Objectives of shunt compensation

1. Mid point voltage regulation for line segmentation

Doubles the P
max
transmitted at the expense of increased reactive
power demand on the mid point compensator (and on the end
generators)
2. End of line voltage support to prevent voltage instability.
3. Improvement of transient stability.
4. Power oscillation damping.
UNIT-II Shunt Compensation
Methods of controllable VAR generation
Static VAR generators vs Static VAR compensators
SVG : Is a self- sufficiently functioning device (unit) that
draws controllable reactive current from an alternating power
source.
SVC : An SVG becomes an SVC when it is equipped with
special system controls(external) which derive the necessary
reference for its input, from the operating requirements and
prevailing variables of the power systems, to execute the desired
compensation of the transmission line.
Typical inputs to the SVG can be : The reactive current, impedance or power reference
signal that the SVG is to provide at its output.
Two broad categories of shunt connected SVGs
1) Variable impedance type SVGs
Eg : TCR, TSR, TSC, FC+TCR, TSC+TCR and
multilevel TSC and TCR banks
2) Switching converter type SVGs
Power converters (AC to DC or DC to AC) are operated as voltage and current
sources. These converters produce reactive power essentially without reactive energy
storage components by circulating alternating current among the phases of the AC
system(Static Synchronous Generators-SSG)
STATCOM(Static Compensator):
When an SSG is operated with an energy source, and with appropriate
controls to function as a shunt connected reactive compensator, it is known as
STATIC Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
Traditional methods of reactive power compensation:
1) Mechanically switched capacitor and/or inductor
2) Over or under excited synchronous m/c
3) Saturating reactors along with fixed capacitors
4) Semiconductor switch based VAR generators from 1970 onwards
FACTS controllers for shunt compensation
a) TSC
b) TCR
c) SVC (FC+TCR)
d) SVC (TSC+TCR)
e) STATCOM
f) Hybrid compensators
a) Thyristor switched capacitor(TSC)
Switching surges
VAR control in steps
Switch closed when the V
in
is equal
to the capacitor voltage
Simple control requirement (Fully in or fully out).
Response time around 2 cycles of input voltage.
VAR generated is proportional to the system voltage.
Large size & weight
No generation of harmonics
It consists of a fixed (usually air-core) reactor of
inductance L, and a bidirectional thyristor valve (or
switch) sw.
The current in the reactor can be controlled from
maximum (thyristor valve closed) to zero (thyristor
valve open) by the method of firing delay angle control.
That is, the closure of the thyristor valve is delayed
with respect to the peak of the applied voltage in each
half-cycle, and thus the duration of the current
conduction intervals is controlled.
b) THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR
(TCR)
Static VAR Compensator (SVC) or Fixed capacitor VAR compensator
(TCR+FC)
When =90
o
, L is fully in & hence there is no more controllability
In FC+TCR SVC, since
Smooth and step less control.
Complex control (Synchronization and presence of harmonics)
Low order harmonics are generated.
When =180
o
, L is out, current is zero
} }
=
t
m
t
dt t sin
L
V
di
0 0
1
e

min
= 90
o
(w.r.t +ve zero crossing of V
s
) => max I
L1
&
max
= 180
o
=> i
L
(t)=0 I
L1
=0.
For < t < {ie 90 < < 180}
i.e. or
Brief analysis of TCR
k t
L
V
i
m
+ = e
e
cos
1
Using Initial conditions,
At t=, i
1
=0.
=>
Boundary condition i
1
=0 at t=
=> =2- or +=2
V-I characteristics of TCR
With different firing angle
I
L1
=Fundamental component of I
l
..Verify
Low efficiency.
Large passive elements.
) 2
1 2
2 (
2
o
t
o
t
e
Sin
L
V
m
+ =
Conduction angle = -2
=90
o
to 180
o
measured from +ve zero crossing of V
in
L
V
m
e 2
) 2
1 2
2 (
2
1
) ( o
t
o
t
e
o Sin
L
B
L
+ =
I
L1
() = fundamental component (peak) of iL ()
I
L1
() varies from 0 at =180 to max at =90
B
L
() varies from 0 (at =180 to B
L
max at =90)
) 2
1 2
2 ( o
t
o
t e
Sin
L
V
m
+ =
Maximum RMS of inductor current (fundamental) is
Reactive admittance
Variation of normalised I
L1
() [or B
L1
() ] from 0 to 1p.u.
as a function of
Operating V-I area of (a) TCR (b) TSR
TSR is identical (Similar) to TCR but is operated with fixed
firing angle, usually =90
o
or 180
o
Harmonics with TCR:
where n=2k+1 & k=1,2,3etc
Triplen harmonics are
absent in delta balanced
connected system.
(

=
1
) ( ) ( 4
) (
2
n
n Sin nCos n Cos Sin
n L
V
I
Ln
o o o o
t e
o
1. Multi-pulse TCR arrangement
By employing 12 pulse TCR arrangement 2 identical 3- TCRs, one fed
from a Y-connected winding (Transformer secondary) and the other
connected to a -connected secondary winding (of the same transformer
).
Harmonics generated in the two TCRs get cancelled due to the 30
o
phase shift between the transformer secondaries.
Methods to reduce harmonics
2. Another method to reduce the harmonics is to employ Sequential
control of multiple TCR banks
Sequential control of multiple TCR banks
Case1. When v(wt)=v
c0
Then the current rises instantly to the steady
state value with infinite di/dt
Case2. When v(wt)v
c0
Then a large current flows to charge the
capacitor to bus voltage
In both cases, the SCRs fail to withstand the
stress.
Hence a small inductor is included in series.
L : is a small reactor to limit the surge current.
Let ; then
or
where
Peak(amplitude) of capacitor voltage is
Ignoring V
L
(t), the switch voltage is
V
sw
=V-V
c
(Varies from 0 to )
t Sin V V
m
e = t Cos
LC
C V
i
m
e
e
e
2
1
=
t Cos C
n
n
V t i
m
e e e )
1
( ) (
2
2

=
L
C
X
X
LC
n = |
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
1
e
1
2
2

=
n
n
V V
m C
1
2
2
2
n
n
V
m
Switching Transients with TSC
Typical cases of switching
b)Capacitor partially discharged
a)Capacitor fully discharged
Minimum transients if TSC is
switched ON at the instants when
capacitor residual voltage and the
applied AC voltages are equal.
Transient-free switching waveforms with TSC
Since the capacitor is normally discharged after the TSC is switched
OFF, the maximumpossible delay in switching IN of the
TSC is one full cycle of the applied voltage.
Switching instants:
Case i: V
c
< V
m
then the instant for the switching is when V
c
= V i.e., V
sw
= 0.
Case ii: If V
c
> V
m
then the instant for the switching is when V
sw
= min i.e., =0(min)
Fig : Operating V-I area
TCR OFF, TSC ON
TCR ON, TSC OFF
BOTH OFF
I
cmax
I
Lmax
0
Fixed Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled reactor (FC TCR type SVG)
Q
L
=VI
L
() ; Q
c
=VI
c
=Constant
Q
Lmax
= VI
L
(=90
o
)
Total (or net) reactive power Q=Q
L
-Qc
Therefore Q
max
= VI
L
(=90
o
) - VI
c
Q
min
= VI
L
(=180
o
) - VI
c
= -Q
c
=0
for = 90
o
to 180
o
o
t
o
t
o 2
1 2
2 ) ( Sin F + =
Inductor current control in TCR
FC TCR type SVG:
Dynamic response exhibits a time lag (due to firing delay
angle control) with respect to the input response.
The transfer function is of the form,
where k = Gain constant
T
d
= Transport lag (due to control)
s T
d
ke s G

= ) (
Simplifying to a first order ,
Typically T
dmax
= T/2 in a 1- case.
For a 6-pulse (3-) case,
Average T
dmax
= T/6 for increasing current,
= T/3 for decreasing current.
s T
k
s G
d
+
=
1
) (
i. Capacitor Losses : small & constant
ii. Inductor losses : Vary as square of current
iii. Switching losses(scr) : Vary linearly with current
Losses in FC+TCR type SVG
Thus the total loss is small with higher capacitive VAR
output (as in case of pf correction in industry)
Effective, variable capacitive VAR (-Q
c
to +Q
L
)
TSC-TCR type SVG (Single bank)
Multiple TSC and TCR
(3-TSC & 1-TCR type SVG)
Effective, variable capacitive VAR
(-3Q
c
to +Q
L
)
Operation of the functional control scheme for (TSC-TCR) SVG
1. From the preset command of reactive power requirement
(+ve capacitive current of SVG), compute the inductive
current needed.
Therefore first estimate n since I
c
= constant.
(Round up to next integer)
) (o
LF c
ref
Qref
I nI
V
VAR
I = =
Then
Therefore control input to TCR control block is thus completed.
2. Transient-free , controlled switching IN of TSC bank(s).
Thyristors in TSC are switched ON when the voltage across them is
minimum.
3. TCR firing delay angle control.
C Qref LF
nI I I + = ) (o
Fig : Functional control scheme for (TSC-TCR) SVG
Fig : Transient- free switching strategy implementation
V
sw
= 1 when V
c
= V
P
T
= 1 when V = V
m
V
pol
= 1 when
sign(V) = sign(V
c
)
TSC turns ON if :
ON = 1 and V
sw
= 1
or
ON = 1 and P
T
= 1 & V
pol
= 1
Fig : Operating V-I area of TSC-TCR SVG with two TSC banks
With each switched-in
TSC bank, the losses
increase by a fixed
amount.
Voltage control with SVC
SVC characteristics with voltage control
Slope or droop regulation
V-I characteristics of TCR with voltage control
V-I characteristics of FC-TCR with voltage control
Slope or Droop Regulation for Static VAr compensators
(SVC)
V
Ref
Load Line 1
I
cmax
I
Lmax
V
svc
Load Line 3
I
Lr
E2
Load Line 2
I
cr
E1
I
c
I
L
B
cmax
B
Lmax
Perfect Regulation or Flat characteristics implies
Poorly defined operating point
SVC overload limits are hit frequently for minor variation in operating voltage
Uneconomical load sharing when more devices are sharing load in parallel
Slope or Droop Regulation
In many applications ,the static compensator is not used as a perfect
terminal voltage regulator, but rather the terminal voltage is allowed to
vary in proportion with the compensating current. There are several
reasons for this.
1. The linear operating range of a compensator with a given maximum capacitive
and inductive ratings can be extended if a regulation droop is allowed .
2. Perfect regulation (zero droop or slope) could result in poorly operating point,
and a tendency of oscillation.
3. A regulation droop or slope enables automatic load sharing between static
compensator as well as other voltage regulating devices connected in parallel.
1. Extended linear control range with Slope Regulation(K0)
V
Ref
Load Line 1
I
cmax
I
Lmax
V
svc
Even for a range of E2 to E1, the SVC current range is reduced
with droop regulation
I
c
I
L
V
Lmax
V
cmax
V
cmax
V
Lmax
I
Lmax
K=
I
cmax
=
Load Line 2
I
cr
E1
x
Load Line 3
I
Lr
E2
y
B
cmax
B
Lmax
2. With Regulation Slope(K0)
Overload operation can be reserved for system disturbance conditions calling
for wider voltage range (E4 to E3) at the SVC bus. Thus the current limits are
not hit unduly
3. Load Sharing With Droop Regulation
a) Two parallel connected SVCs at bus
b) Without droop same V
ref
for both
two units operating at overload, countering
each other to maintain the same V
ref (the
operation at A; is possible with SVC
1
at B near
maximum and SVC
2
at C on overload
c). With droop both units are allowed to have
different V
ref
levels
Both are well within their max limits, (for
operation at A, SVC
1
is at B and SVC
2
at C )