Contents

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 2. E x p l a n a t i o n & C o n c e p t 1 Relationship of Voltage/Current - And the Magnetic Field Magnetic braking of a rectangular sheet moving linearly through the magnet Maxwells equations (The Principle of Mirror Images) 3. B a s i c O p e r a t i o n 2 4. W o r k i n g P r i n c i p l e 2 5. C o n s t r u c t i o n 2 6. T y p e s o f E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c B r a k e s 3 Electromagnetic Power off Brake Electromagnetic Particle Brake Electromagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake Multiple Disk Brakes 7. A d v a n t a g e s 4 8. D i s a d v a n t a g e s 4 9. P r a c t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s 4 Eddy currents brakes (magnetic brakes) Maglev Vehicles 10. F u t u r e S c o p e 5 11. C o n c l u s i o n 5

Introduction:
he topic of magnetic braking has dramatically increased in popularity in recent years. Since 1987, numerous articles about magnetic braking were published. These articles describe both experiments dealing with magnetic braking, as well as the theory behind the phenomenon. Magnetic braking works because of induced currents and Lenzs law. If you attach a metal plate to the end of a pendulum and let it swing, its speed will greatly decrease when it passes between the poles of a magnet. When the plate enters the magnetic field, an electric field is induced in metal and circulating eddy currents are generated. These currents act to oppose the change in flux through the plate, in accordance with Lenzs Law. The currents in turn heat the plate, thereby reducing its kinetic energy. The practical uses for magnetic braking are numerous and commonly found in industry today. This phenomenon can be used to damp unwanted mutations in satellites, to eliminate vibrations in spacecrafts, and to separate nonmagnetic metals from solid waste. Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically, but transmit torque mechanically. This is why they are used to be referred to as electromechanical brakes. Magnetic resistance works by passing a spinning metallic disk through a magnetic field. The magnetic field provides resistance to the spinning disk thus slowing its rotation. The amount of resistance can be increased or decreased by varying the strength of the magnetic field. Field strength is controlled by changing either the power of the magnet or the distance between the magnet and the spinning disk. Resistance Formula: Resistance is determined by three factors: Disk RPM, MAGNET POWER and the DISTANCE between the magnet and disk. The numerical formula used to calculate magnetic resistance can be a bit confusing to understand.

The fields of EM brakes can be made to operate at almost any DC voltage and the torque produced by the brake will be the same as long as the correct operating voltage and current is used with the correct brake. If a 90 volt brake had 48 volts applied to it, this would get about half of the correct torque output of that brake. This is because voltage/current is almost linear to torque in DC electromagnetic brakes. A constant current power supply is ideal for accurate and maximum torque from a brake. If a non regulated power supply is used the magnetic flux will degrade as the resistance of the coil goes up. Basically, the hotter the coil gets the lower the torque will be produced by about an average of 8% for every 20C. If the temperature is fairly constant, and there is a question of enough service factor in the design for minor temperature fluctuation, by slightly over sizing the brake can compensate for degradation. This will allow the use of a rectified power supply, which is far less expensive than a constant current supply. Based on V = I R, as resistance increases available current falls. An increase in resistance, often results from rising temperature as the coil heats up, according to: Rf = Ri [1 + Cu (Tf - Ti)] Where, Rf = final resistance, Ri = initial resistance, Cu = copper wires temperature coefficient of resistance, 0.0039 C, Tf = final temperature, and Ti = initial temperature. Electromagnetic brakes are a new revolutionary concept. They work on the principle of electromagnetism. These are totally frictionless.

Magnetic braking of a rectangular sheet moving linearly through the magnet:

We assume that the speed of the sheet is sufficiently small that the magnetic field generated by the induced current is negligible in comparison with the applied magnetic field. Under this condition just stated, the magnetic drag force is seen to arise from mutual coupling between the induced current and the applied magnetic field. When the metal plate enters the magnetic field, a Lorentz force F = q(v B )

Explanation & Concept: Relationship of Voltage/Current - And the Magnetic Field RIGHT HAND RULE:

If a piece of copper wire was wound, around the nail and then connected to a battery, it would create an electro magnet. The magnetic field that is generated in the wire, from the current, is known as the right hand thumb rule. (V-1) The strength of the magnetic field can be changed by changing both wire size and the amount of wire (turns). EM clutches are similar; they use a copper wire coil (sometimes aluminum) to create a magnetic field.

is exerted on the conduction of electrons in the metal. Here, v is the velocity vector of the charge q, and B is the magnetic field vector. The force on the electrons induces a current in the metal (eddy current). An induced current moves along a closed path as if induced by an

electromotive force. Figure 1 shows these eddy currents in relation to the metal plate which moves perpendicular to the magnetic field. We use Faradays law, which says that the magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux,

positive side of the plane, there is no magnetic field on the negative side of the plane, but on the positive side of the plane the magnetic field of eddy currents has influence on the

A horizontal magnetic force is exerted on the portion of the eddy current that is within the magnetic field. This force is transmitted to the metal sheet, and is the retarding force associated with the braking: F =IL B where I is the current and L is the vertical height of the magnetic field. Like we said when the metal sheet passes between the poles of the magnet, circulating currents (eddy currents) are generated. As a result, a magnetic breaking force is induced on the eddy currents which oppose the motion of the sheet. This is a simple theory of magnetic braking, which assumes that the magnetic field generated by the induced current is negligible in comparison with the applied magnetic field.

magnetic field of the magnetic dipole, it fakes the magnetic field of the dipole (Figure 3). If we are interested in the force on the magnet, we are only interested in the magnetic field on the positive side of the plane; therefore we will focus on mirror images of the magnetic dipole on the negative side. When the magnetic dipole suddenly disappears, two mirror images are created: one on the positive side and the other on the negative side, magnetic fields are in opposite direction like in a previous case.

Basic Operation:
There are three parts to an electromagnetic brake: field, armature, and hub (which are the input on a brake). Usually the magnetic field is bolted to the machine frame (or uses a torque arm that can handle the torque of the brake). So when the armature is attracted to the field the stopping torque is transferred into the field housing and into the machine frame decelerating the load. This can happen very fast (0.1-3sec). Disengagement is very simple. Once the field starts to degrade flux falls rapidly and the armature separates. A spring(s) hold the armature away from its corresponding contact surface at a predetermined air gap.

Maxwells Images)

equations

(The

Principle

of

Mirror

We approximate movement of the magnet over the conducting plane with series of sudden jumps. Firstly, we look example when at time t = 0 a magnetic dipole suddenly appears over the conducting plane (Figure 2a). The eddy currents, which are generated in the plane, protect the place on the other side of the plane (negative side of the plane) from changing the magnetic field. Negative side: The magnetic field of eddy currents has together with the magnetic field of the dipole in every point value 0. The magnetic field of the eddy currents on the negative side equals to the magnetic field of the switched magnetic dipole on the positive side. Positive side (side, on which magnet is): Symmetry of the problem implies that the magnetic field of the eddy currents is equal on both sides of the plane. The magnetic field of the eddy currents on the positive side equals to the magnetic field, which is generated by mirror image of the

Working Principle:
The working principle of the Electromagnetic brakes is based on the creation of currents within a metal disc rotating between two electromagnets, which sets up a force opposing the rotation of the disc .If the electromagnet is not energized, the rotation of the disc is free and accelerates uniformly. When the electromagnet is energized, the rotation of the disc is retarded and the energy absorbed appears as heating of the disc. If the current exciting the electromagnet is varied by a rheostat, the braking torque varies in direct proportion to the value of the current. Electromagnetic brakes satisfy all the energy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of friction. Electromagnetic brakes have better heat dissipation capability to avoid problems that friction brakes face. The brakes are fitted to vehicle by means of anti vibration mounting.

Construction:
magnetic dipole on the negative side (Figure 2b). When the magnetic dipole suddenly appears on the A horseshoe magnet has a north and South Pole. If a piece of Iron contacts both poles, a magnetic circuit is created. In an electromagnetic brake, the north and South Pole is

created by a coil shell and a wound coil. In a brake, the armature is being pulled against the brake field. The frictional contact, which is being controlled by the strength of the magnetic field, is what causes the rotational motion to stop. All of the torque comes from the magnetic attraction and coefficient of friction between the steel of the armature and the steel of the brake field. For many industrial brakes, friction material is used between the poles. The material is mainly used to help decrease the wear rate. But different types of material can also be used to change the coefficient of friction (torque) for special applications. For example, if the brake was required to have an extended time to stop or slip time, a low coefficient material can be used. Conversely, if the brake was required to have a slightly higher torque (mostly for low RPM applications), a high coefficient friction material could be used. In an electromagnetic brake, the electromagnetic lines of flux have to attract and pull the armature in contact with it to complete brake engagement. Most industrial applications use what is called a single-flux two-pole brake. The coil shell is made with carbon steel that has a combination of good strength and good magnetic properties. Copper (sometimes aluminum) magnet wire, is used to create the coil, which is held in shell either by a bobbin or by some type of epoxy/adhesive. To help increase life in applications, friction material is used between the poles. This friction material is flush with the steel on the coil shell, since if the friction material was not flush, good magnetic traction could not occur between the faces. Some people look at electromagnetic brakes and mistakenly assume that, since the friction material is flush with the steel that the brake has already worn down but this is not the case.

spring pushes against a pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate. This frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft. Permanent Magnet Type A permanent magnet holding brake looks very similar to a standard power applied electromagnetic brake. Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses permanent magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged, the permanent magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can turn attract the armature to the brake housing. To disengage the brake, power is applied to the coil which sets up an alternate magnetic field that cancels out the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets. Power off brakes is considered to be engaged when no power is applied to them. They are typically required to hold or to stop alone in the event of a loss of power or when power is not available in a machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque for their size, but also require a constant current control to offset the permanent magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not require a constant current control; they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger in diameter or would need stacked friction disks to increase the torque.

Electromagnetic Particle Brake:

Introduction: Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-mechanical brakes because of the wide operating torque range available. Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage is almost linear; however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be controlled very accurately (within the operating RPM range of the unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension control applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension control. Because of their fast response, they can also be used in high cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers, sorting machines and labeling equipment. How It Works: Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the powder cavity. When electricity is applied to the coil, the resulting magnetic flux tries to bind the particles together, almost like magnetic particle slush. As the electric current is increased, the binding of the particles becomes stronger. The brake rotor passes through these bound particles. The output of the housing is rigidly attached to some portion of the machine. As the particles start to bind together, a resistant force is created on the rotor, slowing, and eventually stopping the output shaft. When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn with the shaft. Since magnetic particle powder is in the cavity, all magnetic particle units have some type of minimum drag associated with them.

Types of Electromagnetic Brakes: Electromagnetic Power off Brake:

Introduction: Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either accidentally lost or intentionally disconnected. In the past, some companies have referred to these as fail safe brakes. These brakes are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications include robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo motor brakes. Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks can also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake diameter. There are 2 main types of holding brakes. The first is spring applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet brakes. How It Works: Spring Type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a

 Electromagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake:

Introduction: Electrical hysteresis units have an extremely wide torque range. Since these units can be controlled remotely, they are ideal for test stand applications where varying torque is required. Since drag torque is minimal, these units offer the widest available torque range of any of the hysteresis products. Most applications involving powered hysteresis units are in test stand requirements. How It Works: When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux. That flux is then transferred into a hysteresis disk passing through the field. The hysteresis disk is attached to the brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or eventual stoppage of the output shaft. When electricity is removed from the brake, the hysteresis disk is free to turn, and no relative force is transmitted between either members. Therefore, the only torque seen between the input and the output is bearing drag.

sorting machines and labeling equipment.

Advantages:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Electromagnetic brakes are more durable. Electromagnetic brakes have a longer life span. Electromagnetic brakes are much more effective. Electromagnetic brakes work totally frictionless. Better cooling of brakes. There is less amount of wear. Maintenance required is negligible.

Disadvantages:
1. Braking force diminishes as speed diminishes with no ability to hold the load in position at standstill. 2. That could be considered to be a safety issue, but it really means that friction braking may need to be used as well. 3. These brakes can only be used where the infrastructure has been modified to accept them.

Practical Applications: Eddy currents brakes (magnetic brakes)

To slow vehicles down, we can use eddy current brakes (magnetic brakes). Eddy current brakes are a relatively new technology that is beginning to gain popularity due to their high degree of safety. Rather than slowing a train via friction, which can often be affected by various elements such as rain, eddy current brakes rely completely on certain magnetic properties and resistance. The linear eddy current brake consists of an electromagnet, which is fixed on a train (vehicle).

Multiple Disk Brakes:

Introduction: Multiple disk brakes are used to deliver extremely high torque within a small space. These brakes can be used either wet or dry, which makes them ideal to run in multi speed gear box applications, machine tool applications, or in off road equipment. How It Works: Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but transmit torque mechanically. When electricity is applied to the coil of an electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the armature to the face of the brake. As it does so, it squeezes the inner and outer friction disks together. The hub is normally mounted on the shaft that is rotating. The brake housing is mounted solidly to the machine frame. As the disks are squeezed, torque is transmitted from the hub into the machine frame, stopping and holding the shaft. When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to turn with the shaft. Springs keep the friction disk and armature away from each other. There is no contact between breaking surfaces and minimal drag. Particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-mechanical brakes because of the wide operating torque range available. Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage is almost linear; however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be controlled very accurately (within the operating RPM range of the unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension control applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension control. Because of their fast response, they can also be used in high cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers,

This electromagnet is held at a definite small distance from the rail (approximately 7 millimeters). When electric current is passed through the electromagnet and the electromagnet is moved along the rail, eddy currents are generated in the rail. These eddy currents generate an opposing magnetic field, providing braking force. The first train in commercial circulation to use such a braking is the ICE 3. The eddy current brake does not have any mechanical contact with the rail, and thus no wear and tear of it, and creates no noise. Because the braking force is directly proportional to the speed, the eddy current brake itself can never completely stop a train. It is then often necessary to bring the train to a complete stop with an additional set of fin brakes (friction brakes) or kicker wheels which are simple rubber tires that make contact with the train and effectively park it.

 Maglev Vehicles
Magnetic levitation (maglev) is a relatively new transportation technology in which no contacting vehicles travel safely at speeds of 250 to 300 miles-per-hour or higher while suspended, guided, and propelled above a guide way by magnetic fields. The guide way is the physical structure along which maglev vehicles are levitated. Figure 9 depicts the three primary functions basic to maglev technology: levitation or suspension, propulsion and guidance. In most current designs, magnetic forces are used to perform all three functions. There are two primary types of maglev technology: electromagnetic suspension (EMS) and electrodynamic suspension (EDS). Electromagnetic (attractive force) suspension (levitation) Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) system depends upon attractive forces between electromagnets and ferromagnetic (steel) guide way. Because the force of attraction increases with decreasing distance, such systems are unstable and the magnets currents must be carefully controlled to

train and make the train move forward. The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: An alternating current flowing through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the track.

Future Scope:
A revolutionary invention is made in the field of brakes. The Electromagnetic brakes are excellent replacement for conventional automobile brakes. The use of Electromagnetic brakes can be done for lighter vehicles also. With some modification, a regenerative braking system can be equipped with the Electromagnetic brakes. The Electromagnetic brakes are the future of automobile brakes.

Conclusion:
Magnetic brakes use permanent magnets to produce a braking force on a moving conductor. A high level of braking force can be achieved with no moving parts and no external power supplies. The permanent magnet eddy current brake is an extremely flexible device which can give the user the following substantial benefits: Compact size Efficient Very simple to use Require almost no maintenance Fail safe

maintain desired suspension height. Furthermore, the magnetto guide way spacing needs to be small (at approximately 15 millimeters). On the other hand, it is possible to maintain magnetic suspension even the vehicle is standing still, which is not true for electrodynamic (repulsive force) systems. In the system in Figure 10 (left side), a separate set of electromagnets provides horizontal guidance force, but the levitation magnets, acted on by a moving magnetic field from the guide way, provide the propulsion force. Electrodynamic (repulsive) suspension Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) system employs magnets on the moving vehicle to induce eddy currents in the guide way. In system in Figure 10 (right side), resulting repulsive force produces inherently stable vehicle support and guidance because the magnetic repulsion increases as the

The standard magnetic brake unit consists of high strength rare earth magnets fixed to a mild steel plate. The magnets are protected against corrosion and a stainless steel cover fitted to provide mechanical protection.

vehicle/guide way gap decreases. However, the vehicle must be equipped with wheels or other forms of support for takeoff and landing because the EDS will not levitate at speeds below approximately 25 mph. EDS has progressed with advances in superconducting magnet technology. Propulsion coils on the guide way are used to exert a force on the magnets in the