Immanuel Kant Life and Background Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1774 in Konigsberg, Prussia.

His father was a harness maker. He was close to his mother. He had eight siblings. He came from a Lutheran Pietist family. He studied at the Collegium Freidericianum and later at the University of Konigsberg. He gained his bachelors and masters degree on 1746 and 1755 respectively. In 1755, he was appointed Privatdocent (private lecturer) at the University of Konigsberg. From 1760 onwards, he began to devote himself seriously to philosophy. He never travelled, married, nor held public office. He died on February 12, 1804 in Konigsberg, Prussia.

Works and Contributions Critique of Pure Reason (1781) Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785) Critique of Practical Reason (1788) Critique of Judgment (1790) Anthropology (1798)

Knowledge Knowledge must be universal, necessary and certain. The three ideas of pure reason are: self, cosmos, and God. Introduced the two modes of knowledge: 1) A priori - known independently of all experience. 2) A posteriori - known through experience. Made a distinction between understanding (Verstand) and reason (Vernunft). Understanding operates in combination with the senses. Reason, on the other hand, is the intellects endeavor to go beyond what understanding can achieve. What makes knowledge possible in mathematics or physics is humanitys possession of necessarily true propositions that are universally recognized as correct without any reference to experience. Transcendental aesthetic is devoted to time and space. Space is the form of the outer senses and time is the form of the inner senses. Human beings have the power to judge - the understanding is the power to form concepts, and judgment is the power to apply them.

Physics The Antimonies of Pure Reason - antimonies are designed to exhibit the general pointlessness of asking questions about God as a whole, but in the particular case of space and time Kant had already argued in the first Critique. 1) First, Extensions, Space and Time. a) Thesis: The world had a beginning in time. b) Antithesis: The world had no beginning in time. Kant proposes that both can be proved to show the impotence of reason to talk about the world as a whole.

1) Second, Space a) Thesis: Every composite substance in the world is made up of simple parts. b) Antithesis: No composite being is made up of parts. Infinite space and time are supposed by experience. We can imagine space and time without an object, but not an object without space and time.

Mind and Soul He considered psychology to be an empirical inquiry into the laws of mental operations. He believed that mental operations lack substance, it only has a time dimension, and therefore cannot be assessed. Because of this, he considered it impossible for psychology to be an experimental science. Kant's authoritative opinion retarded the development of psychology as an experimental science.

Ethics Human freedom - it is only when one understands, that one is free. Therefore, one has to do his duty. Freedom is an idea of reason that serves an indispensible practical function. The noumenal/real self is the source of moral action. Immorality - infinite progress is possible and it is called immortal soul. Moral law is not indulgent. God - something within us should stir us to be morally happy. Thus, one has to be morally good. Good Will - The only things that is good without qualification. Kants categorical imperative: act only according to a maxim by which you can, at th e same time, will that it shall be a universal law. The morality of our actions does not depend on its outcome. Morality requires an unconditional statement of ones duty. The moral imperative is unconditional. The sphere of morality naturally leads to the sphere of religion.

God He criticized Anselms Ontological Argument of Gods existence. According to him, Anselm jumped from the logical towards the ontological argument. God is neither provable nor disprovable. The attempt to demonstrate God is fruitless. If God is to have a place in our thought and life, it is not an entity whose existence is established by rational proof. I cannot even assume God, freedom, and immortality for the sake of the necessary practical use of my reason unless I simultaneously deprive the speculative reason of its pretension to extravagant insights Thus, I have to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith.

Critique Kants views on the existence of God is a clear indication that philosophy is a handmaid of theology. Philosophy can only explain things upon a particular extent. Beyond it, faith is required. We cant reduce God to a mathematical equation. He also provided a synthesis for modern philosophy. He tried to establish a middle ground for both empiricism and rationalism.