IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China
Starting of a Free-Piston Linear Engine-Generator
by Mechanical Resonance and Rectangular
Current Commutation
Saiful A. Zulkifli*, Mohd N. Karsiti** and A. Rashid A. Aziz◊
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Sri Iskandar, Malaysia
Email: saiful_z@yahoo.com **nohka@petronas.com.my ◊ rashid@petronas.com.my
*
Abstract—Starting a free-piston linear engine-generator
(LG) involves reciprocating a freely moving piston-magnet-
translator assembly between two oppositely placed engine
cylinders for combustion to occur. The machine is operated
as a brushless linear motor to produce the required motion.
However, due to the very large peak compression force
during starting, limited current rating of stator coils and
insufficient motor force constant, it is not possible to push
the translator end to end in a single stroke. A strategy is
proposed which utilizes the air-spring quality of the engine
cylinders prior to combustion. Energizing the coils with
fixed DC voltage and open-loop, rectangular commutation
of injected current, sufficiently high motoring force is
produced to reciprocate the translator in small amplitudes
initially. Due to repeated compression-expansion of the
engine cylinders and constant application of motoring force
in the direction of natural bouncing motion, the translator’s
amplitude and speed is expected to grow - due to mechanical
resonance - to finally reach the required parameters for
combustion. This work discusses the starting problem and
its mechanical aspects for a specific LG configuration,
builds a mechanical model of LG and presents simulation
results on the viability of the starting strategy using
different values of constant-magnitude motoring force.
Keywords—Free-Piston Linear Engine; Linear Electric
Generator; Linear Generator Starting; Rectangular
Commutation; Permanent-Magnet Brushless Motor
I. INTRODUCTION
A free-piston, linearly reciprocating internal
combustion engine offers many advantages over the
conventional crank-slider engine. Benefits include
improved efficiency, higher power-to-weight ratio and
multiple fuel capability [1]-[4]. When the linear engine is
made as platform to convert mechanical to electrical
energy through a particular arrangement with a linear
generator, the end product - a free-piston linear engine-
generator - is a potential alternative to conventional
rotary generators, as on-board power house in series-
hybrid electric vehicles (S-HEV) or as portable power
generators for commercial and domestic use.
This research work was supported by the Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Malaysia under IRPA grant 03-
99-02-0001 PR0025/04-01.
One critical task in the operation of the linear machine
is the initial process of starting the engine. A linear
engine cannot be started by an ordinary starter motor
since it has no flywheel, crankshaft or any mechanical
coupling which can accept the rotating push of the starter
motor. The starting method must utilize some form of
linear mechanism that uses available stored energy to
reciprocate the LG at the required starting speed (200-400
cycles per minute.) A possible approach is to use
compressed air, along with appropriate control valves and
control strategy to produce the required motion [5], [6].
However, unless the application of the linear engine is as
an air compressor, this starting method would require
having a separate auxiliary compressor system, which
will add complexity and cost to the system.
For linear engines designed as prime mover for
electricity generation, a practical starting method is to
energize the LG electrically: using stored electrical
energy and an effective control strategy, the LG is run as
a linear motor to produce the required reciprocating
motion. Some research work on linear engine-generators
have mentioned employing this starting method,
consisting of either electrical motoring only [1], [4] or
mechanically assisted by other inherent mechanism such
as a resonating spring-mass system [7]. However,
detailed investigation on the starting process has not been
reported, as most of the research work concentrate on
design, simulation or analysis of the linear machine in
steady-state operation. Criticality of implementing an
effective starting strategy is nevertheless acknowledged
[1]-[3], [8].
Translator Permanent Scavenge
Cylinder Shaft Magnets & Chamber
Head Back Iron
Piston
Cylinder Engine
Block Mounting
Figure 1. LG cross-section showing major components
 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China
II. STARTING OF LINEAR GENERATOR
Starting process of any internal combustion engine
requires optimum piston speed and engine compression
pressure. In a conventional engine whose constrained
motion ensures the same piston top dead centre (TDC)
position in every cycle, the starting system needs only to
ensure that the optimum speed is achieved, since the
resultant compression pressure is related to TDC and the
TDC is fixed. In contrast, in a free-piston linear engine,
piston motion is not kinematically constrained, but
dynamically coupled to combustion pressures and forces
[1]-[3]. Thus, the translator - the single-moving part
consisting of a straight shaft carrying permanent magnets
in the center and connected to pistons at both ends (Fig. 1)
- does not follow a fixed displacement profile and has no
fixed TDC. In addition to optimum speed to ensure
effective scavenging of air and fuel mixture, the
translator’s amplitude in a free-piston engine needs to be
regulated to achieve sufficient compression pressure.
Another key difference between conventional and
linear engines lies in the delivery of the starting force.
The major force that the piston needs to overcome is
compression force, which is due to pressure build-up in
the cylinder after the exhaust port closes. During starting,
the crankshaft of a conventional engine turns as the
flywheel is turned by the starter motor, whose pinion is
engaged with the flywheel’s teeth. Thus, a certain torque
is required to turn the crankshaft and push the piston up
into the cylinder; which is provided by the starter motor.
Due to the crank-slider configuration, large flywheel
diameter and gear action, a relatively low torque is
required of the starter motor, so that magnitude of the
force required to overcome compression and crank the
engine is shrunk to a fraction of the compression force.
The bigger the flywheel radius, the smaller is the torque
and force required for cranking1.
In contrast, there is no crank-slider configuration or
gear action in a linear engine. The required starting force
is applied directly in the direction of linear motion,
opposite the resistive compression force. There is no
mechanism which reduces the required starting force
(dominated by compression), so the entire force must be
provided by the starting system. In the case of LG, whose
piston diameter is 76 mm, the resultant compression force
has a peak in the order of 5 kiloNewtons. This is way
beyond the maximum motor force that can be supplied by
the present design of LG, determined by its motor
constant (24.2 N/A maximum, using six-step
commutation: two phases energized at one time) and the
coils’ current capacity (34 Amps maximum continuous
rating.) Considering the peak compression force of 5 kN,
a peak current of 200 Amperes would be required2. Thus,
a strategy needs to be devised which could nevertheless
1
Since power is torque multiplied by angular speed, the starter
motor’s speed is much higher than the engine’s cranking speed, so that
power is conserved (power in = power out)
2 Figure 2. Spring-mass representation and mechanical resonance process
A full dynamic analysis of LG starting is given in [12]
utilize a lower-magnitude motoring force to produce the
required reciprocating motion for starting.
III. PROPOSED STARTING STRATEGY
A plausible method to start the LG is proposed, which
consists of two basic principles: 1) mechanical resonance
via reciprocation and 2) electrical motoring via
rectangular current commutation.
A. Mechanical Resonance via Reciprocation
In the absence of combustion, engine cylinders exhibit
an air-spring behavior, so that at sufficient piston speed,
air inside the cylinder is compressed and expands as the
piston moves into and out of the cylinder, absorbing and
dissipating energy respectively. Thus, the cylinders act
just like ordinary mechanical springs, capable of storing
and delivering energy within one cycle, effectively
creating a bounce phenomenon at each end of the stroke
[5], [7]. Fig. 2 shows how the dual-opposed cylinder
configuration of LG can be likened to a spring-mass-
spring system: a mass in the center sandwiched by two
springs attached to a fixed reference.
Thus, if very little energy is lost in the bounce process,
it is possible to apply motoring force of low but sufficient
magnitude to reciprocate the piston assembly in small
amplitudes initially. Over time, its amplitude and speed
will grow - due to resonance - to achieve the final
required stroke length (69mm), speed (3-5 Hz cyclic
frequency) and compression pressure (about 7-9 bars).
However, there is one fundamental problem: at low
starting speeds, the air-spring characteristic of an engine
cylinder is heavily affected by the piston’s speed [1], [5].
This is due to air leakage around the piston rings, referred
to as piston blow-by. The slower the piston speed, the
more is the quantity of air that leaks through, so that it
becomes possible to push the piston assembly by hand
from end to end (which will occur very slowly, due to the
large compression force).
This is in contrast to ordinary mechanical springs,
whose spring force depends on displacement only and not
on the speed of the moving mass. For LG, the
dependence on piston speed due to piston blow-by affects
the cylinders’ effectiveness to absorb and release energy
during the reciprocation process.
Non-linear air-spring nature of engine
cylinders prior to combustion
Translator mass
(piston, shaft
& magnets)
m
Fmotoring
Electromagnetic motor force always provided in the direction of natural
bouncing motion can effectuate mechanical resonance for LG starting
 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China

Thus, the lower the starting push of the motoring force, Right
the lower is the piston velocity and the less effective is Scavenge Right
the bounce process as more energy is lost during the Chamber Engine
Stator Cylinder
bounce. Even at the final required starting frequency of 3 Left Iron and
to 5 Hz, the piston is still operating in the low-speed Scavenge Coils
region where compression-expansion process is much Chamber
Left
affected by speed. Effectiveness of the air-spring property Engine Inside:
is a very important concern in the present investigation. Cylinder Permanent
Magnets on
B. Electrical Motoring via Rectangular Current Linear
Commutation Linear Translator
Displacement
To provide for the force to reciprocate the piston Encoder
assembly, LG is operated as a brushless, permanent- Figure 4. UTP Linear Generator prototype
magnet linear motor. Essentially, current is injected into Simulation of LG starting is implemented on Matlab
the stator coils which create a magnetic field whose Simulink, with the following motivation: inability to
strength is proportionate to the level of the injected solve LG dynamic equation in closed algebraic form and
current. The resultant magnetic field interacts with the ease in adjusting various system parameters to analyze
existing magnetic field of the permanent magnets to and predict system behavior. In addition, due to hardware
create a mechanical motor force, which will push on the limitation and safety reasons, some experimentation runs
translator shaft in a certain magnitude and linear direction are not possible and this is where simulation is beneficial.
depending on the relative position of the permanent For modeling and simulation objective, the LG system
magnets with respect to the fixed stator coils. Fig. 3 can be decomposed into mechanical and electrical
shows a schematic of this motor force phenomenon. subsystems. To ensure validity and reliability of
This relative position is critical to the effective simulation results, the component subsystem models need
motoring of LG, as interaction between the two fields is to be validated and verified against field experimentation,
different at different positions along the stroke. Injecting which takes place in the LG laboratory at UTP (Fig. 5).
a fixed level of current at different positions creates a Both data acquisition and controls are implemented on a
force that varies not only in magnitude but also direction. common hardware and software platform: National
Thus, inappropriate current injection will result in un- Instruments’ PXI embedded controller and LabView
optimized motoring force and in the worst case, force in Real-Time software.
the wrong direction, opposing translator’s motion. This is
the problem of commutation - knowing exactly when and IV. MECHANICAL SUBSYSTEM MODELING
where and to which coils current should be injected - and Mechanical modeling of LG requires identifying the
is the other area of concern of this starting investigation. mechanical forces and setting up a dynamic mechanical
C. Research Objectives and Methodology equation. In this initial stage, motoring force appears as
This research investigates feasibility and effectiveness just another mechanical force contributing to the total net
of mechanical resonating strategy and rectangular current force; thus, electrical current injection responsible for
commutation to start a certain LG configuration. It creating the force is not considered.
consists of modeling, simulating and implementing the A. LG Mechanical Forces
proposed strategy using fixed DC bus voltage and two During starting and in the absence of combustion, the
variants of rectangular commutation: 6-step and square- translator is subject to the following forces, neglecting
wave. The LG prototype under investigation (Fig. 4) is a vibration, as it moves from the right end to the left end of
5-kW linear machine designed and developed by the stroke (Cylinder 1 TDC to Cylinder 2 TDC) :
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP), in collaboration
with two other universities: Universiti Malaya (UM) and
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). 5-kW Linear Generator PXI Embedded
Prototype Controller & Data
Acquisition System
Field Direction: Current Direction: Stator
Downwards Into Plane of Paper Coils
Stator Iron
Resultant Laminations
Instrument Driver Board
Motor
Force

Permanent Translator
Magnets Shaft
Figure 5. LG control room with view of 5-kW LG
Figure 3. Interaction of magnetic fields to produce linear motoring
force (reprinted and modified from UM Report, 2005)
 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China

Piston 1 Piston 2 compression-expansion process - air in the present case -

Friction, m Expansion,
and has different values for different gases3 [1], [5].
Compression, Motoring, Consider the case in which one cylinder is compressed
Cogging Cogging while the other cylinder’s exhaust port is already open.
x
Assume that the resultant compression pressure acting on
Figure 6. LG free-body diagram the piston’s surface is uniform across the piston’s surface
area and can thus be taken as a one-dimensional function
1. Compression force Fcompression of Cylinder 2, of displacement. We thus obtain the following equation
opposing translator motion for the cylinder undergoing compression [1], [8]:
2. Expansion force Fexpansion (suction force for the initial k
 K 
stroke) of Cylinder 1, assisting translator motion Fcompression ( x) = K1 ⋅  2  , (2)
(opposing for the initial stroke)  x+l
3. Friction forces f between piston ring and cylinder where K1 and K2 are constants determined by atmospheric
liner and between translator shaft and linear bearing pressure, piston surface area and cylinder trapped volume.
4. Magnetic cogging force Fcogging pushing or pulling on Parameter l is the equivalent crevice length of the
the translator cylinder head and is thus another system constant, while x
5. Electrical motoring force Fmotoring which should be in is the instantaneous piston distance from TDC and is the
only variable in the equation. Derivation for the cylinder
the same direction as translator motion in order to
undergoing expansion results in a similar equation:
effectuate a successful resonating strategy k
Fig. 6 shows a simplified free-body diagram indicating  K 
Fexp ansion ( x ) = K 3 ⋅  4  . (3)
the above translational forces. Fig. 7 shows a schematic x+l
diagram indicating the intake and exhaust ports and a CYLINDER 2 CYLINDER 1
graph of the mechanical forces against displacement, for Intake Port Intake Port
the 69-mm total stroke length.
Compression and expansion forces arise from air
pressure acting on the piston surface, which develop
within the combustion chambers with the inward and Exhaust Port Exhaust Port
outward motion of the translator. Magnetic cogging force
results from static interaction between the permanent Force
magnets’ magnetic field and the iron-cored stator. (N)
3500
Depending on translator position, it may be positive or TDC 2 Exhaust Exhaust TDC 1
Port 1 3000 Port 2
negative, thus assisting or resisting translator motion. Fig. Cylinder 2 Cylinder 1
Compression 2500 Expansion
8 shows cogging force over the entire stroke, obtained via Force Force
finite-element analysis performed by the Universiti 2000

Malaya team. Due to symmetry of LG design, it can be 1500 Overlap

Cooggggining g
C Region
seen that the profile is symmetrical with respect to the FFoorrccee
1000 Friction
Force
reference center position. It has zero values at certain 500
positions of the stroke, around which are probable and 0 Overlap
stable rest positions in the absence of external force. -500
Region
Instantaneous values of friction force cannot be obtained -34 -30 -26 -22 -18 -14 -10 -6 -2 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34

accurately, due to hardware limitation. For the purpose of Figure 7. LG schematic and mechanical forces vs. displacement
the present analysis, a fixed value of 200 N is used,
acquired from a relatively simple but reliable set of Magnetic Cogging Force vs Displacement
Force (N)
experiments. Adjustments to this value are made in the 300

later stages of validation and analysis. 200

Cogging and friction are static forces with no

100
dependency on translator speed, while compression and
expansion forces are dynamic, with a heavy speed 0

dependency below certain cyclic speeds. For an ideal gas, -100

both compression and expansion processes are governed

-200
by the same relationship between pressure and volume
inside the engine cylinder when the exhaust port is closed: -35 -30 -25 -20 -10 -5
-300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Displacement (mm)
P1V 1 k = P2V 2k , (1)
where P is pressure, V is volume and subscripts 1 and 2 Figure 8. Magnetic cogging force
denote instantaneous values of pressure or volume at
different times or displacements. The constant k is the
3
adiabatic constant of the medium undergoing the Several factors affect slightly the value of k, which are assumed
negligible and thus ignored in the present analysis and modeling of LG.
The constant value of k used in this study is 1.38
 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China

From the expressions of Fcompression and Fexpansion above, d 2x

the non-linearity of these forces with respect to ∑F x = ma x = m
dt 2
displacement is apparent. However, the above equation = Fmot + Fexp − Fcomp − Fcog − f
holds for an adiabatic and isentropic process in which no
= Fmot ( x) + Fexp ( x) − Fcomp ( x) − Fcog ( x) − f (5)
heat or mass is gained or lost. In the present system
which involves piston rings, air compression-expansion Fmot (x) represents motoring force resulting from current
inside engine cylinders cannot be taken as isentropic injection into the LG coils. If we let the motoring force to
because at low operating speeds, it is not a strictly closed be constant-magnitude, we have Fmot (x) = Fmot. From (2)
system. This is due to the piston blow-by mentioned and (3), assuming adiabatic and isentropic process and x
above: air leakage through the piston rings from the = 0 at TDC 2 (Fig. 8), Fcomp(x) and Fexp(x) are given by:
higher-pressured to the lower-pressured region, which k
should otherwise be completely isolated from one another  K  (6)
Fcomp ( x ) = K 1 ⋅  2 
by the piston rings. Thus, the ideal relationship above is  x+l 
not sufficient for the present modeling of LG during k
 K4  (7)
starting. An improved compression-expansion model has Fexp ( x ) = K 3 ⋅  
been developed 4, which incorporates an air mass transfer  L− x+l 
algorithm to account for the air leakage. where K1, K2, K3, K4 and l are all system constants, and so
This improved model has been correlated and validated is L, which is the total stroke length from TDC2 to TDC1.
with experimental data. Fig. 9 shows simulation results of Thus, the dynamic equation for LG becomes:
the final validated model, compared to experimental data d 2x (8)
Fmot + Fexp ( x) − Fcomp ( x) − Fcog ( x) − f = m 2
of cranking the LG at 440 cycles/minute, along with the dt
ideal case without leakage. The improved model shows a k k
 K4   K  d 2x
difference (reduction) of 28 % in compression pressure Fmot + K3 ⋅   − K1 ⋅  2  − Fcog ( x) − f = m 2 (9)
compared to the ideal case. Since force is pressure  L− x +l   x +l  dt
multiplied by piston area, this reduction translates to a
difference of more than 2 kN. Thus, if leakage were not Considering non-linearity of Fcog (x),
k k
accounted for, simulation results would be invalid.  K   K 4  , it is
Fcomp ( x ) = K 1 ⋅  2  and Fexp ( x ) = K 3 ⋅  
B. LG Dynamic Equation  x+l   L− x+l 
not possible to solve the above equation for x in closed
For a dynamic mechanical equation of LG during algebraic form; even worse if velocity dependency of
starting, Newton’s second law of motion is used. Let m compression-expansion due to air leakage is incorporated
be the total mass of the translator (shaft, pistons and into the Fcomp (x) and Fexp (x) terms and if the motoring
magnets) and a its acceleration, we thus have: force is not constant but having some relation to other
d 2x .
∑F x = ma x = m
dt 2
(4) system parameters.

During starting, motion is possible along a single axis V. DETERMINATION OF STARTING FORCE AND SIMULATION
WITH CONSTANT-MAGNITUDE MOTORING FORCE
only (x), ignoring vibration along the other axes.
Incorporating the mechanical forces above, we therefore LG dynamic equation (8) is incorporated in a
have the following equation to represent LG during simulation program implemented in Matlab Simulink
starting, for motion from TDC 2 to TDC 1 (Fig. 7): (Fig. 10), with two objectives. The first objective is to
determine the required starting force profile, as a function
Pressure (Bar) Engine Compression Pressure vs. Volume
18 of displacement, to push the translator assembly from one
16
Ideal Experimental Data end to the other, in a single stroke. The effect of speed on
Model
14
Ideal (No leakage) piston ring leakage and thus compression-expansion force
Improved Model with Leakage
and required starting force can also be assessed. The
12
desired motion profile (displacement vs. time) is input of
10
the simulation. The program then generates the required
Improved
8
Model profiles of velocity, acceleration and net effective force.
6
Through summation of forces, the final required starting
Experimental force profile can then be extracted, as reflected below:
4
d 2x (10)
2 Fstarting _ required ( x) = m − Fexp ( x) + Fcomp ( x) + Fcog ( x) + f
dt 2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Volume (cc)

Figure 9. Comparison between experimental data, ideal model and

improved compression-expansion model

4
Improved compression-expansion model was developed by Abdul
Rashid Abdul Aziz and Syaifuddin Mohd of UTP
 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China

Figure 10. Matlab Simulink program to determine starting force profile Figure 11. Program to investigate mechanical resonating strategy
Desired Displacement Profile (Displacement vs Time) Engine Compression Force vs Displacement Required Motoring Force vs Displacement
40 6000 1000

4 Hz 0.125-s Stroke (4 Hz or 240 rpm)

30 Displacement (mm)
5000 0.25-s Stroke (2 Hz or 120 rpm) 0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
0.5-s Stroke (1 Hz or 60 rpm) 0.1 Hz
20
4000 5-s Stroke (0.1 Hz or 6 rpm) -1000
0.1 Hz
D is p la c e m e n t (m m )

10
2 Hz

F o rce (N )
F o r c e (N )

3000 -2000
0
1 Hz
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
2000 -3000
-10
1 Hz

0.125-s Stroke (4 Hz or 240 rpm) 1000 2 Hz 0.125-s Stroke (4 Hz or 240 rpm)

-4000
-20
0.25-s Stroke (2 Hz or 120 rpm) Displacement (mm) 0.25-s Stroke (2 Hz or 120 rpm)
0.1 Hz
-30 0.5-s Stroke (1 Hz or 60 rpm) 0 -5000 0.5-s Stroke (1 Hz or 60 rpm)
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
5-s Stroke (0.1 Hz or 6 rpm) 5-s Stroke (0.1 Hz or 6 rpm)
4 Hz 2 Hz 1 Hz 4 Hz
-40 -1000 -6000
Time (s)

Figure 12. Desired displacement profiles for 4 starting speeds, engine compression force vs. displacement and required starting force vs. displacement

Fig. 12 (leftmost) shows four desired displacement system during starting is much like a resonating spring-
profiles against time representing the starting speeds of 6, mass system, this could very well be its resonant
60, 120 and 240 cycles per minute. The middle and frequency. Although there exist cogging and friction
rightmost graphs show simulation results of engine forces, compression force dominates after several cycles
compression force and required starting force so that their spring-like property - although non-linear
respectively. It is observed that the higher the starting and velocity-dependent - characterizes the LG system.
speed, the larger is the required starting force, due to Similar to a spring-mass system with an external forcing
larger resultant compression force of the engine cylinder. function, the different motoring force magnitudes in the
This proves significance of speed dependency on piston starting of LG affect the initial piston speeds, the length
ring leakage and blow-by phenomenon. Compression of time and the number of cycles before the final required
force is seen to dominate not long after the exhaust port amplitude and cyclic frequency are reached. The 25-Hz
closes, for all starting force profiles, since compression resonant frequency could not have been obtained
force is up to 7 times higher than all other forces analytically from LG dynamic equation, proving a benefit
combined (Fig. 8). For a 240-cpm (4-Hz) starting speed, of the above dynamic simulation.
the required starting force has a peak value exceeding 5 After inclusion of the electrical subsystem model of
kiloNewtons. LG, the proposed strategy will be further investigated
The second simulation objective is to investigate through experimental validation of both electrical and
viability of the proposed resonating strategy to start the mechanical models using low excitation energy (low DC
LG, by using constant-magnitude motoring force. The bus voltage) in motionless coil energization tests and
previous simulation program is rearranged so that the single-stroke motoring tests without compression. Further
graphical order of the simulation blocks (Fig. 11) follows experimentation and simulation will be implemented with
the same order as LG dynamic equation (8). Although higher DC bus voltage (multiple batteries) to validate the
motoring force is produced by electrical current injection, compression model and the final integrated LG model.
it is still considered at this stage as just another Throughout this process, analysis of experimental and
mechanical force. It is provided by a subsystem block simulation results will be carried out to interpret and
that produces constant force with velocity detection understand system behavior under different motoring
(zero-crossing detector) to ensure that the applied force is conditions and to analyze system response to rectangular
always in the same direction as piston motion. Fig. 13 current commutation. Extensive experimentation and
shows simulation results using different magnitudes of simulation results, validation details, model refinement
motor force: 400N, 350N, 300N and 280N. and system analysis are provided in [12].
It is observed that for all force values, the cyclic Ultimately, the system is designed to operate as a
frequency when the translator reaches the required linear generator as well as motor. When functioning as a
amplitude is the same, around 25 Hz. Since the LG generator, it is expected to have sufficient output to drive
 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), September 3-5, 2008, Harbin, China

the vehicle with sufficient energy left over to also REFERENCES

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to piston blow-by, on the compression-expansion force Proc. of the 23rd Army Science Conference, Florida, 2002.
and the required starting force. Simulation results show [8] Nandkumar, S., “Two-Stroke Linear Engine,” Master’s Thesis,
that if a sufficiently large, fixed-magnitude force is West Virginia University, Morgontown, 1998.
constantly applied on the translator in the direction of [9] Arof, H., Eid, A.M. and Nor, K.M., “On the Issues of Starting and
motion, the system can be reciprocated and resonated to Cogging Force Reduction of a Tubular Permanent Magnet Linear
Generator,” Proc. of the Australasian Universities Power
the full required amplitude of 34.5 mm, although at a Engineering Conference (AUPEC2004), Brisbane, 2004.
much higher-than-required final frequency of 25 Hz, [10] Nor, K.M., Arof, H. and Wijono, “Design of a Three Phase
confirming viability of the proposed starting strategy. Tubular Permanent Magnet Linear Generator,” Proc. of the 5th
IASTED International Conference on Power and Energy Systems
ACKNOWLEDGMENT (EUROPES2005), Benalmadena, Spain, 2005.
[11] Ohm, D.Y., Park, J.H., “About Commutation and Current Control
Contributions from the following persons are highly Methods for Brushless Motors,” Proc. of the 29th Annual IMCSD
appreciated: Dr. Khalid Nor of Universiti Teknologi Symposium, San Jose, 1999.
Malaysia, Dr. Hamzah Arof and Dr. Hew Wooi Ping of [12] Zulkifli, S.A., “Modeling, Simulation and Implementation of
Universiti Malaya, Syaifuddin Mohd of UTP and LG Rectangular Commutation for Starting of Free-Piston Linear
Generator,” M.Sc. Thesis, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
project team members from UTP, UM and UKM. Malaysia, 2007.

Displacement vs Time (400 N Continuous Flat Force) Displacement vs Time (350 N Continuous Flat Force) DisplacementvsvsTime
Displacement Time (300
(300N N
Continuous Flat Force)
Continuous Flat Force) Displacement
Displacementvs
vs Time (280
Time (280 N Continuous
N Continuous Flat Force)
Flat Force)
40 40 40
40 40
40
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
30 30 30
30 30
30

20 20 20
20 20
20
D is p la c e m e n t (m m )

D is p la c e m e n t ( m m )

10 10 10
10 10
10

0 0 00 00
0.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.00
0.0000 0.10
0.1000 0.20
0.2000 0.30
0.3000 0.40
0.4000 0.50
0.5000 0.60
0.6000 0.70
0.7000 0.80
0.8000 0.90
0.9000 1.00
1.0000 0.00
0.00000 0.10
0.10000 0.20
0.20000 0.30
0.30000 0.40
0.40000 0.50
0.50000 0.60
0.60000 0.70
0.70000 0.80
0.80000 0.90
0.90000 1.00
1.00000

-10 -10 -10

-10 -10
-10

-20 -20 -20

-20 -20
-20

-30 -30 -30

-30 -30
-30

-40 -40 -40

-40 -40
-40
Time (s) Time (s) Time
Time
Time (s)(s)(s) Time
Time (s) (s)

Figure 13. LG mechanical simulation results using different values of constant-magnitude motoring force