ABSTRACT:

A solar powered water pumping system is made up of two basic components. These are PV panels and pumps. The smallest element of a PV panel is the solar cell. Each solar cell has two or more specially prepared layers of semiconductor material that produce direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to light. This DC current is collected by the wiring in the panel. It is then supplied either to a DC pump, which in turn pumps water whenever the sun shines ,or stored in batteries for later use by the pump. The aim is to explain how solar powered water pumping system works. Simple on/off controller for solar powered water pump require two 12v 50 watt solar panels wired in series. The power from the solar panels drove a submerged water pump. However, during overcast skies the pump motor did not operate properly due to the lack of power from the panel. He wanted a circuit which would turn off power to the motor during low sun conditions. The circuit below performs this function. A small 0.1 x 0.1 photodiode monitors the sunlight intensity. The current from the diode is proportional to sunlight intensity. An adjustable load resistor across the diode converts the current into a voltage and feeds them to a voltage comparator circuit. The output of the comparator drives a small n-channel MOSFET, which in turn drives a high current pchannel MOSFET, controlling power to the pump motor. When the sunlight is less than one fourth of full intensity, power to the motor is turned off.

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CHAPTER:1

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INTRODUCTION:
WATER PUMPING SYSTEM AND PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER: A water pumping system needs a source of power to operate. In general, AC powered system is economic and takes minimum maintenance when AC power is available from the nearby power grid. However, in many rural areas, water sources are spread over many miles of land and power lines are scarce. Installation of a new transmission line and a transformer to the location is often prohibitively expensive. Windmills have been installed traditionally in such areas; many of them are, however, inoperative now due to lack of proper maintenance and age. Today, many stand-alone type water pumping systems use internal combustion engines. These systems are portable and easy to install. However, they have some major disadvantages, such as: they require frequent site visits for refueling and maintenance, and furthermore diesel fuel is often expensive and not readily available in rural areas of many developing countries. The consumption of fossil fuels also has an environmental impact, in particular the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. CO2 emissions can be greatly reduced through the application of renewable energy technologies, which are already cost competitive with fossil fuels in many situations. Good examples include large-scale gridconnected wind turbines, solar water heating, and off-grid stand-alone PV systems. The use of renewable energy for water pumping systems is, therefore, a very attractive proposition. Windmills are a long-established method of using renewable energy; however they are quickly phasing out from the scene despite success of large-scale grid-tied wind turbines. PV systems are highly reliable and are often chosen because they offer the lowest life-cycle cost, especially for applications requiring less than 10KW, where grid electricity is not available and where internal-combustion engines are expensive to operate [24]. If the water source is 1/3 mile (app. 0.53Km) or more from the power line, PV is a favourable economic choice.

Solar energy:
A photovoltaic system is based on the ability of certain materials to convert the radiant energy of the sun into electrical energy. The total amount of solar energy that lights a given area is known as irradiance (G) and it is measured in watts per square meter (W/m2). The instantaneous values are normally averaged over a period of time, so it is common to talk
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about total irradiance per hour, day or month. Of course, the precise amount of radiation that arrives at the surface of the Earth cannot be predicted with high precision, due to natural weather variations. Therefore it is necessary to work with statistical data based on the "solar history" of a particular place. This data is gathered by a weather station over a long period and is available from a number of sources, as tables or databases. In most cases, it can be difficult to find detailed information about a specific area, and you will need to work with approximate values. A few organizations have produced maps that include average values of daily global irradiation for different regions. These values are known as peak sun hours or PSHs. You can use the PSH value for your region to simplify your calculations. One unit of "peak sun" corresponds to a radiation of 1000 Watts per square meter. If we find that certain area has 4 PSH in the worst of the months, it means that in that month we should not expect a daily irradiation bigger than 4000 W/m2 (day). The peak sun hours are an easy way to represent the worst case average of irradiation per day. Low resolution PSH maps are available from a number of online sources, such as http://www.solar4power.com/solarpower-global-maps.html. For more detailed information, consult a local solar energy vendor or weather station.

SOLAR WATER PUMPING SYSTEMS:

There are two basic types of solar-powered water pumping systems, battery-coupled and direct-coupled.A variety of factors must be considered in determining the optimum system for a particular application.

Battery-Coupled Solar Pumping Systems:

Battery-coupled water pumping systems consist of photovoltaic (PV) panels, charge control regulator, batteries, pump controller, pressure switch and tank and DC water pump (Figure 2 ). The electric current produced by PV panels during daylight hours charges the batteries, and the batteries in turn supply power to the pump anytime water is needed. The use of batteries spreads the pumping over a longer period of time by providing a steady operating voltage to the DC motor of the pump. Thus, during the night and low light periods, the system can still deliver a constant source of water for livestock.

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Figure 2. Battery-coupled solar water pumping system.

The use of batteries has its drawbacks. First, batteries can reduce the efficiency of the overall system because the operating voltage is dictated by the batteries and not the PV panels. Depending on their temperature and how well the batteries are charged, the voltage supplied by the batteries can be one to four volts lower than the voltage produced by the panels during maximum sunlight conditions. This reduced efficiency can be minimized with the use of an appropriate pump controller that boosts the battery voltage supplied to the pump.

Direct-Coupled Solar Pumping System:

In direct-coupled pumping systems, electricity from the PV modules is sent directly to the pump, which in turn pumps water through a pipe to where it is needed (Figure 3). This system is designed to pump water only during the day. The amount of water pumped is totally dependent on the amount of sunlight hitting the PV panels and the type of pump. Because the intensity of the sun and the angle at which it strikes the PV panel changes throughout the day, the amount of water pumped by this system also changes throughout the day. For instance, during optimum sunlight periods (late morning to late afternoon on bright sunny days) the pump operates at or near 100 percent efficiency with maximum water flow. However, during early morning and late afternoon, pump efficiency may drop by as much as 25 percent or more under these low-light conditions. 5
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During cloudy days, pump efficiency will drop off even more. To compensate for these variable flow rates, a good match between the pump and PV module(s) is necessary to achieve efficient operation of the system. Direct-coupled pumping systems are sized to store extra water on sunny days so it is available on cloudy days and at night. Water can be stored in a larger-than-needed watering tank or in a separate storage tank and then gravity-fed to smaller watering tanks. Waterstorage capacity is important in this pumping system. Two to five days storage may be required, depending on climate and pattern of water usage. Storing water in tanks has its drawbacks. Considerable evaporation losses can occur if the water is stored in open tanks, while closed tanks big enough to store several days water supply can be expensive. Also, water in the storage tank may freeze during cold weather.

Figure 3. Direct-coupled solar pumping system.

Controller or Inverter:
The pump controller protects the pump from high- or low-voltage conditions and maximizes the amount of water pumped in less than ideal light conditions. An AC pump requires an inverter, an electronic component that converts DC electricity from the solar panels into AC electricity to operate the pump.
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ENERGY STORAGE ALTERNATIVES:

Needless to say, photovoltaics are able to produce electricity only when the sunlight is available, therefore stand-alone systems obviously need some sort of backup energy storage which makes them available through the night or bad weather conditions. Among many possible storage technologies, the lead-acid battery continues to be the workhorse of many PV systems because it is relatively inexpensive and widely available. In addition to energy storage, the battery also has ability to provide surges of current that are much higher than the instantaneous current available from the array, as well as the inherent and automatic property controlling the output voltage of the array so that loads receive voltages within their own range of acceptability. While batteries may seem like a good idea, they have a number of disadvantages. The type of lead-acid battery suitable for PV systems is a deep-cycle battery, which is different from one used for automobiles, and it is more expensive and not widely available. Battery lifetime in PV systems is typically three to eight years, but this reduces to typically two to six years in hot climate since high ambient temperature dramatically increases the rate of internal corrosion. Batteries also require regular maintenance and will degrade very rapidly if the electrolyte is not topped up and the charge is not maintained. They reduce the efficiency of the overall system due to power loss during charge and discharge. Typical battery efficiency is around 85% but could go below 75% in hot climate. From all those reasons, experienced PV system designers avoid batteries whenever possible. For water pumping systems, appropriately sized water reservoirs can meet the requirement of energy storage during the downtime of PV generation. The additional cost of reservoir is considerably lower than that incurred by the battery equipped system. As a matter of fact, only about five percent of solar pumping systems employ a battery bank.

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CHAPTER:2

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Photovoltaic Modules
INTRODUCTION: The history of PV dates back to 1839 when a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel, discovered the first photovoltaic effect when he illuminated a metal electrode in an electrolytic solution [16]. Thirty-seven years later British physicist, William Adams, with his student, Richard Day, discovered a photovoltaic material, selenium, and made solid cells with 1~2% efficiency which were soon widely adopted in the exposure meters of camera [16]. In 1954 the first generation of semiconductor silicon-based PV cells was born, with efficiency of 6% [3], and adopted in space applications. Today, the production of PV cells is following an exponential growth curve since technological advancement of late 80s that has started to rapidly improve efficiency and reduce cost.

Photovoltaic Cell:
Photons of light with energy higher than the band-gap energy of PV material can make electrons in the material break free from atoms that hold them and create hole-electron pairs, as shown in Figure 2-1. These electrons, however, will soon fall back into holes causing charge carriers to disappear. If a nearby electric field is provided, those in the conduction band can be continuously swept away from holes toward a metallic contact where they will emerge as an electric current. The electric field within the semiconductor itself at the junction between two regions of crystals of different type, called a p-n junction

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The PV cell has electrical contacts on its top and bottom to capture the electrons, as shown in Figure 2-2. When the PV cell delivers power to the load, the electrons flow out of the n-side into the connecting wire, through the load, and back to the p-side where they recombine with holes [16]. Note that conventional current flows in the opposite direction from electrons.

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CHAPTER:3

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PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) PANELS

PV panels are made up of a series of solar cells, as shown in Figure 5, below. Each solar cell has two or more specially prepared layers of semiconductor material that produce DC electricity when exposed to sunlight. A single, typical solar cell can generate approximately 3 watts of energy in full sunlight. The semiconductor layers can be either crystalline or thin film. Crystalline solar cells are generally constructed out of silicon and have an efficiency of approximately 15%. Solar cells that are constructed out of thin films, which can consist of a variety of different metals, have efficiencies of approximately 8% to 11%. They are not as durable as silicon solar cells, but they are lighter and considerably less expensive. PV panels may be arranged in arrays and connected by electrical wiring to deliver power to a pump (see Section 3.0 for more details). PV panels must meet all NRCS required specifications, both for power production and structural integrity (including resistance to hail), as described in the following sections.

Figure A.

PV SOLAR CELL

PV SOLAR PANEL

ARRAY OF PV SOLAR PANELS

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SOLAR PANELS 1) BASICS

A solar cell, sometimes called a photovoltaic cell, is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. A single solar cell creates a very small amount of energy so solar cells are usually grouped together in an integrated electrical panel called a solar panel. Sunlight is a somewhat diffuse form of energy and only a portion of the light captured by a solar cell is converted into electricity.

The current generation of solar cells convert only 12% to 15% of the sun's light into electricity. However in recent years there have been significant improvements in their design. Some new cells on the market now have efficiencies around 20% while some laboratory prototypes even reach as much as 30%. Given this it is likely that solar cell efficiency will continue to improve over time. The output of a solar panel is usually stated in watts. The amount of watts of electricity generated by a panel is determined by multiplying the rated voltage by the rated amperage. The formula for wattage is: VOLTS x AMPS = WATTS

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Let's use as an example a large solar panel measuring about 1 x 1,5m that might be used in a typical home energy system. The solar panel has a rated voltage of 26V and rated amperage of 7A. The wattage calculation would look like this: 26V x 7A = 182W If a particular location has an average of 6 hours of peak sun per day, then the solar panel in this example can produce an average of 1092Wh (6 x 182) power per day or a little over 1kWh per day. Most homes use between 10-25kWh per day. Given this it is going to take a lot more than one solar panel to generate enough electricity to completely power a home. For a household needing 20kWh per day it would take approximately 19 panels to provide 100% of the electricity. Most houses do not have enough space on their south facing roof for this amount of panels. Consequently, in most home applications where a connection to the grid is available, a solar panel system should only provide part, but not all of the necessary energy.

2) SOLAR PANELS FUNCTIONALITY:

A solar cell is based upon the "photovoltaic effect" (PV-effect) discovered in 1839 by Edmund Becquerel, a French physicist. In his experiments he found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to sunlight. Sunlight is made up of packets of energy called photons. When the photons strike the semi-conductor layer (usually silicon) of a solar cell a portion of the photons are absorbed by the material rather than bouncing off of it or going through the material. When a photon is absorbed the energy of that photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell causing the electron to escape from its normal position. This creates, in essence, a hole in the atom. This hole will attract another electron from a nearby atom now creating yet another hole, which in turn is again filled by an electron from another atom. This hole filling process is repeated a few zillion times, thus creating an electric current.

3) SOLAR PANEL STRUCTURE:

A typical solar cell is a multi-layered material. The layers are: Cover Glass - this is a clear glass layer that provides outer protection from the (weather) elements. Transparent Adhesive to stick the glass to the lower layers of the solar cell.

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Anti-reflective Coating - this substance prevents light that strikes the cell from bouncing off so that the maximum energy is absorbed into the cell. Front Contact - transmits the electric current. N-Type Semiconductor Layer - This is a thin layer of silicon which has been doped with phosphorous. P-Type Semiconductor Layer - This is a thin layer of silicon which has been doped with boron. Back Contact - transmits the electric current.

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4) SOLAR PANELS - TYPES

There are a number of different types of solar panels manufactured today. Briefly, they are:

MONO-CRYSTALLINE:
This type of solar cell uses a single layer of silicon for the semi-conductor.In order to produce this type of cell, the used silicon must be extremely pure which means it is the most expensive type of solar cell. However, they are the most efficient type of solar panels. Their performance is somewhat better in low light conditions (but not as good as some advertising hype would have you believe). Overall efficiency on average is about 12-15%. Most

panels of this type are warranted for 20-25 years. They are usually blue-grey in colour and have a fairly uniform consistency.

MONOCRYSTALINE TYPE

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POLY-CRYSTALLINE:
To ma ke polycrystalline silicon cells, liquid silicon is poured into blocks that are subsequently sawed into plates. This type of approach produces some degree of degradation of the silicon crystals which makes them less efficient. However, this type of approach is easier and cheaper to manufacture. Currently, poly-crystalline solar panels are the most common. They are slightly less efficient than single crystal, but once set into a frame with 35 or so other cells, the actual difference in W/m is not that high. Poly-crystalline cells look somewhat like shattered glass and have a dark blue to almost black colour. Overall efficiency on average is about 11-13%.

POLY-CRYSTALLINE

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AMORPHOUS:
Amorphous solar panels are also referred to as "thin film" solar panels. This type of solar cell uses layers of semiconductor that are only a few micrometers thick (about 1/100th the thickness of a human hair). This lowers the material cost but makes it even less efficient than the other types of silicon. However, because it is so thin this type of cell has the advantage that it can be placed on a wide variety of flexible materials in order to make things like solar shingles or roof tiles. Because they can be put on to flexible backings they have proven very valuable in certain types of applications where flexibility is more critical than power. For example, these types of solar panels are often used in portable products such as solar backpacks and solar bags. Overall efficiency on average is about 5-6%.Another way of defining solar cells is in terms of the types of materials they are made of. While silicon is the most commonly used crystal a number of other materials and substances can be used as well. Different types of substances perform better under certain light conditions. Some cells perform better outdoors (e.g. optimized for sunlight), while others perform better indoors (optimized for fluorescent light).

AMORPHOUS TYPE

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PV PANEL ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

PV panels are rated according to their output, which is based on an incoming solar irradiance of 1 kW/m2 at a specified temperature. Panel output data include peak power (Watts [Pw]), voltage (Volts [V]), and current (Amps [A]). Under conditions of reduced solar radiation, the current produced is decreased accordingly, but the voltage is reduced only slightly. Example electrical characteristics for a solar panel are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Example PV Solar Panel

Electrical Characteristics Characteristic Peak Power Power Tolerance Max Power Voltage Max Power Current Open Circuit Voltage Short Circuit Current 3.5 Amps [A] Value 117 5 % 35.5 3.3 40.0 Volts [V] Amps [A] Volts [V] Units Watt [Pw]

Multiple panel arrays should be wired in a series and/or parallel so that the resulting voltage and current are compatible with the controller and pump motor requirements. When multiple panels are wired in a series, the total output voltage is the sum of the individual panel output voltages; the total current stays the same. Conversely, when panels are wired in parallel, the voltage stays the same while the resultant total current is the sum of the individual panel current inputs. The total power output from a PV panel array is determined by multiplying the total output voltage by the total output current.

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Solar panels series or parallel:

To increase voltage or amperage of a solar system, the solar panels can be placed in series (higher voltage) or parallel (higher amperage) or a combination of both. Series wiring: connect the positive terminal of one panel to the negative terminal of the next. The resulting voltage between the outer positive and negative terminals is the sum of the panel voltages, but the amperage stays the same as for one panel. E.g. 2x 12V/3A panels in series produce 24V at 3A. 4x 12V/3A panels in series produce 48V at 3A. Parallel wiring: connect the positive terminals to positive terminals and negative to negative. The resulting voltage stays the same, but amperage becomes the sum of the panel amperages. E.g. 2x 12V/3A panels in parallel produce 12V at 6A 4x 12V/3A panels in parallel produce 12V at 14A

PV PANEL ORIENTATION AND TRACKING:

To be most effective, PV panels need to continuously and directly face incoming sunlight, which requires the use of one or two tracking mechanisms. A single-axis tracking mechanism will rotate a PV panel about its vertical axis to follow the sun throughout the day. A doubleaxis mechanism will also control the panel tilt angle (the angle of the panel relative to horizontal where 0 is horizontal and 90 is vertical) to adjust for the elevation of the sun in the sky throughout the year. Single-axis tracking can be very effective for increasing energy production throughout the year, by up to 50% during some months. Passive single trackers, which require no energy input, can be used. They use the heat from the sun to cause freon or a substitute refrigerant to move between cylinders in the tracker assembly, which causes the panels to shift so that they maintain a constant 90-degree angle to the sun throughout the day. Single-axis trackers tend to be more appropriate for sites between +/- 30 degrees latitude. Also, their benefits at higher altitudes tend to be less during the winter months when the sun is low on the horizon. In general, though, due to the complexity of tracking mechanisms and their associated controls, most installations for water pumps are stationary and oriented due south to take advantage of the maximum sunlight available in the middle of the day.

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The default tilt angle for a PV panel is equal to the latitude of the location. For a fixed array, this default angle will maximize annual energy production. A tilt angle of +/- 15 degrees from latitude will increase energy production for the winter or summer months, respectively. Most solar panels that are used for water pumping are set to collect the maximum amount of energy in the summer, when water demands are greatest. However, to maximize energy for both summer and winter pumping, it is recommended that the tilt angle be adjusted at the spring and autumn equinoxes (March 21st and September 21st). In other words, the panel array tilt angle should be adjusted as follows: Summer tilt angle = latitude 15 (When the sun is higher in the sky). Winter tilt angle = latitude + 15 (When the sun is lower in the sky). For example, latitudes in Oregon range from 42 to 46 north, so summer tilt angles are expected to range from 27 to 31 while winter tilt angles should range from 57 to 61. (The PV arrays in Figure 6, on the following page, show the different tilt angles for both summer and winter.) Note that if the arrays tilt angle is adjusted seasonally, the sites solar insolation data that is used in the design of the solar-powered water

Solar panel tilt angles: winter tilt with more angle from horizontal [left] and summer tilt with less angle from horizontal [right]. (Source: Renewable Energy Primer-Solar.)

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CHAPTER: 4

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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OPEARTION OF CIRCUIT:
The system used two 12v 50 watt solar panels wired in series. The power from the solar panels drove a submerged water pump. However, during overcast skies the pump motor did not operate properly due to the lack of power from the panel. Circuit turn off power to the motor during low sun conditions. The circuit below performs this function. A small 0.1 x 0.1 photodiode monitors the sunlight intensity. The current from the diode is proportional to sunlight intensity. An adjustable load resistor across the diode converts the current into a voltage and feeds the to a voltage comparator circuit. The output of the comparator drives a small n-channel MOSFET, which in turn drives a high current p-channel MOSFET, controlling power to the pump motor. When the sunlight is less than one fourth of full intensity, power to the motor is turned off.

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CHAPTER:5

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OPERATION AND PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS: RESISTOR:

A device used in electrical current conduction to control the direction of the current flowing to a circuit by applying resistance. Resistors may be fixed or variable both controlling the flow of current differently. It is sometimes not obvious whether a color coded component is a resistor, capacitor, or inductor, and this may be deduced by knowledge of its circuit function, physical shape or by measurement. Resistor values are always coded in ohms.

CAPACITOR:

Fig 5.1 Electrolytic Capacitor A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a nonconductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.

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A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value ,capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference.

THEORY OF OPERATION:

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

fig 5.2 parallel plate capacitor

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A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between

them. Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes: Energy storage:

C= W= = dq

INDUCTOR:
An inductor (also choke, coil, or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, and a resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat. Any conductor has inductance. An inductor is typically made of a wire or other conductor wound into a coil, to increase the magnetic field.

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When the current flowing through an inductor changes, a time-varying magnetic field is created inside the coil, and a voltage is induced, according to Faradays, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of the basic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.

In Electrical Circuits:
The effect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes in current through it by developing a voltage across it proportional to the rate of change of the current. An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to a constant direct current; however, only superconducting inductors have truly zero electrical resistance. The relationship between the time-varying voltage v(t) across an inductor with inductance L and the time-varying current i(t) passing through it is described by the differential equation:

When there is a sinusoidal alternating current (AC) through an inductor, a sinusoidal voltage is induced. The amplitude of the voltage is proportional to the product of the amplitude (IP) of the current and the frequency (f) of the current.

In this situation, the phase of the current lags that of the voltage by /2. If an inductor is connected to a direct current source with value I via a resistance R, and then the current source is short-circuited, the differential relationship above shows that the current through the inductor will discharge with an exponential decay:

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LM393:
Low Offset Voltage Dual Comparators: The LM393 series are dual independent precision voltage comparators capable of single or split supply operation. These devices are designed to permit a common mode rangetoground level with single supply operation. Input offset voltage specifications as low as 2.0 mV make this device an excellent selection for many applications in consumer, automotive, and industrial electronics.

LM 393

Features Wide SingleSupply Range: 2.0 Vdc to 36 Vdc SplitSupply Range: +/- 1.0 Vdc to +/- 18 Vdc Very Low Current Drain Independent of Supply Voltage: 0.4 mA Low Input Bias Current: 25 nA Low Input Offset Current: 5.0 nA
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Low Input Offset Voltage: 5.0 mV (max) LM293/393 Input Common Mode Range to Ground Level Differential Input Voltage Range Equal to Power Supply Voltage Output Voltage Compatible with DTL, ECL, TTL, MOS, and CMOS Logic Levels ESD Clamps on the Inputs Increase the Ruggedness of the Device without Affecting Performance NCV Prefix for Automotive and Other Applications Requiring Site and Control Changes These Devices are PbFree, Halogen Free/BFR Free and are RoHS Compliant

Working:
A dedicated voltage comparator will generally be faster than a general-purpose operational amplifier pressed into service as a comparator. A dedicated voltage comparator may also contain additional features such as an accurate, internal voltage reference, an adjustable hysteresis and a clock gated input.
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A dedicated voltage comparator chip such as LM339 is designed to interface with a digital logic interface (to a TTL or a CMOS). The output is a binary state often used to interface real world signals to digital circuitry (see analog to digital converter). If there is a fixed voltage source from, for example, a DC adjustable device in the signal path, a comparator is just the equivalent of a cascade of amplifiers. When the voltages are nearly equal, the output voltage will not fall into one of the logic levels, thus analog signals will enter the digital domain with unpredictable results. To make this range as small as possible, the amplifier cascade is high gain. The circuit consists of mainly bipolar transistors. For very high frequencies, the input impedance of the stages is low. This reduces the saturation of the slow, large P-N junction bipolar transistors that would otherwise lead to long recovery times. Fast small Schottky diodes, like those found in binary logic designs, improve the performance significantly though the performance still lags that of circuits with amplifiers using analog signals. Slew rate has no meaning for these devices. For applications in flash ADCs the distributed signal across eight ports matches the voltage and current gain after each amplifier, and resistors then behave as level-shifters. The LM339 accomplishes this with an open collector output. When the inverting input is at a higher voltage than the non inverting input, the output of the comparator connects to the negative power supply. When the non inverting input is higher than the inverting input, the output is 'floating' (has a very high impedance to ground).

Inputs

Output

>+

Grounded

+>

Floating

With a pull-up resistor and a 0 to +5 V power supply, the output takes on the voltages 0 or +5 and can interface with TTL logic: When else .

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IRF4905PbF:
Description: Fifth Generation HEXFETs from International Rectifier utilize advanced processing techniques to achieve extremely low on-resistance per silicon area. This benefit, combined with the fast switching speed and ruggedized device design that HEXFET Power MOSFETs are well known for, provides the designer with an extremely efficient and reliable device for use in a wide variety of applications. The TO-220 package is universally preferred for all commercial-industrial applications at power dissipation levels to approximately 50 watts. The low thermal resistance and low package cost of the TO-220 contribute to its wide acceptance throughout the Industry.

irf4905pbf transistor. Features:

Advanced Process Technology Ultra Low On-Resistance Dynamic dv/dt Rating 175C Operating Temperature Fast Switching P-Channel Fully Avalanche Rated and lead-free.
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BS270: N-Channel Enhancement Mode Field Effect Transistor:

General Description: These N-Channel enhancement mode field effect transistors are produced using Fairchild's proprietary, high cell density, DMOS technology. These products have been designed to minimize on-state resistance while provide rugged, reliable, and fast switching performance. They can be used in most applications requiring up to 500mA DC. These products are particularly suited for low voltage, low current applications such as small servo motor control, power MOSFET gate drivers, and other switching applications. Features: 400mA, 60V. RDS(ON) = 2W @ VGS = 10V. High density cell design for low RDS(ON). Voltage controlled small signal switch. Rugged and reliable. High saturation current capability Voltage controlled small signal switch High saturation current

Bs 270

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ZENARDIODE: Operation: A conventional solid-state diode will allow significant current if it is reverse-biased above its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. A zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called zener voltage as shown in fig(a) . By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the zener diode close to the zener breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications

Fig.(a) Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the zener effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient.

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Fig (b) Current-voltage characteristic of a zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 17 volts. Notice the change of voltage scale between the forward biased (positive) direction and the reverse biased (negative) direction.

Fig(c) TC depending on zenar voltage. In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients nearly cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is useful in temperature-critical applications. An alternative which is used for voltage references that need to be highly stable over long periods of time is to use a Z-diode with a TC of +2 mV/C (breakdown voltage 6.26.3 V) connected in series with a forward-biased silicon diode (or a transistor B-E junction) manufactured on the same chip.[3] The forward biased diode has a TC of -2 mV/C, causing the TCs to cancel out. Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficient, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode. Zener and avalanche diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term of "zener diode".
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PHOTODIODE:
Photodiodes are PN junction diodes designed specifically to harness the photoelectric effect. This means the device exposes the junction region of the PN diode to incoming photons which results in conducting the transfer of electrons across the junction. This process can also be reversed to produce photons. As can be speculated, there are many useful applications of this phenomenon, such as solar cells, light detection/emission, and thus signal receiving/sending.

INSIDE THE PHOTODIODE:

A pn junction photodiode is just a pn junction diode that has been specifically fabricated and encapsulated to permit light penetration into the vicinity of the metallurgical junction. The absorption of light inside the diode creates electron-hole pairs, as pictured in Fig. 9.2.(1)

The development of the p-i-n diode, also known as the avalanche photodiode, brought more efficient and advantageous features to the photodiode. The i stands for intrinsic, which represents that an intrinsic region is sandwiched in-between the heavily doped p and n regions. This lightly doped region takes control of the depletion region width and makes it possible to easily control the wavelength sensitivity of the junction of the particular photodiode. By being able to size the depletion region during fabrication, the electron voltage required to jump an electron across the junction can be chosen. Since the wavelength of the light is proportional to the amount of energy it deposits on impact with the junction, the frequency of sensitivity can be chosen.
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This device can be used in three modes: photovoltaic as a solar cell, reversed biased as a photo detector, and forwardbiased as an LED.

THE SOLAR CELL

Photovoltaic operation occurs when the photodiode is used in a circuit as a power source. By allowing photons to strike the pn junction, energy is passed into an electron jumping it across the junction, and a current is created. This devise is well known as a solar cell as in Fig.9.11

THE PHOTO DETECTOR

The reverse-bias operation is another popular use for the photodiode. This operation allows the photodiode to be used as a light intensity-to-voltage transducer. Here is the common schematic symbol for a photodiode and some typical photodiode packages.

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Similarly the p-n junction photodiode is used for its selectable wavelength sensitivity. In the reverse-bias mode the photodiode is used in a circuit similar to the way a zener diode is placed, backward. The voltage across the photodiode will remain at full-scale voltage while no current flows until light hits the metallurgical junction. Each photon of the appropriate wavelength or greater will strike an electron with enough energy to pass it through the junction, and thus current flows. This conduction across the photodiode appears as a voltage drop and thus we have a voltage change to measure. Here is an example of the photo detector use of the photodiode in a circuit to receive a signal.

A compact and complex use of photodiodes is the CCD (charge-coupled device), which uses thousands of photodiodes imbedded on a single Si surface, here is a color CCD image showing the Si die architecture.

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MOTOR PUMPS: SOLAR-POWERED PUMPS:

Pumps that use PV systems are normally powered by DC motors. These motors use the DC output from the PV panels directly. Alternating current (AC) motors are sometimes used, but they require more complex control systems. They also result in less total energy availability due to the electrical losses caused when an inverter is used to convert the DC to AC electricity. Because DC motors do not require an inverter, utilize a less complex control system, and result in more total energy availability, they are most commonly paired with solar-powered pumps. The type of pump configuration and mounting can be either submersible, surface mount, or floating, depending on the water source. Solar-powered pumps are characterized as either positive displacement pumps (e.g., diaphragm, piston, or helical rotor) or centrifugal pumps. Positive displacement pumps are typically used when the TDH is high and the flow rate (measured in gpm) required is low. Conversely, centrifugal pumps are typically used for low TDH and high flow rates. The TDH and flow rate characteristics for a given pump can be found in the pump manufacturers specifications. Another important consideration when selecting the appropriate pump is the pumps minimum voltage. Pump manufacturers may provide pumps with similar operating characteristics but different voltages. As noted in Section 1.2, a higher operating voltage tends to be more efficient since there is less energy loss from the reduced current required to deliver the same power (wattage). This is important when considering the placement of the panels and controller relative to the location of the pump. A general rule of thumb is that if the array consists of four or more panels and is located more than 50 feet away from the pump, the use of a higher voltage pump should be considered.

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How much Water can a Solar-Powered Pump Deliver? Solar-powered pumping systems can be configured to meet a wide variety of demands. The amount of water a solar-powered pump can deliver is a function of how far the water has to be lifted, the distance it has to travel through a delivery pipe (and the size of pipe), the efficiency of the pump being used, and how much power is available to the system. Power can be increased by adding more solar panels. For example, a h.p. pump supplied by three 50-watt panels can deliver water at a rate of about 1 gpm to a location 30 m higher than the source. As a comparison, a 3 h.p. low-lift irrigation pump powered by an array of 60 panels could deliver water at a rate of about 1,000 gpm.

BATTERIES:
The most common batteries used in stand-alone PV systems are lead-acid batteries. The familiar deep-cycle, marine-grade battery is a good example. They are rechargeable, easily maintained, relatively inexpensive, available in a variety of sizes and most will withstand daily discharges of up to 80 percent of their rated capacity. New type of lead-acid battery gel cell uses an additive that turns the electolyte into a nonspillable gel. These batteries can be mounted sideways or even upside down if needed because they are sealed. Another type of battery using nickel cadmium (NiCd) plates can be used in PV systems. Their initial cost is much higher than lead-acid batteries, but for some applications the life-cycle cost may be lower. Some advantages of NiCd batteries include their long-life expectancy, low maintenance requirements and their ability to withstand extreme conditions. Also, the NiCd battery is more tolerant to complete discharge. It is important to choose a quality battery rated at a minimum of 100 amp-hour storage capacity. Shallow-cycle (car batteries) should not be used for PV applications. These batteries are lighter, less expensive and are designed to produce a high-current cold cranking amps for a short period. The battery is then quickly recharged. Generally, shallow-cycle batteries should not be discharged more than 25 percent of the rated battery capacity. Battery banks are often used in PV systems. These banks are set up by connecting individual batteries in series or parallel to get the desired operating voltage or current. The voltage achieved in a series connection is the sum of the voltages of all the batteries, while the current (amps) achieved in series-connected batteries is equal to that of the smallest battery. For example, two 12-volt batteries connected in series
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produce the equivalent voltage of a 24-volt battery with the same amount of current (amps) output as a single battery. When wiring batteries in parallel, the current (amps) is the sum of the currents (amps) from all the batteries and the voltage remains the same as that of a single battery. Batteries must be protected from the elements. Batteries should be buried below the frost line in a watertight enclosure or placed in a building where the temperature will remain above freezing. If the batteries are buried, select a well-drained location. Batteries should never be set directly on concrete surfaces, as self discharge will increase, especially if the concrete surface gets damp. Batteries can be used to provide long-term or short-term electrical supply in case of grid failure. Many grid-connected houses choose to have a small electrical battery system to provide loads with power for half a day in case of outage. Larger number of batteries are typically used for remote grid-independent systems.

Battery Sizing I: If your load is 10 kw-hr per day, and you want to battery to provide 2.5 days of storage, then it needs to store 25 kw-hr of extractable electrical energy. Since deep cycle batteries can be discharged up to 80% of capacity without harm, you need a battery with a storage of 25/0.8 = 31.25 kw-hr. A typical battery at 12 volts and 200 amp-hour capacity stores 2.4 kw-hr of electrical energy. Battery Sizing II: The relationship between energy in kw-hr and battery capacity is E(kw-hr) =capacity(amp-hr) x voltage/1000 E = 200 amp-hr x 12 volts/1000= 2.4 kw-hr So for 31.25 kw-hr of storage we need 31.25 kw-hr/2.4 kw-hr/battery = 13 batteries If we are happy with one half day, we need only 2 or 3 batteries.

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CHAPTER: 6

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ADVANTAGES:
Solar-powered pumping system is its simplicity and durability. The pump is the only part of the system having any moving parts, and it comprises a relatively small portion of the total system cost. Unless the system is installed in an extremely dusty area, occasional inspection of the wiring and the general appearance of the panels will be all that is necessary. Panels can be cleaned with plain water and a soft cloth. The frequency of inspection should match the amount of storage available. For example, if the system incorporates a three-day supply of water and/or energy in storage, then it should be inspected at least every three days. One of the advantages of solar-powered pumping systems is their simplicity, and because of this, they can be easily assembled and installed by the user. When a solarpowered pumping system is purchased, the supplier should supply total system designs and electrical drawings, as well as assembly, installation and set-up instructions. Full Day Automatic Operation - turns on and off automatically in the Mornings and evenings respectively for complete sunshine. Free & renewable source of energy. Savings in electricity bills. Minimal maintenance required. Handy & easy to operate. Can replace conventional pumps where there is no electricity grid. Pollution free & environmental friendly. Small scale irrigation is one of the most potential applications of solar power. The main advantage is that solar radiation is intense when the need for irrigation is high. Further, solar power is available at the point of use, making the farmer independent of fuel supplies or electrical transmission lines. The solar pumps have the potential to revolutionize small scale irrigation in the developing countries in the near future.

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DISADVANTAGES:

One of the main disadvantages is the initial cost of the equipment used to harness the suns energy. Solar energy technologies still remain a costly alternative to the use of readily available fossil fuel technologies. As the price of solar panels decreases, we are likely to see an increase in the use of solar cells to generate electricity.

A solar energy installation requires a large area for the system to be efficient in providing a source of electricity. This may be a disadvantage in areas where space is short, or expensive (such as inner cities).

Solar energy is only useful when the sun is shining. During the night, your expensive solar equipment will be useless; however the use of solar battery chargers can help to reduce the effects of this disadvantage.

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APPLICATIONS: Agricultural livestock watering/crop irrigation, home gardens and drip irrigation systems. Domestic potable water for remote homes, cabins or campgrounds. Pond water management and water transfer. Water supply for villages in developing world.

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CONCLUSION:
Since the increase in price per increase in unit power output of a photovoltaic system is greater than that for a diesel, gasoline, or electric system, photovoltaic power is more cost competitive when the irrigation system with which it operates has a low total dynamic head. For this reason, photovoltaic power is more cost-competitive when used to power a micro irrigation system as compared to an overhead sprinkler system. Photovoltaic power for irrigation is cost-competitive with traditional energy sources for small, remote applications, if the total system design and utilisation timing is carefully considered and organised to use the solar energy as efficiently as possible. In the future, when the prices of fossil fuels rise and the economic advantages of mass production reduce the peak watt cost of the photovoltaic cell, photovoltaic power will become more cost-competitive and more common.

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REFERENCES:
1. Green, Martin A. Solar Cells; Operating Principles, Technology, and System Applications Prentice Hall Inc., 1982 2. Kyocera Solar Inc. Solar Water Pump Applications Guide 2001 (downloaded from www.kyocerasolar.com) 3. Design of Small Photovoltaic (PV) Solar-Powered Water Pump Systems 4. Helikson, H.J and Others, Pumping water University of Florida, USA, 1995. 5. Brian D. Vick and R. Nolan Clark. Determining the Optimum Solar Water Pumping System for Domestic Use, Livestock Watering or Irrigation. 2009. Proceedings of ASES National Solar Conference. Buffalo, NY. 6. Solar Radiation Basics. 2002. University of Oregon Solar Radiation Monitoring Lab. www.solardat.uoregon.edu. for irrigation using solar energy,

Additional information on solar-powered water pump systems can be found through internet search for the following: 1. Optoelectronics. 2. Solar energy 3. Photodiode. 4. Website: www.google.com

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