mounted resonance frequency of the accelerometer.

Lower frequency limit:

Piezoelectric accelerometers are not capable of a true DC response. The piezoelectric materials will produce a charge when acted upon by dynamic forces. The actual low frequency limit is determined by the preamplifier to which the accelerometer is connected as it is the preamplifier which determines the rate at which the charge leaks away from the accelerometer. Measurements of vibrations down to 3Hz can be measured with them.

Accelerometer sensitivity:
An accelerometer is a transduction device that converts mechanical energy into an electrical signal (the output). The output is expressed in terms of mill volts per g, or in the case of a charge mode accelerometer the output is expressed in terms of pC per g. Accelerometers are offered in a wide range of sensitivities and the optimum sensitivity is dependent on the level of the signal to be measured e.g., in the case of a high g shock test, low sensitivity is desirable. In the case of low level signals, it is desirable to use an accelerometer of high sensitivity in order to provide an output signal well above the amplifiers noise level. For example, suppose the expected vibration level is 0.1 g and the accelerometer has a sensitivity of 10 mV/g, then the voltage level of the signal would 1 mV, thus a higher sensitivity accelerometer may be desirable. In the instance where either a low level signal and/or a wide dynamic range is required, then the accelerometers resolution and sensitivity become important. Resolution is related to the accelerometers minimum discernable signal. This parameter is based on the noise floor of the accelerometer (and in the case of an piezoelectric type, the internal electronics) expressed in terms of g rms.

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Accelerometer installation:
Mounting accelerometers on a clean flat surface and with proper torque or adhesives is crucial for proper vibration monitoring. Improper mounting of the accelerometer onto the test structure can lead to both erroneous data and permanent damage to the accelerometer. Over torquing the accelerometer during mounting can strip the screw threads, break the studs, or even warp the base of the accelerometer. Mounting the accelerometer on a dirty surface will scratch the base and leave burrs which compromise the high frequency response of the accelerometer. This can cause improper coupling between the accelerometer and lower the useable frequency range dramatically.

Types:
Stud mounted Adhesive mounted Magnetically mounted Probe tips, or stingers

Stud mount: This is the best way of coupling the sensor to test specimen for highest frequency
response. But it requires threaded hole in the specimen. We need to control mounting torque and use silicone grease at the interface.

Adhesive mount: There are many types of adhesive mounts. Adhesive wax, adhesive cement,
adhesive tapes are some of the types. Adhesive wax is ideal for light weight units. But it is suitable only for limited temperature range. Adhesive cement is strong for coupling of sensor to the specimen and has higher temperature withstanding capability than the wax. The main problem with this is it is difficult to remove and requires solvents. IT is suited for higher frequency applications. Adhesive tape is a quick method and suitable only for light sensors and low frequency measurements. 15

Magnetic mount: It is easy and quick to install but it adds considerably to mass loading. It
lowers the resonant frequency. Its use is limited to Ferro-magnetic materials.

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Accelerometer cabling:

The cabling is of prime importance as it can add noise to the signal.

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The first figure depicts poor grounding. The second figure shows the correct method.

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General tips on accelerometer mounting and consequences of incorrect mountings:

Mount as close as possible to bearing
Imagine a doctor who listened to your heart through thick clothing and placed the stethoscope closer to your kidney than your heart. You would likely doubt his diagnosis as he would be basing it on sounds distorted by undue obstruction and noise from other organs.

When measuring vibration, always attach the accelerometer as close as possible to the bearing. More specifically, attach it as close as possible to the centreline of the bearing to avoid picking up distorted signals.

Attach accelerometer firmly

For the accelerometer to detect true vibration behaviour, it needs to undergo exactly the same vibratory movement as the vibrating component. Attach the accelerometer firmly to the vibrating component so that it does not rock or move independently of the component. A loosely mounted accelerometer produces signals distorted by its own independent movements and gives the wrong message. Various mounting methods exist, but a magnet mount is the most popular. A magnet offers a balance between measurement reliability and convenience to the user. To ensure the accelerometer is firmly attached, it must be attached to an even magnetic mounting surface. The magnet must sit securely on the surface, with the accelerometer positioned in the prescribed orientation.

When pulled away from the mounting surface perpendicularly, the accelerometer's magnet resists with a force of 22 kgf (48.4 lbf).

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For the surface to be even, it must be free of debris, rust, and flaking paint.

The mounting surface must be truly magnetic (iron, nickel, or cobalt alloys).

The magnet must not, for example, be attached to an aluminium surface. This is due to iron beneath the aluminium surface. To avoid loss of magnetism, the magnet must not be dropped or heated. Care must also be taken not to strip the screw thread on the accelerometer and magnet.

Correctly orient accelerometer Different situations require the accelerometer to be oriented differently. For example, to detect parallel misalignment, the accelerometer is usually mounted in the radial direction of the bearings. To detect angular misalignment, the accelerometer needs to be mounted in the axial direction. The signal produced by the accelerometer depends on the orientation at which the accelerometer is

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mounted, since the amplitude (amount) of vibration varies in different directions.

Mount the same accelerometer in the same location

Always mount the accelerometer at the same location to minimize measurement inconsistencies that may lead to incorrect conclusions. Where possible, always use the same accelerometer for a particular measurement point.

Mount the accelerometer on something substantial

The accelerometer must never be mounted on a flexible machine part. This is because the spectrum will be distorted by the movement of the flexible part. Never use an accelerometer on lightweight structures. The weight of the accelerometer and magnetic mounting will distort the structural vibration behaviour. In general, the combined weight of the accelerometer and magnet should be less than 10% of the weight of the vibrating structure.

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Take care of accelerometer

If the accelerometer is treated roughly, it may produce unreliable signals. Because of the strength of the magnet, take care when attaching the accelerometer to a mounting surface. Approach the mounting surface with the magnet tilted at an angle. When detaching the magnet, do not use the accelerometer as a lever for breaking contact. Instead, the magnet should be gripped tightly, and then tilted sideways to break the contact.

The accelerometer cable should never be twisted. Ensure it is anchored in a way that prevents it from damage. Twisted or freely swinging cables can distort the measured spectrum.

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Modal analysis
Introduction:
This is the field of measuring and analysing the dynamic response of structures and or fluids when excited by an input. The results of experimental modal analysis can be correlated to the normal modes given by Finite Element Analysis. In a nutshell, modal analysis is a process where a structure is described by its natural characteristics which are frequency, damping and mode shapes.

History:
The modern era of modal analysis can be arguably taken as the last twenty years based upon the commercial availability of FFT, discrete acquisition and analysis of data, and the availability of digital computers to process and manipulate the data. The first ten years of this modern era were dominated by a physical approach to the understanding of the modal analysis problem since most of the application of modal analysis was in the trouble-shooting area. The last ten years have involved a more integrated physical/mathematical approach to the modal analysis problem as the concern about modal model development and verification has become emphasized more. It is clear that the next ten years will be dominated increasingly by a mathematical approach to the modal analysis problem.

Application area and advantages:

In military perspective, modal analysis is of great importance in aviation and navy; aircrafts and floating/submerged vessels are susceptible to vibrations generated by rubbing of air/water to surface of the vehicle. It is also a vital test in checking civil structures and hence important in army too. Modal analysis is used in the wind tunnel analyses checking for flutter of the aircraft wings. Modal analysis can give direct insight into the root cause of vibration problems. Structural flexibility properties can be found out quickly and incremental structural changes can be monitored. It is a fast, test based evaluation of redesign for dynamics. one can design using noise and vibration targets using modal analysis. Performance can be enhanced reducing the overall vibrations.

Shortcomings:
First of all, a continuous structure will have an infinite number of vibration modes. In practice, the analyst will be interested only in a limited number of these modes, up to a certain frequency or only in a certain frequency band. Still, model orders of 50 to 100 are no exception. While some of the modes are rather separated in resonance frequency, others may be very close leading to highly overlapping responses 23

Basics of modal analysis:

Solving single degree of freedom system: Every system can be modelled in a spring-mass-damper configuration. Components in day-to-day life are very complex in terms of spring-mass-damper model and have multiple degrees of freedom. Even though governing differential equation is same, large matrix calculations need to be performed. Also, coupling factors should be found out in case of MDOF systems. Further, linearity/reciprocity is assumed in the analysis, else involved methods are needed to solve non-linear systems. + + = () First term is the inertial force; Second term is force due to damping; Third term is the restoring force and the last term is the applied force for oscillations. Transforming into Laplace domain (assuming zero initial conditions) we get, Z(s)X(s)=F(s) With Z(s) = ms2 + cs + k -dynamic stiffness

The transfer function H(s) between displacement and force is X(s)=H(s)F(s), equals the inverse of dynamic stiffness. = 2 1 + +

The roots of the denominator of the transfer function, i.e. d(s)= ms2 + cs + k are the poles of the system. In mechanical structures, the damping coefficient c is usually very small resulting in a conjugate pole pair = with fd=wd/2 the damped natural frequency, fn=wn/2 the undamped natural frequency where wn=
=

||

mwn=/|| the damping ratio (fd=fn 1 2 )

If mass m is added to the system, the natural frequency decreases to wn = /( + ) If c=0, the system is not damped and the poles become purely imaginary, = i The frequency response function (FRF), denoted by H(w), is obtained by replacing the Laplace variable s by H(w) =
1 2 + +

1 2 +

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Clearly, if c=0 H(w) goes to infinity for w goes to wn = / Although very few practical structures could realistically be modelled by a single-degree-offreedom(SDOF) system, the properties of such a system are important because those of a more complex multiple-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system can always be represented as the linear superposition of a number of SDOF characteristics (when the system is linear time-invariant).

Modal analysis using advanced techniques:

A brief review of latest technique in vibration analysis- the Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA)
Motivation for SEA: A detailed analysis at the basis of FEM approach (input at a point of excitation, output at a point of observation) would lead to results which are very sensitive to slight changes in the input parameters (factor 10!). Statistics in SEA: Though SEA is called statistical, no explicit staistics can be seen in the SEA equations. Statistical operations consist of a threefold average that is more implicit. Only one variable is used to characterize the energy in one subsystem. Finally, by using very few parameters to characterize subsystem there is no possiblity to restore the information from these parameters that is necessary to describe the vibrational behaviour in detail. For instance, only area, thickness, material parameters are used as input parameters for a plate. Consequently, as long as these parameters remain the same, the shape of the plate does not matter in SEA. 25

A brief overview of FEM in modal analysis:

Finite element analysis is a computerized procedure for the analysis of structures and other continua. Rapid engineering analyse scan be performed because the structure is represented (modelled) using the known properties of standard geometric shapes, i.e., finite elements. Efficient, large, general-purpose computer codes now exist with appropriate matrix assembler routines and equation solvers for calculation of the following structural properties: a) Static displacement and static stress. b) Natural frequencies and mode shapes. c) Forced harmonic response amplitude and dynamic stress d) Transient dynamic response and transient stress. e) Random forced response, random dynamic stress. Finite element analysis used in this manner provides the dynamic properties of structures, including mode shapes and corresponding natural frequencies. Advantages of FEM: Finite element analysis in conjunction with the high-speed digital computer permits the efficient solution of large, complex structural dynamics problems. As the majority of structural dynamics problems are linear they can be solved in the frequency domain using a modal transformation as noted above, subject to certain simplifying assumptions concerning the nature of damping. Many efficient and comprehensive finite element computer codes are now available to perform structural dynamics response calculations involving harmonic response, transient response, and random response of complex structures.

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Experimental modal analysis:

Assumptions in experimental modal analysis:
Superposition: a measured FRF is not dependent on the type of excitation waveform used. A swept sinusoid will give the same result as a broadband excitation. Homogeneity: A measured FRF is independent of the excitation level. Reciprocity: in a linear mechanical system a particular symmetry exits which is described by Maxwells Reciprocity theorem. This implies that the FRF measured between any two DOFs is independent of which of them is used for excitation or response.

Practical structures: in general, structures will behave linearly for small deflections. But linearity is often violated when deflections become large, so a modal description cannot be used to predict catastrophic failure. We must also assume the structures are: Causal: they will not start to vibrate before they are excited. Stable: the vibrations will die out when excitation is removed. Time invariant: The dynamic characteristics will not change during the measurements. Steps in EMA:

Setting up the modal test

Making the measurements

Parameter estimation by curve fitting

Documentation of the test

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While setting up the modal test one has to be aware of following things: Choosing of DOFs Suspension of the test object Position/ connection of exciter and forced transducer. : The best position for the exciter is at corner of the body where both the symmetric and asymmetric modes will exhibit maximum motion. Mounting the response transducer.(This is discussed in detail in the accelerometer placement chapter)

Various excitation signals: The excitation signals can be broken up into deterministic and non deterministic (random). The deterministic signals can be described at any point of time by mathematical function. They are typically sinusoidal in nature. E.g. Sine, sine chirp, digital stepped sine. The random signals are on other hand, cannot be described by a mathematical function but rather described by their statistical characteristics. Typical signals of this type are random and burst random In general, deterministic signals are used on linear systems. We also use deterministic signals to determine if a system is linear. Random signals are used to average slight nonlinearities in a system due to things such as rattles. If the structure has gross nonlinearities, then we must rethink about the usefulness of the linear modal analysis! Random excitation: It is used quite widely for general vibration testing today. But it is not considered one of the best techniques for acquiring FRF measurements for modal testing (although it is still often used). The random nature of the signal excites the structure with varying amplitude and phase as averages are collected. This tends to average any slight nonlinearities that may exist in the structure. While this is the benefit, the signal never satisfies the periodicity requirement of FFT process. Therefore, leakage is a tremendous problem. Even with Hanning window applied, the resulting FRFs always suffer from leakage; the peak amplitude will be affected and there will be an appearance of more damping in the structure due to leakage and windowing effects. Burst random: the only difference is that the random signal is only used during a portion of the data capture. If a pretrigger delay is also used, then the signal is totally observed within one sample interval. Therefore, the signal satisfied the periodicity requirement of the FFT process. This means no leakage occurs and windowing is not required.

Making measurements: In this phase, a set of FRF measurements between the excitation DOF and all other defined DOFs is made and stored. The computer helps to manage the data. It transfers the measurements from the analyzer and tells when each transfer is completed, so that next transducer location can be selected. The computer also creates data files and stores the data on mass storage medium. The label for each stored measurement records the information concerning DOF measured, the analyser setup, calibration, time and other components which we wish to include. 28

The operator plays important role by continuously checking the convergence of FFT so that operator can decide whether to accept the readings. Automation of this process is not recommended. This phase is most important and analysis depends primarily on the accuracy obtained at this stage.

Parameter estimation by curve fitting: When measurements are completed the data reduction process for parameter extraction begins. This has three phases: interactive curve fitting Auto curve fitting Sort

Documentation of the test: We need to interpret the parameters and create geometrical model of vibration modes. Animation can also be done for seeing deflection wrt time. A digital plotter can be used to make hard copy plots of the mode shapes. Various approaches taken during modal testing: SIMO (single input excitation and multiple output measurement) MISO (mathematically inverse of SIMO; multiple input single o/p) MIMO (multiple i/p o/p. advanced technique uses partially correlated outputs. Used now a days

Generally modal tests are carried out in one axis (X or Y or Z). But when the component has to be tested in rough environment the test is done in all three axes. MIL STD 810G method 527 elaborates about this area systematically.

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Vibration isolation
Introduction:
Vibration isolation reduces the transmission of vibrational energy from one system to another. Common vibration isolators are steel springs, rubber pads or bellows. These devices are available in many shapes and are capable of isolating masses weighing from a few pounds to thousands of pounds. An automobile suspension is a good example of damped isolation. Shock absorbers dissipate energy by pumping a fluid through orifices that offer a predetermined resistance to highvelocity flow. Many isolation systems use elastomeric materials to provide both the spring force and damping. Some rubbers are capable of achieving useful damping at certain frequencies, although at low frequencies most exhibit loss factors less than 0.2, or roughly 10 percent of critical damping. Vibration isolation is difficult for lower frequencies around 100Hz say.

Modelling problem for vibration isolation:

Vibration isolation basics state that control can be broken down into three simple parts: source, path, and receiver. The source is the equipment that originally produces the vibration. Any type of equipment with rotating parts is capable of producing vibration. As equipment gets older, it is possible for the vibration of the equipment to grow, depending on the care and maintenance of the system. The source-path-receiver model is explained with an example: Piping or ductwork can also act as a source of vibration. Pipes connected to a large number of valves, pumps, etc. or having a great number of bends and high-pressure flow can create enough vibration to exceed occupant tolerance in a building. If ductwork has a high velocity airflow coupled with multiple changes in direction or rough transitions, it does have the capability to create a significant amount of vibration. The path is the medium through which any vibration caused my equipment is transferred. Most building components, including but not limited to floors, walls, columns, beams, etc. have the ability to transmit vibration. Ductwork and piping can also transfer vibration from the equipment to different parts of a building. Lighter building construction materials transfer this vibration much easier. The closer an occupant is to non-isolated equipment, the more the vibration will be an impact. The receiver is the building occupant and equipment/processes that will be affected by the vibration. Vibrations can either be high levels that are perceived to be alarming or low levels that often create a constant disturbing noise. The only way to stop the transmission of vibration is to isolate the system. Vibration will take the path of least resistance, so to effectively isolate any vibration; all paths must be cut off. If one piece

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of equipment is not isolated or the connecting pipe/ductwork is not, unwanted vibration from the equipment still may occur.

Approaches to solve a vibration control problem:

(a) To modify the source reducing its noise/vibration output, (b) To alter or control the transmission, (c) To provide the receiver with personal protective device so as to reduce noise/vibration level reaching the recipient. Let us concentrate on the (b) type of problem solving Transfer path analysis is a powerful tool for vibration isolation. It is used to assess the structure and airborne energy paths between excitation source(s) and receiver location(s). In-depth transfer path analysis is used to identify every possible path and to provide alternatives for the development. In the Source-Path-Receiver model, an operational force (i.e. an engine) is multiplied with a transfer function, leading to response at the receiver location. Transfer path analysis is a systematic method to understand the relation between multiple sources of noise and vibration and their effects on perceived user comfort / surroundings under study.

Steps in TPA:
1. First is the identification of the operational loads during in-operation tests. 2. The estimation of frequency response function from excitation tests. (e.g hammer impact tests, shakers tests etc) Methods for identification of loads: a. Direct measurements (using force transducers). b. Mount stiffness method c. Matrix inversion method. Methods for finding out frequency response functions: a. Direct measurements (hammer excitation test or using shakers).. b. Reciprocal measurements (exciting at the target locations and measuring the response at the interface). 31

c. Decoupling the system. The final objective is to process the data generated by various partially coherent sources of vibrations. When multiple partially-correlated sources are active in a system, multiple reference spectral processing of the operational measurements is required.

Application area:
In the automobile industry the vibration analysis and control problem is named by NVH (NoiseVibration-Harshness) analysis. Transfer path analysis has numerous applications on marine platform. E.g. the low frequency vibrations generated by the rubbing of water with hull surface are difficult to curb. They can cause uneasiness to the onboard crew and even result in vomiting. So, critical paths i.e. the structural beams etc have to be evaluated using TPA technique. TPA also has application in aviation industry. It is used along the modal analysis as the primary measurements are same in both the methods.

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Vibration testing standards

Standards are criteria established by authority, custom, or general consent. Good reference standards represent a broad consensus of opinion among users, and are therefore widely accepted and applied. Furthermore, standards should be clear, concise, and easily understood. Numerous standards exist to guide or govern vibration monitoring and analysis, including some that establish classifications for machinery vibration, how measurements should be made, and how the acquired data should be analyzed. The standards were viewed by keeping in mind the scope of this report- accelerometer/ vibration transducer placement. Some of them have been listed below: ISO standards: There are more than 70 ISO standards for vibration measurement in various areas. But they were not studied are they are not available for all. They need to be purchased. For example: ISO 2954:2012 addresses mechanical vibration of rotating and reciprocating machineryRequirements of instruments for measuring vibration severity. ISO 3046-5:2001 addresses torsional vibrations in internal combustion engines. NATO STANAG 4370 is an Environmental Testing, Allied Environmental Conditions and Test Procedure standard. Method 401 and method 404 are of interest. But they were unavailable. MIL standards: Introduction to MIL STD 810:

Environmental Engineering Considerations and Laboratory Tests is a United States Military Standard that emphasizes tailoring equipments environmental design and test limits to the conditions that it will experience throughout its service life, and establishing chamber test methods that replicate the effects of environments on the equipment rather than imitating the environments themselves. The MIL-STD-810 test series are approved for use by all departments and agencies of the United States Department of Defence. Although prepared specifically for military applications, the standard is often used for commercial products as well. The current document revision (as of 2012) is MIL-STD-810G which was issued on October 31, 2008. It superseded MIL-STD-810F released on January 1, 2000 and which was last updated on May 5, 2003. The standard's guidance and test methods are intended to: Define environmental stress sequences, durations, and levels of equipment life cycles Be used to develop analysis and test criteria tailored to the equipment and its environmental life cycle Evaluate equipment's performance when exposed to a life cycle of environmental stresses Identify deficiencies, shortcomings, and defects in equipment design, materials, manufacturing processes, packaging techniques, and maintenance methods 33

 Demonstrate compliance with contractual requirements. This report will discuss only about: MIL STD 810G. The second part of MIL STD 810G calls out for Laboratory test methods. I have gone through following test methods Test Method 513.6: Acceleration Test Method 514.6: Vibration Test Method 527: Multi Exciter (multi exciter vibration tests) Test Method 528: Mechanical Vibrations of Shipboard Equipment ( Type-1 Environmental and Type-2 Internally excited)

Test Method 514

Following paragraph summaries the things in method 514.6 The actual document is attach in the appendix B Acceleration and force control and limiting strategies have been discussed in 4.2.1.1-4.2.1.4. Next articles discuss when to interupt the vibration test and how to proceed for second test. Further the orientation and excitation methods fot DUT have been explained in 4.4.4.d My work area is related to accelerometer/any other transducer mounting for a test so follwing paragraph has been extracted directly from the standard (4.4.4.e). e. Instrumentation. Mount transducers on the store and/or the store excitation devices to monitor compliance of vibration levels with requirements, to provide feedback signals to control the vibration exciter, and to measure materiel function. Additionally, it is usually important to overall program objectives to add transducers to measure the local vibration environment throughout the store. Note the vibration exciter control strategy used, e.g., single point response, multipoint response, force limit, waveform, etc. Also note the relationship between field measurement data and laboratory measurement data. (1) Mount accelerometers to monitor vibration levels at the forward and aft extremes of the primary load carrying structure of the store. Do not mount these accelerometers on fairings, unsupported areas of skin panels, aerodynamic surfaces, or other relatively soft structures. In some cases (see paragraph 4.4.4c above), transducers are required in the vertical and lateral directions. In other cases, transducers are required in vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directions. Designate these transducers as the test monitor transducers. (2) An alternate method is to monitor the test with strain gages that are calibrated to provide dynamic bending moment. This has proven successful where integrity of the store primary structure is a major concern. Flight measured dynamic bending moment data is required for this method. Also, use accelerometers positioned as discussed above to verify that general vibration levels are as required. (3) As feedback control transducers, use either accelerometers on or near the store/vibration transmission device(s)/vibration exciter interface, force transducer(s) in series with the store/vibration transmission device(s)/vibration exciter, or dynamic bending moment strain gages. A

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clear understanding of the vibration exciter control strategy and its effects on the overall measurements is necessary. The annexure A of 514.6 enlightens about the various vibration excitation methods in brief. It also contains which tests should be carried out i.e modal test, endurance test, tolerance test etc The 4.2.4 gives tips about vibration isolation of the machinery. Following paragraphs are devoted to Modal testing: 2.5 Modal Test and Analysis. Modal test and analysis is a technique for determining the structural dynamic characteristics of materiel and test fixtures. Modal tests (paragraph 6.1, reference cc), also known as ground vibration tests (GVT) and ground vibration surveys (GVS), apply a known dynamic input to the test item, and the resulting responses are measured and stored. Modal analysis methods are applied to the measured data to extract modal parameters (resonant frequencies, mode shapes, modal damping, etc.). Modal parameters are used to confirm or generate analytical models, investigate problems, determine appropriate instrumentation locations, evaluate measured vibration data, design test fixtures, etc. Modal analysis methods range from frequency domain, single degree of freedom methods, to time domain, multi-degree of freedom methods (paragraph 6.1, references dd and ee). 2.5.1 Modal test techniques. Modal analysis may be accomplished in various ways. The simplest method consists of excitation with a modally tuned impact hammer. This technique is commonly used as a quick check of resonant frequencies for fixtures and installed components and is also used for verification of analytical models. A more sophisticated approach would use multi-shaker wide band random excitation, simultaneous measurement of signals from an acceleraometer and force gage array, and computer computation and storage of frequency response functions (FRF). Sinusoidal and random burst techniques are also an option. Select methodology that will result in well-understood , usable data, and that will provide the level or detail needed for the specific test goals. Further in Annexure B, allowed vibration PSD levels data is given in form of tables and graphs

Test Method 527

It has a detailed discussion on multi axis exciter tests. 4.1-4.5 are in intrest of this report. Follwong paragraph deal about accelerometer specifications. a. Accelerometer. (1) Transverse sensitivity of less than or equal to 5%. (2) An amplitude linearity within 10% from 5% to 100% of the peak acceleration amplitude required for testing. (3) For all measurement procedures, a flat frequency response within +5% across the frequency range of interest for the test. The device may be of the piezoelectric or piezoresistive type. Use

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measurement devices compatible with the requirements, guidelines, and precautions provided in paragraph 6.1, reference e. (4) Of sufficient voltage sensitivity (mV/G) so that the minimum test level yields a voltage output of at least 50 mv RMS, so as to ensure the reliable measurement of the relative phase between control responses. Annexure A of Method 527 is most important as it gives engineering information for MET( Multi exciter test) transducer placement.

Test Method 528

Following paragraphs or interest to this report: 4.2.2.2 Peak sinusoidal acceleration. a. Vibration environment. Validate the accelerometer(s) sensitivity before and after testing. Ensure the peak sinusoidal acceleration at a control transducer does not deviate from that specified by more than 10 percent over the specified frequency range. b. Vibration measurement. Ensure the vibration measurement system provides peak sinusoidal acceleration measurements within 5 percent of the vibration level at the transducer mounting surface (or transducer target mounting surface) over the required frequency range. 4.2.2.3 Frequency measurement. Ensure the vibration measurement system provides frequency measurements within 1.25 percent at the transducer mounting surface (or transducer target mounting surface) over the required frequency range. 4.2.2.4 Cross axis sensitivity Ensure vibration acceleration in two axes mutually orthogonal and orthogonal to the drive axis is less than or equal to 0.45 times the acceleration (0.2 times the spectral density) in the drive axis over the required frequency range. In a random vibration test the cross axis acceleration spectral density often has high but narrow peaks. Consider these in tailoring cross-axis tolerances.

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Presentation tools
Presentation tools why are they so important?
Create more effective ways of communicating important information to a target audience: buyers or employees. Choosing the right presentation tools enables a person to create a powerful presentation that will grab and hold the attention of their audience.

What is a presentation?
A presentation is a visual display and explanation regarding a specific topic that employs the use of text and images.

Types:
Analytical Informative Persuasive

Where are presentation tools generally used?

Teaching Presenting data Giving information

Some popular presentation tools:

Apple Keynote Corel Presentations CustomShow Google Docs (web-based) Harvard Graphics (obsolete) Hewlett Packard Bruno (software) IBM Lotus Freelance Graphics (obsolete) Kingsoft Presentation LibreOffice Impress (open source) Microsoft PowerPoint OpenOffice.org Impress (open source) PresentiaFX Prezi SlideRocket SlideWiki

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History:
In early years charts were used as presentation tools. After the invention of OHP (1980-1990s), transparencies became popular. Even slide projector was used but it was costly to make these slides. The LCD projectors were largely commercialized in 2004 onwards. They could be connected to computers for showing the presentation. This technology is stable till now.

Features:
A presentation program is supposed to help both: the speaker with an easier access to his ideas and the participants with visual information which complements the talk. With the growth of digital photography and video, many programs that handle these types of media also include presentation functions for displaying them in a similar "slide show" format. A good presentation package has the capability to handle advanced features like-Sound, Images, Animation, slide transitions, Hyperlinks, Hotspots, navigation buttons and Plain text!!! Following is the comparison between most popular and versatile presentation software-

PowerPoint Vs Prezi:
Prezi is a web based presentation tool using a map layout and zooming to show contextual relationships which addresses some of the shortcomings of Microsoft PowerPoint Let us see how Prezi is different from PowerPoint It has nonlinear navigation Map layout Web based Limited printing options

PowerPoint has Linear navigation Slide track based navigation Computer based Multiple printing option

Some Observations and tips:

It is important for teachers to bring out various aspects of a topic so that the student can understand them and get a bigger picture of subject in his mind. Prezi is best tool for it. However is we take into consider the time taken to create a Prezi show and a ppt slide show then a ppt slide show is much faster and helps to put down your ideas quickly and arrange them in logical order 38

Apart from PowerPoint and Prezi, apples keynote is a renowned tool. One tip given by Tim cook through this software- do not put bullet points while displaying information. Keep a picture to the left of your points. Presentation should not have very large number of images or animations. It can disturb the viewer and distract the attention from main content.

A screen shot of Prezi concept map:

Apple keynote presentation-effective way to catch attention

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Appendix A
Apart from the main project stream, following things were done enriching my work at MILIT We were a part of organizing committee for national conference namely- Anthropogenic noise and its impact on marine species- An Indian perspective. I edited the language of the proceedings of the seminar. Along with Tanmay Godbole I translated the press release in vernacular for the same. I was the coordinator for publishing the quarter yearly magazine Tachyon. I compiled the articles and published it using Microsoft publisher. I contributed an article regarding underwater autonomous vehicle to Tachyon. I attended international conference on Advances in Robotics at R&DE (Enggrs) DRDO, Pune

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References
[1] Accelerometer mounting Considerations. Dytran instruments Inc. www.dytran.com [2] Bruel & Kjaer Piezoelectric Accelerometers and Vibration Preamplifiers. (Theory and application handbook) www.bksv.com [3] Accelerometer Mounting Hardware and Installation Techniques. Wilcoxon Research [4]Accelerometer Mounting Techniques. CTC vibration analysis hardware [5] Frequency Limitations Resulting from Mounted Resonance of an Accelerometer. By Jack D.

Peters, Connection Technology Center, Inc.

[6] Guide to accelerometer installation. Endevo industries [7] Steps to selecting the right accelerometer . Endevo industries [8] Transducer Mounting and test Setup Configurations. By Rick Bono (The Modal shop) [9] Vibration monitoring and Accelerometers. Wilcoxon Research [10] FACTORS INFLUENCING ACCELEROMETER MEASUREMENT CAPABILITIES - A PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT GUIDE. By R. W. Miller [11] Technical review 1970-3 b&k Impulse analysis [12] Vibration isolation in ship building. GERB vibration control systems [13] UNDERSTANDING MODAL PARAMETER TECHNOLOGY AND MODE SHAPE SCALING By Brett A. Brinkman and David J. Macioce Structural Measurement Systems, Inc. [14] The Relationship Between Finite Element Analysis and Modal Analysis by Neville F. Rieger, Stress Technology Incorporated, Rochester, New York [15] Advanced methods of analysis. IIT Delhi [16] Theoretical and Experimental modal analysis. IIT Delhi [17] Structural Dynamics Modeling using Modal Analysis: Applications, Trends and Challenges by Herman Van der Auweraer LMS International [18] SHOCK AND VIBRATION RESPONSE SPECTRA COURSE Unit 3. Sine Sweep Frequency and Octave Calculations By Tom Irvine [19] THEORY: SINE SWEEP VS RANDOM VIBRATION TESTING. www.sebert.nl [20] The Fundamentals of Modal Testing Application Note 243 3. Agilent Technologies. [21] MODAL ANALYSIS byPatrick Guillaume, Department of Mechanical Engineering,Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan2, B-1050 Brussel, Belgium. 41

[22] Structural testing Part 2 Modal analysis and Simulation. B&k [23] Modal Space, In our own little world. By Dr. Peter Avitabile, Director, Modal analysis and controls laboratory, university of Massachusettes Lowell [24] Modal Analysis - Where Do We Go From Here? Randall J. Allemang, PhD Professor, Structural Dynamics Research Laboratory, Department of Mechanical, Industrial and Nuclear Engineering, University of Cincinnati [25] EXPERIMENTAL MODAL AND PRINCIPAL FIELD ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT INTERIOR ACOUSTICS by H. Van der Auweraer D. one LMS International [26] Modal Parameter Estimation from Operating Data Mark Richardson and Brian Schwarz, Vibrant Technology, Inc., Jamestown, California [27] Coupled Oscillators by Alex Gagen & Sean Larson [28] Basics of Structural Vibration Testing and Analysis. Application note AN011 [29] The Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) by Michael Fischer, JASS 2006 in St. Petersburg [30] MIL STD 810G [31]MIL STD 167-1A [32]MIL STD 740-2 [33] Reference Standards for Vibration Monitoring and Analysis J Michael Robichaud, P.Eng.] [34] NATO STANAG 4370 [35] As Two-Piece Isolators, Bushings And Rings Solve Many Assembly Problems By Neil Plesner [36] Fundamentals of vibration isolation. www.cvimellesgriot.com [37] Vibration Isolation. IIT roorkie [38] Understanding damping techniques for noise and vibration control By Jennifer Renninger Applications Engineer E-A-R Specialty Composites Indianapolis, Indiana [39] TRANSFER PATH ANALYSIS The qualification and quantification of vibro-acoustic transfer paths. LMS international [40] Optimal Placement of Triaxial Accelerometers for Modal Vibration Tests. By Daniel C. Kammer Department of Engineering Physics University of Wisconsin Madison, WI 53706Michael L. Tinker Structural Dynamics and Loads Group Structures, Mechanics, and Thermal Department NASA/Marshal Space Flight Center Huntsville, AL 35812 [41] Optimal placement of sensors/actuatros in truss structures with knoiwn disturbances. By Douglas Domingues bueno, Clyaton Rodrigo Marqui, Leondro Cordero and Vicente lopes junior

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Glossary
Accelerometer Burst random excitation Coupled oscillators Critical path DUT: Device under test FEM: finite element analysis FFT: Fast Fourier Transform FRF: Frequency response function Grounding MDOF: Multiple degrees of freedom Modal analysis Natural frequency Piezoelectric PSD : Power spectral density Random excitation Resonance SDOF: single degree of freedom SEA: Statistical energy analysis Seismic mass Sine excitation Source path receiver model Transfer path analysis Vibration isolation

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