THE HISTORY OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT Early in the 20th century, conflict was considered to be an indication of poor organizational management,

was deemed destructive, and was avoided at all costs. When conflict occurred, it was ignored, denied, or dealt with immediately and harshly. The theorists of this era believed that conflict could be avoided if employees were taught the one right way to do things and if expressed employee classification was met swiftly with disapproval. In the mid 20th century, when organizations recognized that worker satisfaction and feedback were important, conflict was accepted passively and perceived as normal and expected. Attention cantered on teaching managers how to resolve conflict rather than how to prevent it. Although conflict considered to be primarily dysfunctional, it was believed that conflict and cooperation could happen simultaneously. The interactionist theories of the 1970s, however, recognized conflict as a necessity and actively encouraged organizations to promote conflict as a means of producing growth. Some level of conflict in an organization appears desirable, although the optimum level for a specific person or unit at a given time is difficult to determine. Too little conflict results in organizational stasis, whereas too much conflict reduces the organizations effectiveness and eventually immobilizes its employees. With few formal instruments to assess whether the level of conflict in an organization is too high or too low, the responsibility for determining and creating an appropriate level of conflict on the individual unit often falls to the manger. Conflict also has a qualitative nature. A person may be totally overwhelmed in one conflict situation, yet be able to handle several simultaneous conflicts at a later time. The difference is in the quality or significance of that conflict to the person experiencing it. Although quantitative and qualitative conflicts produce distress at the time they occur, they can lead to growth, energy, and creativity by generating new ideas and solutions. If handled inappropriately, quantitative and qualitative conflicts can lead to demoralization, decreased motivation, and lowered productivity. MEANING & DEFINITION OF CONFLICT Conflict can be defined as an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties, who perceive that incompatible goals, scarce resources, or interference from others are preventing them from achieving their goals (Wilmot & Hocker, 2001). Conflict is related to feelings, including feelings of neglect, of being viewed as taken for granted, of being treated like a servant, of not being appreciated, of

being ignored, of being overloaded, and other instances of perceived unfairness. Conflict management is the process of planning to avoid conflict where possible and organizing to resolve conflict where it does happen, as rapidly and smoothly as possible. TYPES OF CONFLICTS Conflict has been described and studied from the standpoint of its context, or where it occurs. 3 types of conflicts are Intrapersonal conflict: an intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual in situations in which he or she must choose between two alternatives. Choosing one alternative means that he or she cannot have the other; they are mutually exclusive. E.g. we might internally debate whether to complete an assignment that is due the next day or watch a favourite television programme. Interpersonal conflict: is conflict between two or more individuals. It occurs because of differing values, goals, action, or perceptions. For e.g. when you want to go to a science fiction movie, but your partner may prefer to attend an opera. Interpersonal conflict becomes more difficult when we are involved in issues relating to racial, ethnic and life style values and norms. Organizational conflicts: conflict also occurs in organization because of differing perceptions or goals. Organizational conflicts may be intrapersonal or interpersonal, but they originate in the structure and function of the organization. Typically, aspects of the organisations style of management, rules, policies and procedures give rise to conflict. When a conflict occurs within an organization, it is important that the conflict be resolved in a constructive way in order to maintain the teams motivation. The leaders role takes on special significance. Two areas responsible for conflict in organisations are role ambiguity and role conflict. Role ambiguity occurs when employees do not know what to do, how to do it, or what the outcomes must be. This frequently occurs when policies and rules are ambiguous and unclear. Role conflict occurs when two or more individuals in different positions within the organization believe that certain actions or responsibilities belong exclusively to them. The conflict could relate to competition. E.g. In some hospitals, conflict have existed between the nurse and the social workers about the responsibility for providing discharge planning. Both groups see discharge planning as an important aspect of their own care of the patients.

COMMON CAUSES OF CONFLICT 1. Vertical conflict: Occurs between hierarchical levels 2. Horizontal conflict: Occurs between persons or groups at the same hierarchical level. 3. Line-staff conflict: Involves disagreements over who has authority and control over specific matters 4. Role conflict: Occurs when the communication of task expectations proves inadequate or upsetting 5. Work-flow interdependencies: Occur when people or units are required to cooperate to meet challenging goals. 6. Domain ambiguities: Occurs when individuals or groups are placed in ambiguous situations where it difficult to determine who is responsible for what. 7. Recourse scarcity: When resources are scarce, working relationships are likely to suffer. 8. Power or value asymmetries: Occurs when interdependent people or groups differ substantially from one another in status and influence or in values. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONFLICT The characteristics of a conflict situation are: 1) At least two parties (individuals or groups) are involved in some kind of interaction. 2) Mutually exclusive goals and mutually exclusive values exist, either in fact or as perceived by the patients involved. 3) Interaction is characterized by behavior destined to defeat, reduce, or suppress the opponent or to gain a mutually designated victory. 4) The parties face each other with mutually opposing actions and counteractions. 5) Each party attempts to create an imbalance or relatively favored position of power vis-a-vis the other.

THE CONFLICT PROCESS Before managers can or should attempt to intervene in conflict, they must be able to assess its five stages accurately 1. Latent conflict (also called antecedent conditions).

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Perceived conflict Felt conflict Manifest conflict Conflict resolution Conflict aftermath.
Latent conflict (also called antecedent conditions)

Felt conflict

Perceived conflict

Manifest conflict

Conflict resolution or conflict management

Conflict aftermath

Latent conflict The first stage in the conflict process, latent conflict, implies the existence of antecedent conditions such as short staffing and rapid change. In this stage, conditions are ripe for conflict, although no conflict has actually occurred and none may ever occur. Much unnecessary conflicts could be prevented or reduced if managers examined the organisation more closely for antecedent conditions.

Perceived conflict If the conflict progresses, it may develop into the second stage: perceived conflict. Perceived or substantive conflict is intellectualized and often involves issues and roles. The person recognizes it logically and impersonally as occurring. Sometimes, conflict can be resolved at this stage before it is internalized or felt.

Felt conflict The third stage, felt conflict, occurs when the conflict is emotionalized. Felt emotions include hostility, fear, mistrust, and anger. It is also referred to as affective conflict. It is possible to perceive conflict and not feel it. A person also can feel the conflict but not perceive the problem. Manifest conflict It is also called as overt conflict, action is taken. The action may be to withdraw, compete, debate, or seek conflict resolution. People often learn pattern of dealing with manifest conflict early in their lives, and family background and experiences often directly affect how conflict is dealt with in adulthood. Gender also may play a role in how we respond to conflict. Men are socialized to respond more aggressively to conflict, while women are more apt to try to avoid conflicts or to pacify them. Power also plays a role in conflict resolution. Therefore, the action an individual takes to resolve conflict is often influenced by culture, gender, age, power position and upbringing. Conflict aftermath The final stage in the conflict process is conflict aftermath. There is always conflict aftermath- positive or negative. If the conflict is managed well, people involved in the conflict will believe that there position was given a fair hearing. If the conflict is managed poorly the conflict issues frequently remain and may return later to cause more conflict. Outcomes of conflict We often hear people hear about conflict situation resulting in win-win, win-lose and lose-lose. Filley (1975) identified these 3 different positions or outcomes of conflict. Win-lose outcome: occurs when one person obtains his or her desired ends in the situation and the other individual fails to obtain what is desired. Often winning occurs because of power and authority within the organization or situation. Lose-lose outcome: in lose-lose situation, there is no winner. The resolution of the conflict is unsatisfactory to both parties. Win- win outcome: are of course the most desirable. In these situations, both parties walk away from the conflict having achieved all or most of their goals or desires. EFFECTS OF CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS Stress

Absenteeism Staff turnover De-motivation Non-productivity

SIGNS OF CONFLICT BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS 1. Colleagues not speaking to each other or ignoring each other 2. Contradicting and bad-mouthing one another 3. Deliberately undermining or not co-operating with each other, to the downfall of the team CONFLICT MANAGEMENT The optimal goal in resolving conflict is creating a win- win solution for all involved. This outcome is not possible in every situation, and often the managers goal is to manage the conflict in a way that lessens the perceptual differences that exist between the involved parties. A leader recognizes which conflict management strategy is most appropriate for each situation. The choice of most appropriate strategy depends on many variables, such as the situation itself, the urgency of the decision, the power and status of the players, the importance of the issue, and the maturity of the people involved in the conflict. 1. Discipline 2. Consider Life Stages 3. Communication 4. Active Listening 5. Assertiveness Training 6. Assessing the Dimensions of the Conflict Issues in Question Size of the Stakes Interdependence of the Parties Continuity of Interaction Structure of the Parities Involvement of Third Parties

Discipline: In using discipline to manage or prevent conflict, the nurse manager must
know and understand the organizations rules and regulations on discipline. If they are

not clear, the nurse manager should seek help to clarify them. The following rules will help in managing discipline: 1. Discipline should be progressive. 2. The punishment should fit the offense, be reasonable, and increase in severity for violation of the same rule. 3. Assistance should be offered to resolve on-the-job problems. 4. Tact should be used in administering discipline. 5. The best approach for each employee should be determined. Managers should be consistent and should not show favoritism. 6. The individual should be confronted and not the group. Disciplining a group for a members violation of rules and regulations makes the other members angry and defensive, increasing conflict. 7. Discipline should be clear and specific. 8. It should be objective, sticking to facts. 9. It should be firm, sticking to the decision. 10. Discipline produces varied reactions. If emotions are running too high, a second meeting should be scheduled. 11. The nurse manager performing the discipline should consult with the supervisor. One should expect to be overruled sometimes. Knowing the boundaries of authority and the supervisor will avoid most overrules. 12. A nurse manager should build respect, trust, and confidence in his or her ability to handle discipline.

Consider Life Stages: Most organizations will have nurses at all life stages in their
employ. Conflict can be managed by supporting individual nurses in attaining goals that pertain to their life stages. Three developmental stages are as follow. 1. In general, in the young adult stage, nurses are establishing careers. Nurses at this stage may be pursuing knowledge, skills, and upward mobility. Conflict may be prevented or managed by facilitating career advancement. 2. In general, during middle age, nurses become reconciled with achievement of their life goals. These nurses often help develop the careers of younger nurses. 3. In general, after age 55 years, nurses think in terms of completing their work and retiring. Egos and ideals are integrated with accomplishments.

Communication: Communication is an art that is essential to maintaining a

therapeutic environment. It is necessary in accomplishing work and resolving

emotional and social issues. Supervisors prevent conflict with effective communication and should make it a way of life. To promote communication that prevents conflict, do the following. 1. Teach nursing staff members their role in effective communication. 2. Provide factual information to everyone: be inclusive, not exclusive. 3. Consider all the aspects of situations: emotions, environmental considerations, and verbal and nonverbal messages. 4. Develop these basic skills; a. Reality orientation, by direct involvement and acceptance of responsibility in resolving conflict. b. Physical and emotional composure. c. Positive expectations that generate positive responses. d. Active listening. e. Giving and receiving information.

Active Listening: Active or assertive listening is essential to managing conflict. In

order to be sure that their perceptions are correct, nurse managers can paraphrase what the angry or defiant employee is saying. Paraphrasing clarifies the message for both. Paraphrasing can help cool off the situation because it gives the employee time and the opportunity to hear the supervisors perceptions of the emotions expressed. Active assertive listening is sometimes called stress listening. Powell suggest these techniques for stress listening. 1. Do not share anger; it adds to the problem. Remain calm and matter-of-fact. 2. Respond constructively in both verbal and nonverbal language. Be cheerful but sober. Maintain eye contact. Prevent interruptions. Bring problems into the open. Make the employee comfortable. Act serous. Always be courteous and respectful. 3. Ask questions and listen to the answers. Determine the reasons for the anger. 4. Separate fact from opinion, including your own. 5. Do not respond hastily. Plan a response. 6. Consider the employees perspective first. 7. Help the employee find the solution. Ask questions and listen t responses. Do not be paternalistic.

Assertiveness Training: Assertive nurse, including managers, will stand up for

their rights while recognizing the rights of others. They are straightforward and know that they are responsible for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Assertive nurses also know their strengths and limitations. Rather than attack or defend, assertive nurses assess, collaborate, support, and remain neutral and nonthreatening. They can accept challenges and prevent conflict by helping others deal with their own anger. Assertiveness can be taught through staff development programs. In these programs nurses are taught to make learned, thoughtful responses and to know when to say no, even to boss. They learn to hold people to a standard and to know when to accept responsibility rather than to blame others. When they are dissatisfied, they do something to increase their satisfaction. Most assertive behaviours can be learned with the use of case studies, role playing, and group discussion. When they finish their training, assertive nurses will use positive comments to reinforce expectations that others do their jobs. They will use praise and consideration to promote wellness and positive individual behaviour. Nurse Managers learn that direct communication of support to staff members increases staff job satisfaction. Assertive nurses focus on data and issues when offering constructive cretinism to the boss or constructive feedback to the staff, which encourages dialogue and produces solutions to problems rather than conflict. They ask for assistance or delay when it needed. People generally respond positively to assertion and negatively to aggression; however, some people respond negatively to assertion. Assessing the dimensions of the conflict Greenhalgh has developed a system for assessing the dimensions of conflict. His view is that conflict may be considered to be managed when it does not interfere with ongoing functional relationships. Participants in a conflict have to be persuaded to rethink their views. A third party must understand the situation empathetically from the participants view points. The conflict may be the result of a deeply rooted antagonistic relationship. Greenhalghs Conflict Diagnostic Model has seven dimensions, each with a continuum from difficult to resolve to easy to resolve. Once the dimensions of the conflict have been assessed, those should be shifted to the easy-to-resolve domain. The issue in question It has already been stated that values, beliefs, and goals are difficult issues to bring to a reasonable compromise. Principles fall into the same category, since they involve integrity and ethical imperatives. The third party must persuade the conflicting

parties to acknowledge each others legitimate point of view. How can principles be maintained and the organization and employees be saved? The size of the stakes The size of the stakes can make conflict hard to manage. If change threatens somebodys job or income, the stakes are high. The third party must try to keep egos from being hunt, postponing action if necessary. What will the parties settle for? Precedents create potential for future conflicts: If I give in now, what will I have to give up in the future? Interdependence of the parities People must view resources in terms of interdependence. If one group sees no benefits from the distribution of resources, they will be antagonistic. A positive-sum interdependence of mutual gain is needed. Continuity of interaction Long-term relationships reduce conflict. Managers should opt for continuous, not episodic, interaction. Structure of the parties Strong leaders who unify constituents to accept and implement agreements reduce conflict. When informal coalitions occur, involve their representatives to find and implement agreements. Involvement of third parties Conflicts are difficult to resolve when participants are highly emotional and resort to distorting nonrational arguments, unreasonable stances, impaired communication, or personal attacks. Such conflicts can be solved with a prestigious, powerful, trusted, and neutral third mediator, or arbitrator. The inside manager who acts as judge or arbitrator polarizes; inviting a third party makes it public. Third parties have to be involved when the nurse manager, as party to a conflict, cannot resolve it. Viewpoint Continuum Difficult to Resolve Dimension Issue in question Size of stakes Interdependence of the Matter of principle large Zero sum Divisible issue Small Positive sum Easy to Resolve

parties Continuity of interaction Structure of the parties Single transaction Amorphous or fractionalized, with weak leadership No neutral third party available Unbalanced: One party feeling the more harmed Long-term relationship Cohesive, with strong leadership

Involvement of third parties Perceived progress of the conflict

Trusted, powerful, prestigious, and neutral Parties having done equal harm to each other

TECHNIQUES OR SKILLS FOR MANAGING CONFLICT Aims: The manager should work on a compromise to stimulate the interaction and involvement of the parties, another aim of conflict management. Other aims include better decisions and commitment to decisions that have been made. Strategies: There are 5 strategies from conflict management theory for managing stressful situation. 1. Avoidance 2. Accommodation 3. Competition 4. Compromise 5. Collaboration Avoidance/Avoiding (no winners/no losers): This isn't the right time or place to address this issue. In the avoiding approach, the parties involved are aware of a conflict but choose not to acknowledge it or attempt to resolve it. Avoidance may be indicated in trivial disagreements, when the cost of dealing with the conflict exceeds the benefits of solving it, when the problem should be solved by people other than you, when one party is more powerful than the other, or when the problem will solve itself. The great problem in using avoidance is that the conflict remains, often only to re-emerge at a later time in an even more exaggerated fashion.

Accommodation/Accommodating (lose/win): Working toward a common purpose is more important than any of the peripheral concerns; the trauma of confronting differences may damage fragile relationships. Cooperating is the opposite of competing. In the cooperating approach, one party sacrifices his or her beliefs and allows the other party to win. The actual problem is usually not solved in this win-lose situation. Accommodating is another term that may be used for this strategy. The person cooperating or accommodating often collects IOUs from the other party that can be used at a later date. Cooperating and accommodating are appropriate political strategies if the item in conflict is not of high value to the person doing the accommodating. Competition/Competing (win/lose): Associates "winning" a conflict with competition. The competing approach is used when one party pursues what it wants at the expense of the others. Because only one party wins, the competing party seeks to win regardless of the cost to others. Win-lose conflict resolution strategies leave the loser angry, frustrated, and wanting to get even in the future. Managers may use competing when a quick or unpopular decision needs to be made. It is also appropriately used when one party has more information or knowledge about a situation than the other. Competing in the form of resistance is also appropriate when an individual needs to resist unsafe patient care policies or procedures, unfair treatment, abuse of power, or ethical concerns. Compromise/Compromising (win some/lose some): Winning something while losing a little is OK. In compromising, each party gives up something it wants for compromising not to result in a lose-lose situation, both parties must be willing to give up something of equal value. It is important that parties in conflict do not adopt compromise prematurely if collaboration is both possible and feasible. Collaboration/Collaborating (win/win): Teamwork and cooperation help everyone achieve their goals while also maintaining relationships. Collaborating is an assertive and cooperative means of conflict resolution that results in a win-win solution. In collaboration, all parties set aside their original goals and work together to establish a supraordinate or priority common goal. In doing so, all parties accept mutual responsibility for reaching the supraordinate goal. Although it is very difficult for people truly to set aside original goals, collaborating cannot occur if this doesnt happen. For example, a nurse who is unhappy that she did not receive requested days off might meet with her superior and jointly establish the supraordinate goal that staffing will be adequate to meet the patient safety criteria. If the new goal is truly a

jointly set goal, each party will perceive that an important goal has been achieved and that the supraordinate goal is most important. In doing so, the focus remains on problem solving and not on defeating the other party. MANAGE AND RESOLVE CONFLICT SITUATIONS 1. Collective bargaining Especially in workplace situations, it is necessary to have agreed mechanisms in place for groups of people who may be antagonistic (e.g. management and workers) to collectively discuss and resolve issues. This process is often called "collective bargaining", because representatives of each group come together with a mandate to work out a solution collectively. 2. Conciliation The dictionary defines conciliation as "the act of procuring good will or inducing a friendly feeling". It is the synonymous terms that refer to the activity of a third party to help disputants reach an agreement. 3. Negotiation: This is the process where mandated representatives of groups in a conflict situation meet together in order to resolve their differences and to reach agreement. It is a deliberate process, conducted by representatives of groups, designed to reconcile differences and to reach agreements by consensus. The outcome is often dependent on the power relationship between the groups. 4. Mediation: When negotiations fail or get stuck, parties often call in and independent mediator. This person or group will try to facilitate settlement of the conflict. The mediator plays an active part in the process, advises both or all groups, acts as intermediary and suggests possible solution. 5. Arbitration: Means the appointment of an independent person to act as an adjudicator (or judge) in a dispute, to decide on the terms of a settlement. Both parties in a conflict have to agree about who the arbitrator should be, and that the decision of the arbitrator will be binding on them all.

COLLECTIVE BARGAING
INTRODUCTION

An individual is free to bargain for himself and safeguard his own interest. The phrase collective bargaining consists of two words collective which implies group action through its representative and bargaining which suggests negotiation. The phrase, therefore, implies collective negotiations of a contract between managements representatives on one side and those of the workers on the other. More nurses are using collective bargaining to deal with their concerns. Collective bargaining is on the basis of the principle that there is greater strength in large numbers. Its primary goal is to equalize the power between labor and management. Today, some nurses are joining other labor organizations that represent them at the bargaining table. Nurses have gone on strike over economic concerns and over issues about safe care for clients and safety for themselves. DEFINITION Collective bargaining takes place when a number of work people enter into a negotiation as a bargaining unit an employer or group of employer with the object of reaching an agreement on conditions of the employment of the work people . (According to J.H. Rishardwon) Collective Bargaining is an agreement between a single employer or an association of employers on the one hand and a labour union on the other, which regulates the terms and conditions of employment. According to Tudwig Teller Collective Bargaining is a process of discussion and negotiation between two parties, one or both of whom is a group of persons acting in concert more specially it is the procedures by which an employer or employers and a group of employees agree upon the conditions of work. The Encyclopaedia of social science HISTORY OF COLLECTIVE BARGAINING IN NURSING Laws: The following is a chronology of collective bargaining laws related to nursing in the United States: 1935: The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) which is sometimes called the Wagner Act, notes that hospitals are employee. Thus, it protects employees of private, for-profit health care institutions. 1947: Under the amendment to the NLRA (called the Taft-Hartley Act), from the right to organize, and from the right to bargain collectively. 1960: The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) excepts proprietary hospitals from coverage by the NLRA

 1974: The NLRA amendments repeal exceptions and subject all acute care hospitals to coverage by the act. These amendments make no change in the NLRBs authority to determine the appropriate bargaining unit in each case. 1989: The NLRB rules that eight bargaining units are appropriate for each hospital. One such unit will be solely for registered nurses. 1991: The US Supreme court upholds the ruling for eight bargaining units, which include separate units for RNs, Physicians, other professionals, technical employees, skilled maintenance employees, clerical employees, guards, and other nonprofessional employees. The exception is units with fewer than six employees. 1994: A Supreme Court decision indicates that in any business in which supervisory duties are necessary to the provision of services, personnel who use independent judgments to direct the work of less skilled employees are supervisors and not protected by the NLRA. 1995: With the support of the American Nurses Association (ANA), the Michigan Nurses Association argues successfully before the NLRB that nurses are not supervisors, as claimed by the Michigan Hospital Medical Centre, and are therefore eligible to bargain collectively. OBJECTIVES OF COLLECTIVE BARGAINING Collective bargaining has benefits not only for the present, but also for the future. The objectives of collective bargaining are: 1. To provide an opportunity to the workers, to voice their problems on issues related to employment. 2. To facilitate reaching a solution that is acceptable to all the parties involves. 3. To resolve all conflicts and disputes in a mutually agreeable manner. 4. To prevent any conflict/disputes in the future through mutually signed contracts. 5. To develop a conductive atmosphere to foster good organizations relations. 6. To provide stable and peaceful organization (hospital) relations. 7. To enhance the productivity of the organization by preventing strikes lock out