LECTURE 1 Proto-Indo-European Spoken perhaps 5000 to 6000 years ago the Indo-European homeland problem the two homeland

and hypotheses: Gimbutas & Renfrew

Maria Gimbutas and the Kurgan culture 5th and early 4th millennia BC, the region of the Volga River, north of the Caspian Sea. They buried their important dead in tombs which were often covered by an artificial mound called in Russian a kurgan. Apparently they were warlike pastoralists who rode horses and used wheeled vehicles; they had a cult of sky gods and sun worship, a strongly patriarchal organisation, and a great love for horses and weapons. There is evidence that the Kurgan people, some time after 4000 BC, spread out eastwards into central Asia, Persia, and India, westwards into central Europe and the Balkans, and southwards across the Caucasus into Anatolia. Colin Renfrew argues that, at a time when states and even cities did not yet exist, no group of people could have possessed the economic and technological resources necessary to launch large-scale invasions and to overrun already populated lands. He advanced a very different scenario: IE speech must have defused slowly and peacefully across Eurasia in conjunction with some economic or technological advance. He can find only one such advance which is sufficiently widespread and important to be the vehicle of such linguistics spread: the development and spread of agriculture. Agriculture did spread out slowly across much of Europe and Asia from a very few small sites principally in the Middle East, but that spread of agriculture began not 6 000 years ago but over 10 000 years ago, in the Neolithic, or the Late Stone Age. This date is quite unacceptable to most linguists: such an early date would require IE speech to have diffused over a vast area during the thousands of years while hardly changing at all, something which historical linguists consider impossible. In a recent debate regarding Mapping the origins and expansion of the Indo-European language family, the linguists say: In this paper we identify the homeland of the Indo-European language family by adapting phylogeographic methods initially developed by epidemiologists to trace the origins of virus outbreaks. Instead of comparing viruses, we compare languages and instead of DNA, we look for shared cognates words that have a common origin, such as mother, mutter and madre across various Indo-European languages. We use the cognates to infer a family tree of the languages and, together with information about the location of each language, we trace back through time to infer the location at the root of the tree the origin of IndoEuropean.

The pre-history of Proto-Into-European? Some proposals: Nostratic The Nostraticists propose that Nostratic existed about 15,00012,000 BC, among huntergatherers, generally somewhere in South-West Asia. They have opponents in abundance who challenge the entire concept of Nostratic, and most certainly ones ability to reconstruct protolanguages at such a time depth Two models of linguistic change and two ways of representing the internal structure of a language family a) Tree model Stammbaumtheorie, August Schleicher (182168) Within a language family: some languages are more closely related and form subgroups and they are identified as such through shared innovations changes which have appeared in some members of the family but not in others b) Wave model a wave model diagram is similar to a dialect map; a language change spreads like a wave; an innovation spreads from its point of origin to some but not all speakers (dialects, languages). It shows graphically the continuing contact between dialects and languages (branching in the tree model suggests series of clean brakes with no connection between branches after they have split)

Today: the IE subfamilies in Europe: Slavic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Non IE, Greek, Albanian The Altaic family: Turkic, Mongolian, Tungusic, and Manchu languages The Germanic family of languages Most specialists believe Proto-Germanic was spoken in southern Scandinavia perhaps around 500 B.C. Germanic languages are believed to have started out more than 2000 years ago as regional dialects of Proto-Germanic. Germanic languages today: Netherlands, Germany, Liech, Austria, Switzerland The Germanic family of languages: Protogermanic: - West germanic (Eng, Germ, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, Yiddish) - North G (Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Faroese, Icelandic) - East G (Gothic)

The Germanic runic alphabet futhark angular letters of uncertain origin, cut in hard material (stone, bone,wood). inscriptions runes are arranged in a fixed order

In some

Breza futhark tentatively attributed to the 6th c. They are inscribed on a semi-circular halfcolumn (56 cm high, 30 cm wide). The building itself may have been an early Christian church. The inscription is not complete: the last three letters are brokenaway, and the carver missed out b. The runes are between 0.5 and 2.6 cms high. The Anglo-Saxon futhork introduction of Christianity - the Latin script introduced instead of the runic script futhork. Each rune represented a sound and it also represented a word beginning with that sound. English long young king man home sword fish hound star head < OE heafod German lang jung Knig Mann Heim Schwert Fisch Hund Stern Haupt Swedish lng ung konung, kung man hem sverd fisk hund stjrna huvud

Cognate words of Latin origin from the shared vocabulary: (the early contact between the Romans and the Germanic tribes on the continent) English pepper wine cook cheap tile pound mile German Pfeffer Wein kochen kaufen Ziegel Pfund Meile Swedish peppar vin koka kpa tegel pund mil

Names of the days of the week Tuesday < Tiwes-dg the day of the god Tiw, an old god of war Lat dies Martis (the day of Mars) Wednesday < Wodens-dg the day of the god Woden (Odin), the chief god of war, Runes, poetry and witchcraft Lat Mercurii dies (the day of Mercury)

Thursday < Thunres-dg the day of the god Thunor, the god of thunder Lat dies Jovis (the day of Jupiter) Friday < Frige-dg the day of the fertility goddess Frig, Woden's wife. Lat dies Veneris (the day of Venus) Also: Saturday < Stern(es)-dg Lat Saturni dies (the day of Saturn) Sunday < sunnan-dg Lat dies solis (the day of the sun) Monday < monan-dg Lat lunae dies (the day of the moon) Some common characteristics of the Germanic languages: Verb system: two tense verb system: present & preterite strong verbs: vowel change (vowel gradation) in the stem to mark past tense weak verbs: a dental suffix (-de, -te) to mark the past tense Fixed (dynamic) stress on the root syllable (usually the first syllable) Dual adjectival declension (strong and weak) The First Germanic Consonant Shift also called Grimms Law Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) A statement of the relationship between certain consonants in Germanic languages and their originals in Indo-European. "In general," says Tom McArthur, "Grimm's Law holds that unvoiced IE [Indo-European] stops became Germanic unvoiced continuants, that voiced IE stops became Germanic unvoiced stops, and that unvoiced IE continuants became Germanic voiced stops" PREZENTACIJA 1, ZADNJI SLAJD

LECTURE 2 Another well-known classification of languages: Typological (structural) classification: a) Isolative (analytic) a language in which each grammatical category (e.g. number, tense) is represented by a free morpheme, a separate word. (Chinese, Vietnamese) An example from Mandarin: Ta chi fan le. he eat meal past------- He ate the meal. b) Agglutinative a language in which words tend to be composed out of two or more morphemes. In such a language, each affix marks a single grammatical category (Turkish, Finnish) Affixes in Turkish: ev house ev-ler houses ev-ler-de in the houses ev-ler-den from the houses c) Synthetic (inflectional) - a language in which words tend to be composed out of two or more morphemes (e.g. a root and one or more affixes). A synthetic affix marks several grammatical categories simultaneously (Indo-European) Polysynthetic a language in which long strings of bound morphemes are united into a single word that translates as an entire sentence in English (Amerindian) An example from Inuktitut (the language of the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic) Qasuiirsarvigssarsingitluinarnarpuq. quasu-iir -sar -vig -ssar -si -ngit -luinar -nar -puq tired not cause-to-be place-for suitable find not completely someone 3rd sg. Someone did not find a completely suitable resting place. Periods in the history of English OLD ENGLISH c.450 1100 / MIDDLE ENGLISH 1100 1500 / MODERN ENGLISH 1500 > Old English: Pre-Old English (c. 450 700)/ Early Old English (700 900) / Late Old English (900 1100) 449 the beginning of the Germanic invasion

Seven kingdoms: the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy Angles: Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbria Mercian and Northumbrian dialects Saxons: Essex, Wessex, Sussex West-Saxon dialect Jutes: Kent Kentish dialect

Germanic place names: -bury, -burgh, -borough (stronghold, fort): Canterbury, Edinburgh, Woodborough -ton (farm, village): Tonbridge (bridge on a farm) Norton (northern farm) -field: Fairfield (fine stretch of open country) -stow (place, with a sanctuary): Chepstow (a market-place) -stead farm, house: Hampstead (a place where hemp is grown) -ing(s) (tribal, patronymic suffix): Hastings (the men of Haesta) -ham home, dwelling place: Nottingham (home of the men of Snotta) Celtic influence on Old English: apart from place names, very small uisge (water), amhuin (river): Ouse, Exe, Esk, Usk, Avon, Evan (compare whisky, a variant of usque, abbreviated from usquebaugh < uisge beatha water of life) comb (deep valley): Duncombe, Winchcombe torr (high rock): Torr, Torcross llan (church): Llandaff, Llanelli Also: London, Thames, York, Dover, Kent

Celtic + Latin: Manchester, Winchester, Gloucester, Worcester, Lancaster, Devonport, Lincoln Lat castrum - fortification; portus harbor- door colonia - settlement Celtic + Germanic: Yorkshire, Cornwall, Salisbury, Lichfield, Devonshire, Canterbury Christianization: 597 St Augustine arrives in Kent; introduction of Christianity; the Latin script introduced instead of the Germanic runic script futhork Danish and Norwegian Vikings: invasion, warfare, settlement 789 the beginning of Danish invasions Note! In the 9th c. the Danes were given land by the French king Charles the Bold; In 911 they permanently settled in the province that was named Normandy after them. Norman < Old Norse Normar Northman. They adopted the French language and culture. - The Normans 879 Alfred the Great signed a treaty with the Danes led by Guthrum: the Danelaw (the northern, central and eastern regions). 11th c. Knut (for thirty years Danish kings ruled over England) 9th11th cc. West Saxon is the dialect used for public communication among all parts of England

Germanic: West G . Old Eng North G Old Norse East G Old Norse is a language closely related to Old English. It was spoken by people of a similar social status as the English among whom they settled. The English and the Danes and Norwegians could understand one another, since the greatest part of their vocabulary consisted of common Germanic words. Scandinavian suffixes in place names: -by (town, village, farm): Newby, Frisby (village of the Frisians), Derby (deer village) -thorp (village): Newthorp, Easthorpe, Bishopthorpe, Thorpe -thwaite (piece of land, glade, clearing): Langthwaite, Applethwaite -toft (piece of land): Langtoft, Nortoft MIDDLE ENGLISH Early Middle English (1100 1300) Late Middle English (1300 1500) The Norman Conquest: 1066 William the Duke of Normandy wins the Battle of Hastings Rebellions in the west and the north are ruthlessly subdued All larger estates and important positions are given to Williams followers (Normans and other foreigners). Norman clergymen appointed to important positions in the church (bishops, abbots). French and Latin replace English as an official language Dialectal differences increase during the Middle English period Middle English dialects: Northern, East Midland, West Midland, Southern (South-Western), Kentish (SouthEastern) (division greatly preserved in Modern English dialects). Until the 13th century the Anglo-Norman kings and nobility retain their possessions in France (Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Aquitaine), and spend most of their time there. A considerable number of merchants and craftsmen settled in the cities. Tradesmen, clerics frequently cross the Channel _ increased traffic between England and France; great influence on political and social life, culture and language. 1204 King John (Lackland) loses Normandy _ By 1250 allegiance of nobleman only to England. First half of the 13th c. continued use of French in England: influx of upper class Frenchmen and popularity of French in Europe due to the prestige of French civilization and learning. But after 1250 rise of the prestige of English: no monolingual French speakers, increase of bilinguals and thus the influence of French on English

French borrowings in Middle English: _1250 around 900 Norman French words _1500 at least 10,000, mostly Parisian (Central) French, 75% of them still in use. The early French borrowings reflect the Norman influence upon English life. Later borrowings reflect continued cultural, economical and political contacts. Henry III (12071272), ruled from 1216-1272; brought foreigners from FranceSimon de Montfort and the barons forced the king to sign the Provisions of Oxford (1258) by which his foreign advisers are dismissed and to accept the council of the English barons. 1258 Henry III issues the proclamation to the councilors in Parliament written in French, Latin and English (the first proclamation since the Norman conquest in English) _ rise of national consciousness _ grater use of English _ decline of French (end of the 13th beginning of 14th c.) _ 14th century: French is a foreign language even for the nobility 1295 A document is read and explained both in English and French before the court in Chelmsford 13371453 Hundred Years War strengthened patriotism and nationalism; animosity towards everything French 1344 The earliest petition to the chancellor in English 134850 The Black Death, 3040% drop in the population _ increase of the value of labour _ greater mobility of the population horizontally and vertically An account of the relationship between English and French in Medieval Britain: Ranulph Hygdens universal history, Polychronicon, written in Latin, translated by John Trevisa in the 1380s Modern English translation: The impairing of the native tongue is because of two things. One is that children in school, contrary to the usage and custom of other nations, are compelled to drop their own language and to construe their lessons and their other things in French, and have done so since the Normans first came to England. Also, gentlemens children are taught to speak French from the time that they are rocked in their cradles and can talk and play with a childs trinket; and upcountry men want to liken themselves to gentlemen, and try with great effort to speak French, so as to be more thought of. Trevisa added the following comment: (Modern English translation) This custom was much in use before the first plague [1348], and is since somewhat changed. For John Cornwall, a grammar master, changed the instruction and construing in the grammar school from French into English; and Richard Pencrych learned that kind of teaching from him, and other men from Pencrych, so that now, the year of Our Lord 1385 , in all the grammar schools of England, children are dropping French, and construing and learning in English, and have as a result an advantage on the one hand and a disadvantage on the other. Their advantage is that they learn their grammar in less time than children were accustomed to do. The disadvantage is that now grammar school children know no more French than their left heel, and that is bad for them if they have to go overseas and travel in foreign countries, and in many other cases, too. Also gentleman have now largely stopped teaching their children French.

1362 The parliament is opened for the first time in English; the parliament enacts the Statute of pleading: all law court proceedings should be conducted in English 1381 The Peasants Revolt, accelerating social processes begun earlier c. 1385 English introduced in schools throughout England Henry IV (13661413), ruled 13991413 the first monolingual English king 1423 The records of the parliament begin to be written in English 1476 William Caxton returns to England and establishes the first printing press in Westminster the mooste quantyte of the people vnderstonde not latyn ne frensche here in this noble royame of englond. French cultivated as a language of culture 15th c. emergence of Standard English: a written standard the standardization of pronunciation 16th c.18th c. The Kings Chancery (Westminster) _ Chancery Standard Influence of the writing of London (Chaucer, Gower, Hoccleve) and Wycliffite manuscripts Printing helped codify English orthography the importance of London as the capital of England (the seat of the court, of the highest judicial tribunals, the focus of the social and intellectual activities _ The rise of the mixed dialect of London: East Midlands with Southern features

LECTURE 3 MODERN ENGLISH Early Modern English 1500 1700 Late Modern English 1700 1900 Present-day English 1900 William Caxton (c. 1422-1491) - the first English printer, also a translator; used the current speech of London in his numerous translations. During the early 1440s went to Bruges (Flanders) where he prospered as a mercer and in late 1473 or early 1474 and printed the first book in English, his translation of a French courtly romance, The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. 1476 Caxton returns to England and establishes the first printing press in Westminster 1477 The first book printed in England: The Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres The Tudor dynasty (14851603) _ England one of the major powers. Henry VIII (r. 150947) severed relations with Rome in 1531, the establishment of the Church of England, Protestant Reformation, reduction of the importance of Latin both in church and schools Protestantism encouraged religious discussion; Translations of the Bible (Tyndale, Coverdale, Geneva). The Renaissance classical Greek and Roman literature, history, philosophy period of innovative writing Tolerance of a variety of forms great language freedom and creativity, elementary education spreads _ a relatively large market for books created Elizabeth I (r.15581603) 1588 victory over the Spanish Armada; beginning of colonial expansion The 16th c. - early grammarians, proposal for spelling reform, the beginning of English lexicography The early Stuarts (160349) continue the expansion of England James I (r.16031625) patron of King James Bible the Authorized Version 1611 164260 Civil war, royalists vs. parliamentarians, execution of Charles I (16251649), Oliver Cromwell; Restoration, Charles II (r.16601685) Scholarly writing in 17th c. still mostly done in Latin (Bacon, Newton) perceived English lexicon inadequacies and Latin borrowings; purists and criticism of borrowings: inkhorn terms English scholarly language in 18th c. Form the 17th c. the publication of grammars and dictionaries. Perceived and regarded as authorities and prescriptions for correct usage. These prescriptive works had a quite overt social bias. They codified the usage of the upper classes, the gentry (about 10% of the population). The language of the common people was considered deprived and inferior. The prescriptive grammar in the 18th c. The influence of Graeco-Latin tradition The ideal of correctness The need for standardization and regulation:

 Eighteenth century grammarians aimed to do the following: (1) To reduce the language to rule and set up a standard of correct usage; (2) To refine itthat is, to remove supposed defects and introduce certain improvements; (3) To fix it permanently in the desired form. The prescriptive grammar in the 18th c. (1770s): The use of shall/will/will for prediction and will/shall/shall for promise. Rejection of whose as a possessive of which. Discouragement of the use of prepositions at the end of a sentence. The use of you were for singular. The use of comparative where two things are involved, e.g. the taller of the two not the tallest. The condemnation of the double negative. The condemnation of the split infinitive, e.g. to completely follow. Obligatory agreement between pronouns and their antecedents.

OLD ENGLISH OE Pre-Old English c.450 700 Early Old English 700 900 Late Old English 900 1100 Old English introduction of Christianity _ the Latin script introduced instead of the Germanic runic script futhork OE scribal tradition of spelling and OE pronunciation Vowel letters: a [a], [a:] [], [:] y [Y], [Y:] e [e], [e:] i [I], [i:] Diphthongs: o [o], [o:] ea [ea], [ea:] u [u], [u:] eo [eo], [eo:] short and long vowels were not distinguished in writing; etymologically long vowels is a modern editorial practice. Consonants: b [b] p [p] t [t] m [m] n [n, N] ring [Ng] the insertion of macrons over

h [h, x, c] w [w] r [r] x [ks] palatal frictive; x velar fricative

VOICING between Vs and voiced Cs : f [f, v] / [3, ] s [s, z] fif [fi:f] ry [3rY] three sittan [sit:an] sit ofer [over] oer [oer] other wesan [wezan] be PALATALIZATION: c [k, tS] g [g, j] cyning [kYniNg] king gan [gan] go + , e, i cild [tSIld] child geong [jeoNg] young

The vowels [Y], [Y:] the only source was the process known as palatal mutation (i umlaut, front mutation, Imutation). Back vowels became front, and low front vowels were raised, when an inflectional or a derivational suffix beginning with [-i, -j] was added to the root. Affected both the long and the short vowels Mutated plurals: OE sg. fot foot pl. fet < *fot-iz feet, pl. sg. mann man pl. menn < *mann-iz men, pl. ModE mouse mice foot feet goose geese man men The vowel diagram (prezentacija 3, slide 23) represents the movements of the tongue in palatal mutation. The mutation was the result of the organs of speech preparing for the pronunciation of the ending. The ending was dropped before the OE period, but the resulting change remained and became the only sign of plurality. Also: OE an nig ModE one any eald ieldra old elder talu tellan tale tell blod bledan blood bleed Angle Englisc Angles English long lengu long length strong strengu strong strength ful fyl foul filth The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle the primary source for the early history of England; first assembled in the reign of King Alfred (871899); survived to the modern period in several interrelated manuscripts; The Peterborough Chronicle, named after the monastery where it was kept, is the version that was continued longest (until the early part of 1155). iz kopija slajdova dodati zadnja 4

LECTURE 4 Old English morphology Compared with PdE, OE was highly inflected, E.g. NOUNS: 4 cases, three genders; VERBS: person, number, indicative, subjunctive & imperative moods; But the system was already simplified when compared to earlier stages. There were many instances of syncretism in the paradigms. Proto-Indo-European Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives marked for seven grammatical cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative, locative (in the first recorded Germanic languages there were five cases: nominative, genitive, accusative, dative, instrumental) They were also marked for number: singular (one being or item), dual (two beings or items) plural (more than two beings or items) (In OE dual was only marked for 1st and 2nd person pronouns). Grammatical gender: masculine, feminine, and neuter OLD ENGLISH NOUNS number: singular and plural grammatical gender: masc., fem. and neut. four cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive all the cases can also have various adverbial functions, e.g. accusative of direction, dative of place and manner, genitive temporal, &c. several masculine, feminine and neuter paradigms:

Syncretism:

 nominative & accusative same for most declensions dative sg. & pl. same for most declensions, esp. the pl. um an declension

Old English pronouns

Demostratives: se that and es this Used as determiners: se mann that man, the man (there are no articles in OE), or as pronouns Cases: N, A, G, D and Instrumental (masc. & neut. sg.) Number: singular, plural Personal pronouns Number: singular, dual, plural

Interrogative pronouns: Masculine/feminine N hwa A hwone G hws D hwm I hwy

Neuter hwt N & A hws G hwm D hwy I

OE ADJECTIVES
agreed with the noun they modified in number, gender and case Two sets of inflections: INDEFINITE or STRONG adjective declension used predicatively and attributively without any determiners; DEFINITE or WEAK used attributively when the noun phrase was preceded by a determiner (esp. a demonstrative pronoun)

Comparison of Adjectives
some adjectives had irregular comparison, which has been regularized in ModE, such as adjectives that had a mutated vowel (at an earlier stage the suffixes were either ira, ist or ora, ost) the i-forms _ palatal mutation (Imutation); later i was weakened to e, or was lost).

OE ADVERBS Adverbs were also compared in a similar manner: oft (often), oftor (more often), oftost (most often) The negative adverb ne normally negated the verb (and other parts of speech) by preceding it contraction ne + vowel/h/w: ne is > nis, ne hfde > nefde, ne woldon > noldon multiple negation: Nan man ne dorste slean oerne man No man durst slay another (dared)