INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY WHAT IS GEOLOGY?

Greek , g, "earth" and , logos, "study" Geology is the study of the Earth, its origin, history, composition, structures and physical properties, the processes that shape it, and the resources that could be obtained from it. GEOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE 1. The relevance of time 2. The issue of scale 3. The complexity of replicating natural systems and phenomena in the laboratory MAIN BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY A. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY - Deals with the materials that comprise the Earth and the processes that affect it 10.Engineering Geology The application of geologic information to engineering problems 11.Mining Geology Deals with the applications to mining 12.Petroleum Geology Refers to application of geology to the search of hydrocarbons B. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY - The study of the origin and evolution of the Earth through time 1. Paleontology The study of prehistoric life as represented by fossils 2. Stratigraphy The study of rock layers and layering (stratification) 3. Geochronology Deals with the determination of the age of the Earth and its materials BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE HISTORY OF GEOLOGY 1. Catastrophism 2. Uniformitarianism CATASTROPHISM - Proposed by Baron Georges Cuvier - Advocates the idea that sudden, worldwide catastrophes are the agents of change that alter the physical features of the Earth over time and that the latter remains unchanged in between these periods of upheavals -Widely accepted by theologians in the early 1800s due to similarity with Biblical events such as Noahs Flood UNIFORMITARIANISM - Proposed by James Hutton (The Father of Modern Geology) - The present is the key to the past. - Advocates the idea that the Earth is continuously modified by geologic processes that have always operated throughout time (at different rates), and that by studying them we can understand how the Earth has evolved through time

1. Volcanology The study of volcanoes and volcanic activity 2. Seismology The study of earthquakes and the mechanical properties of the earth 3. Mineralogy The study of minerals and its properties 4. Petrology The study of rocks and the conditions under which they are formed 5. Geomorphology The study of landforms and the processes that shape them 6. Geophysics The physics of the Earth and its environment in space 7. Geochemistry The study of the chemical composition and processes of the Earth and other planets 8. Planetary Geology Concerned with the geology of celestial bodies 9. Environmental Geology The use of geologic information to manage our environment

The Role of Geology in Society Natural disaster mitigation Environmental impact assessment Utilization of natural resources GEOHAZARDS Earth processes that cause life and property loss: Flooding Earthquake Volcanic Activity Landslide Mudflows RELEVANCE TO DAILY LIFE MINERAL DEPOSITS RESOURCE EXPLORATION If we intend to live on and with this planet, we truly need to understand how it works and to understand the many components that make up the Earth THE PLANET EARTH THE FORMATION OF THE EARTH WAS AN OFFSHOOT OF THE FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE. Formation of the Universe: Big Bang Theory Formation of the Solar System: Nebular Hypothesis The Universe ORIGIN: Big Bang Theory contends that the Universe originated from a cosmic explosion (origin unknown) that hurled matter in all directions first proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lematre in the 1920s Edwin Hubble justified Lematres theory through observations that the Universe is continuously expanding; galaxies are moving away from each other THE SOLAR SYSTEM: leftover from the Big Bang the sun the planets the satellites and rings comets and asteroids

The Solar System The scientists agreed that for a celestial body to qualify as a planet: a.it must be in orbit around the Sun; b.it must be large enough that it takes on a nearly round shape; and c. it has cleared its orbit of other objects meteoroids and dust

THE EARTH started as dust ball from the nebular gas and dust brought together by gravity (accretion), which was heated (heating) and eventually segregated into layers (differentiation) as it cooled when cooling set in, the denser elements (e.g., iron) sank while the lighter ones floated out into the surface, creating a differentiated Earth THE DIFFERENTIATED EARTH

COMPOSITION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM BY MASS OBJECT PERCENTAGE OF MASS Sun 99.85% Jupiter 0.10% all other planets 0.04% comets 0.01% (?) satellites and rings 0.00% asteroids 0.00% meteoroids and dust 0.0000001% (?) The Solar System ORIGIN: Nebular Hypothesis proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon de Laplace in the 18th century The Solar System: Nebular Hypothesis The Solar System

Discontinuities/Boundaries (16) Mohorovicic crust mantle 2. Gutenberg core mantle 3. Lehmann outer core inner core From study of seismic waves Internal Structure of the Earth Mechanical layers 1. Lithosphere a. Upper crust brittle; 4-15 km depth b. Lower crust/uppermost mantle ductile; 15 to 100 or 200 km depth 2. Asthenosphere weak sphere; beneath the lithosphere and within the upper mantle 3. Mesosphere solid, rocky layer THE EARTHS VITAL STATISTICS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (by mass) 34.6% Iron

29.5% Oxygen 15.2% Silicon 12.7% Magnesium SHAPE Oblate spheroid flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator SIZE Circumference = 360 degrees 800 km 7 degrees Earths circumference was first calculated by Eratosthenes VITAL STATISTICS Equatorial Radius = 6378 km Polar Radius = 6357 km Equatorial Circumference = 40076 km Polar Circumference = 40008 km Volume = 260,000,000,000 cu. miles Density = 5.52 g/cm3 THE EARTHS LARGE SCALE FEATURES

Mountain Belt First proposed by L. Kober as orogen in 1921 Orogen - an extensive belt of rocks deformed by orogeny, associated in places with plutonic and metamorphic rocks An orogeny is an episode of mountain building Mountain ranges such as the Andes, Alps, Himalayas and Gran Cordillera OCEAN BASIN Thin, geologically young (<250 my) and dense Three major topographic units: Continental margin Deep-ocean basin

Oceanic ridges External Features of the Earth Lithosphere is made up of moderately rigid plates (may consist of oceanic or continental lithosphere) = 7 major plates + several smaller plates

Continental Margin The transition to the deep ocean basin The shallowest portion is the shelf The sloping edge of the continent as it merges into the deep ocean basin is the slope The wedge of sediment that has accumulated at the base of the slope is the rise CONTINENTAL CRUST Thick (30-60 km), old (250-4000 my) and light It does not subduct Largest features: Mountain belts Cratons

Oceanic Ridge Undersea mountain ranges Deep-ocean Basin HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? Earth: ________

Oldest dated Earth rocks: 3.4 to 4.03 b.y. Meteorites and moon rocks: ~4.5 b.y.

MINERALS DEFINITION Naturally occurring Inorganic Homogeneous Solid Definite chemical composition Solid ordered internal structure Mga nagpapanggap na minerals (MINERALOID) naturally occurring, inorganic material that is amorphous

Fribrous : Serpentine Botryoidal : Hematite platy > >Color -caused by the absorption, or lack of absorption, of various wavelengths of light Olivine - green Sulfur -Yellow Fluorite - Purple Malachite - black bluegreen -May also be due to impurities = not a gooddiagnostic property Quartz, corundum (sapphire,ruby) >>Streak The color of the powder a mineral leaves after rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain streak plate Cleavage the tendency of a mineral to break in particular directions due to zones of weakness in the crystal structure

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS #Crystal Form - the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral #POLYMORPHISM ability of a specific chemical substance to crystallize in more than one configuration, which is dependent upon changes in temperature, pressure, or both FeS(2)= Pyrite, Marcasite Carbon=Carbonite, Diamond #Crystal Habit the shapes and aggregates that a certain mineral is likely to form Acicular : Natrolite >>Cleavage Fractures or irregular breakages occur when bond strengths in a crystal structure is equal in all directions. ex. conchoidal

fracture >>Luster the ability of minerals to reflect light > Metallic > Non-metallic : glassy, pearly, resinous, earth >>Hardness resistance of mineral to abrasion or scratching Mohs Scale of Hardness 1. Talc 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Orthoclase 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond The Geologist Can Find An Ordinary Quartz (that) Tourists Call Diamond >>Specific gravity Ratio of volume of a substance and the weight of the same volume of water Graphite = 2.0 g/cm3 Gold = 15 19.3 g/cm3 Galena = 7.5 g/cm3 Quartz = 2.65 g/cm3 Other properties 1. Magnetism ex. Magnetite (Fe3O4) 2. Fluorescence ex. Fluorite (CaF2) 3. Reaction to chemicals ex. CaCO3 4. Taste ex. NaCl 5. Odor ex. Sulfur 6. Double refraction ex. Calcite Relative Abundance of the Most Common Elements in the Crust Chemical Properties Silicate class largest group of minerals; important rock-forming minerals Carbonate class commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor

Sulfate class commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface Halide class the natural salts; commonly found in evaporitic settings such as playa lakes and landlocked seas (e.g., Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake) Oxide class form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted; also carry the best record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field Sulfide class economically important as metal ores Phosphate class the most common is apatite which is found in teeth and bones of many animals Element class includes metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver, copper), semi-metals and non-metals (antimony, bismuth, graphite, sulfur) NON-SILICATES Carbonate: CALCITE Sulfate: GYPSUM Oxide: MAGNETITE Hallide: HALIT (ROCK SALT) Sulfide : Pyrite Phosphate : Apatite Native element: GOLD The Silicate Group - largest group of minerals - compounds containing silicon and oxygen - building block: silicon-oxygen tetrahedron (SiO4)-4

Si+4, O-2