Digital Image Fundamentals: Elements of Digital Image processing systems: An image may be defined as a two dimensional function(x, y),

, where x and y are spatial (plane) coordinates and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates(x,y)is called the intensity or gray level of the image at that point. When x, y, and the intensity values of f are all finite, discrete quantities, we call the image a digital image. The field of digital image processing refers to processing digital images by means of a digital computer. A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements These elements are called picture elements, image elements, pels and pixels.

Fundamental Steps: Image acquisition is given an image in digital form. This stage involves preprocessing such as scaling. Image enhancement is the process of manipulating an image so that the result is more suitable than the original for a specific application. Image restoration is also improving the appearance of an image. Enhancement is subjective, Image restoration is objective (based on mathematical or probabilistic models) Color Image processing is used over Internet. Wavelets, images are subdivided into smaller regions used for compression. Segmentation, partion an image into its constituents parts or objects. Representation and description converting the data to a form suitable for computer processing. Recognition is the process that assigns a label to an object; main thing is recognition of individual objects.

Components of Image Processing System: Two elements are required to acquire digital images. In digital video camera, the sensors produce an electrical output proportional to light intensity. The digitizer converts this output to digital data.

Specialized image processing hardware consists of digitizer plus ALU. Computer used is range from PC to a super computer. Software consists of specialized modules that perform specific tasks. Image displays in today are color TV monitors. Hardcopy devices for recording images are laser printers, film cameras, heat sensitive devices ink jet units like optical and CD ROM disks. Networking using optical fiber and other broadband technologies.

Vidicon and digital camera principles: TV camera is normally called as vidicon. Vidicon uses CRT tube. Orthicon and Plumbicon are other camera tubes .

Elements of visual perception: Visual judgments are subjective. Human and electronic imaging devices can be compared.

Structure of Human Eye

Eye is nearly a sphere with average diameter of 20 mm. Three membranes enclose the eye. Cornea and Sclera outer cover; the Choroid; and the Retina.

Cornea is a tough transparent tissue, continuous with the cornea the sclera is an opaque membrane.

Choroids lie directly below the sclera. This membrane contains a network of blood vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to eye.

Choroid coat is heavily pigmented, helps to reduce the amount of extraneous light entering the eye.

At its anterior extreme the choroids is divided into ciliary body and the iris. Iris contracts or expands to control the amount of light that enters the eye. The central opening of the iris called pupil varies in diameter from 2 to 8 mm. Lens is made up of concentric layers of fibrous cells and is suspended by fibers that attach to the ciliary body.

It contains 60 to 70% water, about 6% fat and more protein. Innermost membrane of the eye is retina. When the eye is properly focused light from an object outside the eye is imaged on the retina.

Over the surface of the retina two classes of light receptors called cones and rods present.

Cones in each eye number between 6 and 7 million. They are located in the central portion of the retina called fovea and are highly sensitive to color.

Humans can resolve fine details with cones. Cone vision is called photopic or bright light vision. 75 to 150 million rods distributed over the retinal surface. Rods serve to give a general overall picture of the field of view. They are not involved in color vision and are sensitive to low levels of illumination.

Objects that appear brightly colored in day light, when seen by moonlight appear as colorless forms because only the rods are stimulated. This phenomenon is known as scotopic or dim light vision.

Cross section of the human eye figure, the blind spot is the area where no receptors are present.

The figure shows the density of rods and cones. Cones are more dense in the center of the retina(fovea)

Fovea is 1.5 mm diameter, we can view fovea as square sensor array of size 1.5 mm1.5 mm the number of cones present approximately in that area is 337,000 elements .

The resolving power is equivalent to a charge coupled device imaging chip of medium resolution can have this number of elements in a receptor array of size more than 5 mm 5 mm

Contrast It is defined as the difference in intensity between the highest and lowest intensity levels in an image. Hue It is an attribute associated with the dominant wavelength in a mixture of light waves. Hue represents dominant color as perceived by an observer. Saturation Relative purity or the amount of white light mixed with hue.

Mach Band effect Visual system tends to undershoot or overshoot around the boundary of regions of different intensities .the brightness pattern that is scalloped near the boundaries are called mach bands.

Brightness: Brightness is a subjective descriptor of light perception practically impossible to measure. It embodies the achromatic notion of intensity.

Dither It is the process of mixing color to produce the new color palette. It is equivalent to half toning in monochrome pixel.

Color Image Fundamentals ,Color Image Processing is divided into two major areas: full color and pseudo color processing.

RGB Model Each color appears in its primary spectral components of red, green and blue. Based on Cartesian coordinate system. Images are represented three component images RGB. When fed to an RGB monitor these three images combine on the screen to produce a composite color image. No of bits used to represent each pixel in RGB space is called the pixel depth.

Blue

(0,0,1)

Cyan

Magenta Black Black Red R (1,0,0)

White (0,1,0) Green G Yellow

HSI color model

Green White

Yellow

Cyan

Red

Blue

Magenta

Green Green Yellow

Cyan

Red

Cyan

Yellow

Blue

Megenta

Blue

Red

Green

yellow

Cyan

Red

Blue

Megenta

Hue, saturation, intensity color model decouples the intensity component from the color carrying information in a color image.

HSI space is represented by a vertical intensity axis

Image Sampling, Quantization Output of the most sensors is a continuous voltage. To create a digital image continuous sensed data converted into digital form. This involves two processes: sampling and quantization. An image may be continuous with respect to x and y coordinates, and also in amplitude. Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitizing the amplitude values is called quantization.

Two dimensional mathematical preliminaries Representation of image

f(0,0) f(0,0) f(x,y) =

f(0,1) f(0,0)

f(0,N-1) f(1,N-1)

.. f(M-1,0) f(M-1,0) f(M-1, N-1)

Neighbors of a pixel

A pixel at p at coordinates (x,y) has 4 neighbors whose coordinates are given by (x+1, y) (x-1,y) (x-1,y) (x,y +1) (x,y-1) are called 4 neighbors of p.

The four diagonal neighbors have coordinates (x+1, y+1) (x+1,y-1) (x-1,y+1) (x-1,y +1) (x-1,y-1)

The above points are called 8 neighbors of p

Images can be viewed as arrays as well as matrices. Arithmetic operations between images are array operations, carried out between corresponding pixel pairs.

The four arithmetic operations are S(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y) d(x,y) = f(x,y) - g(x,y) p(x,y) = f(x,y) * g(x,y) d(x,y) = f(x,y) / g(x,y)

Image Transforms 2D Transforms

T(u,v) f(x,y) Transform Operation R

R[T(u,v)] Inverse Transform g(x,y)

In some cases image processing tasks are done by transforming the input images in a transform domain and applying inverse transform to return to the spatial domain.

A 2D general transform denoted by M-1 T (u, v) = x=o N-1 y=0 f(x,y) r(x,y,u,v)

where f(x,y)is the input image r(x,y,u,v) is called the forward transformation kernel u=0,1, .,M-1 v=0,1,., N-1

u,v are called transform variables. inverse transform of T(u,v)

M-1 f (x, y) = u=o x=0,1, .,M-1

N-1 T(u,v) s(x,y,u,v) v=0

y=0,1, ., N-1

s (x,y,u,v) is called the inverse transformation kernel.

2D DFT

M-1 T (u, v) = x=o

N-1 y=0 f(x,y) e

j 2 (u x/M +vy / N )

u=0,1, ,M-1 v=0,1, ..,N-1

M-1 f(x, y) = 1/MN u=o

N-1 v=0 y=0,1, ., N-1 T(u,v) e

j 2 (u x/M +vy / N )

x=0,1, , M-1

The above two equations are called Discrete fourier transform pair. Some properties are f (x,y) real and even , then T(u,v) real and even f (x,y) real and odd , then T(u,v) imaginary and odd f (x,y) imaginary and even , then T(u,v) imaginary and even f (x,y) real and odd , then T(u,v) imaginary and odd

Discrete Cosine Transform DCT obtained by substituting in the general eqn r(x,y,u,v) = s(x,y,u,v) = a(u) a(v) cos [2x + 1]u / 2n] cos [2y + 1]v / 2n]

where a(u) = 1/n = 2/n Similarly for a(v). for u=0 for u=1,2,..,n-1

KL Transform

It is originally introduced as a series of expansion for continuous random process es by Karhunen and Loeve.

Using method of principal components. It depends on the statistics of the data. The KL transform is optimal in many signal processing applications. Its coefficients are uncorrelated and have zero mean.

Singular Value Decomposition In the transform theory consider NM image U be an vector in an NM dimensional vector space . The outer product expansion of U is called singular value decomposition . The non zero eigen values of UT U are called singular values of U. SVD is a separable transform. Best energy packing efficiency for any given image. Useful in design of separable FIR filters. Useful in finding rank of large matrices. In image restoration ,power spectrum estimation and data compression.