European Journal of Psychology of Education 2007, Vol. XXII. n-'l. 405-420 2007.1.S.P.A.

Teachers' affective presentation of children's books and young children's display of affective engagement during classroom book reading
Eleni Moschovaki Ministry of Education, Greece Sara Meadows University of Bristol, U.K. Anthony Pellegrini University of Minnesota, U.S.A.

This study examines how teachers' use of affective strategies (voice intonation, dramatization, personal involvement comments) during the reading and discussion of books influence young children's affective reactions (dramatization, personal engagement, language play comments). Twenty kindergarten teachers read four books, two fiction and two information ones (narrative/expository text). We found significant differences in both teachers' affective presentation and young children's affective reactions between fiction and information books, between the two fiction books but not between the narrative and expository text. A strong bi-directional relationship was found between teachers' affective presentation of stories and young children's affective reactions. In particular, teachers' personal involvement comments prompted children 's personal engagement reactions, teachers' reenactment was followed by children 's imitations of such reenactments and teachers' voice intonation elicited children's personal engagement comments. On the other hand, children's use of paralinguistic cues and personal engagement comments reinforced teachers' use of voice intonation and personal involvement comments. Finally, text features, such as rhyming, were followed by children 's language play.

Book reading has been the subject of an enormous amount of psychological and educational research during the last fifteen years. However, to our knowledge, research has
We acknowledge the helpful comments of Professor Susan Goldman on a previous version of this paper.

406

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI

not yet examined young children's affective engagement during book reading and how that relates to adults' presentation of the text since young children are not able to read. Such a description is important in view of the fact that such strategies are important in making the task attractive especially with young children who have not yet the chance to experience book reading as a pleasurable activity. Adult-child interaction during book reading During book reading both the adult and the child are active in establishing a shared understanding. Rogoff (1990) uses the notion of intersubjectivity to describe the interpersonal involvement of the participants in a joint activity which presupposes not only mutual understanding of a situation but also affective attunement. Such affective attunement is achieved through the process of mimicry. Hatfield, Cacioppo, and Rapson (1994) reviewed a number of studies which illustrate that people's subjective emotional experience does seem to be affected by the activation and feedback from facial, vocal, postural and movement mimicry and that people therefore tend to "catch" others' emotions. With young children, this is particularly effective because they have not yet developed regulation processes in response to their affective states (Bugental, Lin, & Susskind, 1995). Thus, within the context of book reading, it would be interesting to see how teachers' affective presentation of books influences children's affective reactions and vice versa. Another process that occurs during book reading with preschool age children is that of emotional referencing. During such a process, young children look to adults' reactions. Such reactions inform them of the appropriate stance they should adopt and assist them in interpreting the situation at hand. Thus, children use their mothers' emotions in order to evaluate their experiences of the world (Klinnert, Campos, Sorce, Emde, & Svejda, 1983; Stem, Hofer, Haft, & Dore, 1985). As young children are not yet able to read a written text alone or unaided, there is usually a reader who mediates between the text and the listener. The reader mediates between the implied reader and the actual one by simplifying the text, omitting parts s/he considers to be difficult for the children and stressing visual and verbal information that can assist their understanding. The whole attitude of the storyteller (body language, tone of the voice etc.) helps children understand better which heroes are talking, how they feel and behave and make them realize if a part of the story is sad, happy or suspenseful. The story reader therefore, overrides the textual narrator using various techniques in order to assist children in their effort to comprehend the text (Cochran-Smith, 1984). Such strategies not only simplify the task and bring it to the children's level of understanding but also make the task an interesting and pleasurable one. Bruner (1985) suggests that the adult acts as a vicarious form of conscience for the child. Thus, the way the reader is going to present the text and his/her personal stance towards it will defme children's reactions. If the reader makes the task interesting and pleasurable, it is most likely that s/he will manage to attract children's interest. In such a case, children will experience the pleasure of listening to stories and develop a positive attitude towards book reading. Therefore, both text presentation and the reader's emotional stance should be taken into consideration during the coding of affect.

Text features and emotional engagement Furthermore, text features influence the degree of the audience's involvement. A writer may use oral strategies in his text (imaginative literature) in order to achieve the reader's affective engagement, or use expository prose to impress his audience through the strength of his arguments. To achieve this detachment the writer employs passives, nominalizations and a more integrated language. In contrast, involvement is achieved by referring to the speaker, using emphatic particles, direct quotes etc. which create a more fragmented kind of language (Chafe, 1982). Egan (1988) mentions techniques that have been used in oral storytelling and

AFFECTIVE PRESENTATION OF BOOKS

407

can facilitate memory and achieve emotional enchantment such as rhyme, rhythm, meter, repetition, redundancy, particular types of story scripts, use of highly vivid or visual images through the use of senses etc. Chukovsky (1971) also cites examples of young children who demonstrate not only delight but also sheer rapture when playing games based on rhymes, and points out that, usually such games are infectious among children. Thus, features from the text (dialogues, rhyming) have also to be considered during the coding of affective representations, especially since teaehers read the text to the children and then engage them in discussion. Book reading styles and young children's developmental outcomes Research has also focused on the impact of various book reading styles mainly fiction books on young children's developmental outcomes. One style of book reading is the dialogic one which encourages children's increasing participation during the book session through the use of open ended questions, expansion of children's utterances and positive feedback. A series of intervention studies with low income children (2-4 years old) have demonstrated an effect o f t h e particular style on their language and literacy development (Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998; Whitehurst, Arnold, Epstein, Angell, Smith, & Fischel, 1994a; Whitehurst, Epstein, Angell, Payne, Crone, & Fisehel, 1994b; Whitehurst, Falco, Lonigan, Fischel, De Baryshe, Valdez-Menehaea, & Caulfield, 1988). Other book reading styles are: the coconstructive where a lot of book extending discussion occurs during the reading of book, the didactic interactional where discussion foeuses on labeling and story recall and takes place during the reading of the text and the performance oriented style with limited discussion during the reading ofthe text followed by book extending discussion afterwards (Dickinson & Smith, 1994). Children who had attended groups with a performance oriented style of reading had a greater effect on vocabulary growth a year later. Given that teachers discouraged discussion during the reading of book but treated "reading as a performance to be enjoyed" indicates that the affective presentation of books was accentuated (Dickinson & Smith, 1994, p. 116). Reese and Cox (1999) have also found that the performance style was more beneficial for children's vocabulary and print skills when the children's initial level was taken into consideration. In another study, a significant correlation was found between parents' and children's use of affective words such as love, like, want ete. during the book reading and their outcomes in concepts about print (book orientation, print direction, letter word concepts, advanced print concepts) a year later when children were three years old (Watson & Shapiro, 1988). The pattern of these relations suggests that the affective presentation of books probably prompts children's affective engagement with an impact on their later developmental outcomes. Therefore, it is important to have an accurate description of the affective strategies teachers' use. Furthermore, we do not have any description of young children's reactions in terms of their affective engagement.

Book reading styles according to book genre Research on home book reading with young children has also shown that adults adopt different reading aloud styles according to the type of book they present. In fiction books and narrative texts interaction is limited, while in information books and expository texts they usually adopt a more interactive style (Pellegrini, Pelmutter, Galda, & Brody, 1990; Sulzby & Teale, 1987; Bus & Van Ijzendoorn, 1988; Mason, Peterman, & Kerr, 1989). Due to the nature of fiction books, we expect that such books will prompt a more affective style compared to information books. In sum, the aim of this study is to pin down the different strategies teachers use during the presentation of books and their impact on young children's affeetive reactions with a variety of book genres. Affective reactions refer to reactions of personal interest, pleasure, excitement, empathy, sorrow whieh have been triggered either by the text or by the emotional reactions ofthe participants.

408

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI Thus, the research questions of the study have as follows: - What kinds of affective presentations are observed when teachers read texts to their students? - What affective reactions do children show during a text reading interaction with their teacher? - How do teachers' use of affective strategies and young children's affective reactions influence one another? - How do these differ across different genres for teachers and for students?

Methodology Participants The data collection took place in Greek kindergarten schools where the mean of instruction is Greek. Twenty teachers from different schools participated in the study. Schools were located in two islands of the North Eastem Aegean Sea (Chios and Lesvos) and in each school children were of mixed ages (3.5 to 5.5 years old). Teachers volunteered to participate and the sample consisted mainly of experienced teachers (mean teaching experience 12.6 years). Each class had from 10 to 20 children and all of them attended the book session. It should be noted that formal teaching of reading and writing is not part of the curriculum for the early years, however the curriculum adopts an emergent literacy approach. Teachers read children's books inside the class, usually three times per week. Materials All teachers read the same four books to their students. The four books covered a variety of story and text genres: "Fire" by Rius and Parramon (1992), "Life under Earth" by Rius and Parramon (1994), "Winnie the witch" by Paul and Thomas (1990) and "The three little wolves" by Trivizas (1993). "Fire" is an information book with a limited expository text (16 pages, 13 sentences). It describes features of fire such as its color and gives examples of whether fire can become good or bad, useful or dangerous. The pictures are rather static showing the different uses of fire, e.g., a fireplace, a forest blaze, the candles of a birthday cake, Indians dancing around the fire etc. and complement the text. "Life under Earth" is an information book with a more extended narrative type of text (16 pages, 26 sentences). A little rabbit describes different events of its life such as how its parents made their burrow, what kind of food it eats etc. The illustrations present life under Earth (roots, animals, bulbs) with great detail and either complement or follow the text at each page. "Winnie the witch" is a contemporary fiction book (14 pages, 50 sentences). The book presents an eccentric witch who lives in a black house with a black cat. The witch is portrayed as a good one, who prefers to change her house in order to make her cat happy. The text has no dialogues. The illustrations are very impressive and complement the text. The house, the objects and the heroes are presented with great detail and artistry. "The three little wolves" is a fiction book which follows the traditional style of the fairy tale "The three little pigs" (16 pages, 156 sentences). The text has a lot of repetitions, dialogues, rhyming all features of traditional fairy tales. The illustrations are also very impressive and either follow or complement the text. When teachers presented the books, they asked if any child had the specific book at home or if someone had read it to them. During the study, no child from all twenty classes knew the books, apart from one who had at home the "The three little wolves."

AFFECTIVE PRESENTATION OF BOOKS

409

Procedures Each session was tape recorded, as teaehers did not feel comfortable with the idea of being video recorded. Teaehers were instructed not to read the story to the ehildren earlier sinee researeh has shown that familiarity with the book changes the interaction patterns of book reading, with ehildren participating more actively (Goodsitt, Raitan, & Pelmutter, 1988; Beals, DeTemple, & Dickinson, 1994). Additionally, teaehers were requested to present the book in their usual way and try to ignore the researcher's presence in the classroom. From each class, we collected four different book readings; eaeh session took plaee in a different day. In total, 80 sessions were collected. The mean duration of the session for the books was: "Fire" M=22, SD=6.22, "Life under Earth" M=22, SD=1.7, "Winnie the Witeh" M=22, SD=1.\ and "The three little wolves" A/=33.5, SD=12.S. Measures: Developing a coding system The unit of analysis. The unit of analysis for the reading ofthe text by the teacher was the sentence, for the discussion, the utterance. Utterances are defined as phrases that are distinctive in content according to the eoding seheme developed while taking into consideration intonation and tum taking between the teaeher and the ehildren (Wells, 1975). During the eoding of children's behavior, all spontaneous eomments made by ehildren were counted as separate utteranees. If there were more than one reply to a teaeher's question then the reply that the teaeher accepted was counted. If, however, the teaeher acknowledged more than one reply then all replies eounted as separate utteranees. Coding of the participants' behavior. The coding system for the transcripts had two levels. The first level refers to the speaker, teaeher or ehild. Eight stories were eoded by a seeond person in order to calculate the inter-observer reliability. Cohen Kappa at this level ranged from 0.99-1. The second level refers to the eoding of affeet during the reading ofthe text and during diseussion. To our knowledge, there is no available eoding system for the measurement of affeet in this particular eontext. We eoded utteranees with affeet for both the text being read and the diseussion. The eategories were mutually exclusive and exhaustive (if there was no affeet it was eoded as 0). The affeet was eoded for both ehildren's and teacher's utteranees and was based on the prosodie and paralinguistie features of book reading. We did not take into consideration non verbal features sinee video recording was avoided as being too intrusive. However, after eaeh session, notes were kept for particular gestures the teaeher used during book presentation and these were taken into consideration during the eoding of affeet. For example, when the witeh was easting her magie spells (abraeadabra) some teaehers would reenaet the seene by waving their hand in the air as if they were holding a magie stiek or knoek their chair when the bad pig knoeked the door. Sueh gestures were also accompanied by voiee reenaetment and were eoded as dramatization utterances. The reeordings, as well the transeription and eoding of the data were done by the same person, whieh faeilitated the interpretation of the language transeripts. All paralinguistie cues sueh as laughter, exelamation ete. that were not aeeompanied by a verbal comment were eounted as separate utteranees. We eoded teaehers' affeetive presentations into three main eategories. Intonation. This eategory eovers features of voiee intonation sueh as pausing with the purpose of stressing a story point; reading slowly in order to emphasize the minimal text in "Fire"; prolonging the end of sentenees (storytelling teehnique), prolonging words to emphasize length, size, duration; whispering or raising the voiee in order to stress words or attract ehildren's attention. In addition, all sentenees from the original texts with dialogues, rhyming and questions were eoded as intonation. Sueh features ereate a more fragmented kind of language, similar to strategies used in storytelling. For example, the author of "The three little wolves" has ineluded questions at partieular points of the text with the purpose of exeiting ehildren (see Table 1). When the teaehers reenaeted the dialogues, these utteranees were eoded as dramatization rather than intonation. Inter-rater reliability in eoding utteranees in this eategory was 90.8%.

410
Table 1

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI

Coding of teachers' affective presentation and children's affective reactions

Teachers' affective presentation Intonation Pausing Speed of reading Prolonging Pitch of voice Textfeatures: 1. Text dialogues 2. Rhyming E.g., Fingo Mingo 3. Questioning E.g., The other day, while they were skipping in the garden, what do they see? Dramatization Re-enactment of dialogues with voice alterations Re-enactment of scenes E.g., He blew strongly like the wind, fiercely like a windstorm, with force like a typhoon he blew. Somehow like that: Fououououou! (Teacher is blowing) Personal involvement Expression of personal interest E.g., I wonder what will happen next Expression of pleasure and/or excitement E.g., Oh, what a fiinny name. E.g., Oh, look children, what have happened to their house! E.g., Laughing when reading the text or with something tiirmy the children said Expression of empathy and/or sorrow E.g., And the poor little wolves left very unhappy, indeed Children's affective reactions Language play Repeating funrty names E.g., Popo Libopo Chiming E.g., Little wolves, scared wolves, let me come in!

Dramatization Re-enactments of scenes E.g., Casting magic spells (abracatabra)

Personal Engagement Expression of personal interest E.g., What's going to happen now? Expression of pleasure or laughing E.g., Oh it's beautiful! Expression of excitement E.g., What dynamite! Expression of empathy and/or sorrow E.g., Why didn't they (the wolves) go to their mummy?

- Dramatization. This category includes re-enactment of the dialogues by voice alterations and re-enactment of scenes. Inter-rater reliability in coding utterances in this category was 98%. - Personal involvement. This category refers to all utterances and paralinguistic cues whereby teachers expressed personal interest, pleasure, excitement, empathy and sorrow. Both language content and voice intonation were considered. Inter-rater reliability in coding utterances in this category was 88.2%. The coding of children's affective reactions has as follows: - Language play. This category includes all spontaneous utterances where children were playing with language, repeating funny words or engaging in rhyming play. Inter-rater reliability in coding utterances in this category was 97.3%. - Dramatization. This category refers to children's spontaneous re-enactment of scenes or events. Inter-rater reliability in coding utterances in this category was 100%. - Personal Engagement: This category covers children's personal comments or paralinguistic cues that occurred as a spontaneous reaction to the text or the pictures and demonstrated personal interest, pleasure, excitement, empathy and sorrow. We took voice intonation and the content of the utterance into consideration in order to judge if a particular comment demonstrated emotional engagement. Inter-rater reliability in coding utterances in this category was 88.6%. Examples of the coding of teachers' and children's affect can be found in Table 1 and in the Appendix. Overall, Cohen Kappa for both teachers' and children's coding of affect was 88% which is considered to reflect "very substantial" agreement (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986).

AFFECTIVE PRESENTATION OF BOOKS

411

Data analyses. The data were eoded as sequenees of events in order to analyze the moment by moment stream of aetivity during elassroom book reading. Sequential analysis allows us to examine how the use of partieular strategies on the teaeher's part (intonation, dramatization, personal involvement eomments) during the reading and diseussion of a book invoke partieular reaetions from the ehildren (dramatization, language play, personal engagement eomments) and viee versa. For the statistieal analysis, we have used the z seore, as a standardized "measure of the extent to whieh a partieular transitional probability deviates from its expeeted value for that subjeet" (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986, p. 150). If greater than 1.96 then the transitional probabilities are oeeurring at a greater than ehanee level, p<.05 (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986). All utteranees were put into sequenee and analyzed using the program SDIS and GSEQ (Bakeman & Quera, 1995).

Results Teachers' affective presentation of books The first objeetive of the study is related to teaehers' affeetive presentation of the four books and how sueh a presentation varies among them. In information books, most teaehers adopted an interaetive style (read eaeh page showing the pieture and diseussing it); in fietion books, they adopted a performanee-oriented style (read the whole story first and then presented the pietures followed by diseussion). Table 2 illustrates teaehers' affeetive presentation aeross the four books. It is obvious that there is eonsiderable variation in the ehoiee of affeetive strategies. Overall, in fietion books teaehers' affeetive presentation is aeeentuated as the proportion of intonation, dramatization and personal involvement points out. In partieular, the reading of "The three little wolves" has the highest proportion of intonation and dramatization eompared to the other three books. Thus, it is interesting to see how the reenaetment of dialogues and rhyming of the text may influenee ehildren's reaetions. In order to examine if signifieant differenees exist in teaehers' affeetive presentation of the partieular books (Fire: M=5.9, 5Z)=4.3; Life: M=9, 5D=6.8; Witeh: M=\5.2, SD=\0.7; Wolf: M=30.1, SD=\0.7) the data was eheeked and judged as approximating the normal distribution. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a signifieant text eondition on teaehers' affeet: F(3,57)=84.14,p<.000. Tukey post-hoe analysis indieated that the two fietion books elieited more affeet than the two information ones and "The three little wolves" elieited more affeet than "Winnie the Witeh"; no sueh differenee was found between "Fire" and "Life under Earth".

Table 2 Teachers' affective presentation and children's affective reactions during classroom book reading
FIRE Variables Teachers' affect Intonation Dramatization Pers. involvement Total Children's affect Dramatization Language play Pers. engagement Total n 180 9 89 278 12 10 153 175 %* 3.6 0.2 1.8 5.6 0.4 0.3 4.9 5.6 N 275 10 156 441 3 9 165 177 LIFE %* 5.5 0.2 3.2 8.9 0.1 0.3 5.5 5.9 n 412 43 284 739 45 46 437 528 WITCH %* 8.4 0.9 5.8 15.1 1.6 1.6 15.1 18.3 n 1125 470 288 1883 143 164 505 812 WOLF
0/*

16.7 7 4.3 28 4.3 4.9 15.3 24.5

Note. 'Teachers' affect has been calculated in relation to teachers' total number of utterances and children's affect in relation to children's total number of utterances.

412

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI

Children's affective reactions during classroom book reading Table 2 reports young children's affective reactions across the four books. As expected, children's affective display of dramatization, language play and personal engagement is much higher in the two fiction books compared to the information ones. Following the same procedure as above, we examined if significant differences exist in young children's affective engagement among the four books (Fire: M=5.1, SD=3.1; Life: M=6.l, SD=4.6; Witch: M=n.3, SD=\O.\; Wolf: M=25.2, 5D=13.2). Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant text condition on children's affect: F(3,57)=30.11,/7<.OOO. Tukey post-hoc analysis indicated that the two fiction books elicited more affect than the two information ones and "The three little wolves" elicited more affect than "Winnie the witch"; no such difference was found between "Fire" and "Life under Earth". Teachers' affective book presentation and young children's affective reactions Table 3 presents the outcomes from the sequential analysis when teachers' intonation, dramatization and personal involvement precede children's utterances of dramatization, language play and personal engagement comments and the reverse across the eighty sessions. The z score from the data overall indicate that teachers' voice intonation and dramatization comments are most likely to be followed by children's dramatization, language play, personal engagement comments and the reverse. A strong bidirectional relationship also emerged between teachers' use of personal involvement comments and children's personal engagement reactions. Only, teachers' use of personal involvement comments being followed by children's dramatization and language play as well children's personal engagement reactions being followed by teachers' dramatization were not significant. Table 3 Observed lag frequencies and adjusted residuals of teachers' intonation, dramatization and personal involvement (Given) and children 's dramatization, language play and personal engagement (Target) across the four books
FIRE
It

LIFE z n 1 2 22 0 0 3 0 0 12 0 0 0 2 0 0 13 0 z 3.66 3.71 7.34 -0.05 -0.10 5.82 -0.20 -0.37 5.08 -0.26 -0.05 -0.20 4.10 -0.09 -0.35 3.39 -0.49 4.51 n

WITCH z 0.93 5.53 10.97 9.21 3.42 1.72 2.49 -1.34 11.30 0.93 5.32 3.26 0.33 -0.51 0.99 5.05 1.05 5.79 n

WOLF z 1.30 10.65 6.45 13.25 2.64 0.32 -1.57 0.08 24.79 1.57 0.51 0.94 1.31 0.07 2.90 6.61 -0.33 10.28

OVERALL n 29 76 201 46 17 34 7 6 188 27 11 12 29 8 15 169 26 108 z 4.99 17.47 15.59 23.85 7.03 3.26 .91 .17 29.58 4.42 4.31 3.18 4.37 2.31 4.07 11.73 1.42 14.58

TI-CD TI-CL TI-CPE TD-CD TD-CL TD-CPE TP1->CD TPI-CL TPI-CPE CD-TI CD-TD CD-TPI CL-TI CL-TD CL-TPI CPE-TI CPE-TD CPE-TPI

3 1 5 1 0 1 1 1 12 1 0 0 0 0 1 8 0 7

5.10 1.67 0.91 8.18 -O.lt 2.04 2.27 2.69 8.12 1.36 -0.12 -0.38 -0.47 -0.11 2.69 2.64 -0.42 4.19

4 11 73 5 2 5 5 0 59 4 3 6 3 0 3 46 4 38

21 62 101 40 15 25 1 5 105 22 8 6 24 8 11 102 22 52

Note, TI: Teacher intonation, TD; Teacher dramatization, TPI: Teacher personal involvement, CD: Children's dramatization, CL: Children's language play, CPE: Children's personal engagement. E.g., TI-CD: Teachers' intonation being followed by children's dramatization.

In order to find out whether teachers' affective presentation of stories was mainly responsible for children's display of affective engagement and not the other way around we collapsed the affective categories separately for the teacher and the children. There were 604

AFFECTIVE PRESENTATION OF BOOKS

413

eases of teaehers' utteranees preeeding ehildren's utteranees with affeet and 405 eases of ehildren's affeet preeeding teaehers' affeet. Both z seores were signifieant. However the seore for teaehers' affeet (given) ehildren's affeet (target) was signifieantly higher (z= 36.53) than ehildren's affeet (given) teaehers' affeet (target) (z= 19.96), t (19)=-8.40,/7<.00). Differences between books There were also variations in interaetion patterns aeross the four books (see Table 3). Teaehers' intonation being followed by ehildren's dramatization was signifieant only for the book "Life under earth", yet it oeeurred only onee. Teaehers' intonation being followed by ehildren's language play and personal engagement reaetions were signifieant only in the three narrative texts ("Life under earth", "Winnie the Witeh" and "The three little wolves"). Teaehers' dramatization was most likely to be followed by ehildren's dramatization and language play in both fietion books. In information books, teaehers' dramatization being followed by ehildren's personal engagement reaetions was signifieant while teaehers' dramatization being followed by ehildren's dramatization was signifieant only in the book "Fire". Teaehers' personal involvement eomments was most likely to be followed by ehildren's dramatization in the books "Fire" and "Winnie the Witeh" while teaehers' personal involvement was most likely to be followed by ehildren's language play only in the book "Fire". Teaehers' personal involvement eomments followed by ehildren's personal engagement reaetions were signifieant in all four books. Children's dramatization was most likely to be followed by teaehers' dramatization and personal involvement eomments in the book "Winnie the Witeh". Children's language play followed by teaehers' intonation was signifieant in the book "Life under Earth" while ehildren's language play followed by teaehers' personal engagement was signifieant only in the books "Fire" and the "Three little wolves". Finally, ehildren's personal engagement reaetions were most likely to be followed by teaehers' intonation and personal involvement eomments in all four books. Repeated measures ANOVA based on z seores revealed a signifieant text eondition on teaehers' affeetive presentation followed by ehildren's display of affeetive engagement F(57,3)=9.83,/?<.000 (Fire: M=1.42, 5'D=I.75; Life: M=1.87, SD=2.U; Witeh: M=3.59, 5D=2.30; Wolf M=4.4l, SD=2.29) and ehildren's display of affeetive engagement followed by teaehers affeetive presentation ofthe texts F(57,3)=3.74, p<.016 (Fire: M=.66, 5'D=1.48; Life: M= .95, SD= 1.46; Witeh: M= 1.78, SD= 1.37; Wolf M= 1.98, SD= 1.47). Tukey post-hoe analysis indieated that the transitional probability of teaeher's affeet being followed by ehildren's affeet and the reverse was mueh higher in the two fietion books eompared to "Fire", and "The three little wolves" eompared to "Life under Earth".

Discussion The first objeetive of this study was related to teaehers' affeetive presentation of ehildren's books and young ehildren's display of affeetive engagement. We found a eausal relationship between teaehers' affeetive presentation and ehildren's affeetive reaetions whieh eomplies with the researeh outeomes on emotional eontagion (Hatfield et al., 1994; Bugental et al., 1995). The relationship is a bi-direetional one although the aetual z seore indieates that teaehers' affeet was most likely to be transmitted to ehildren than the other way around. The outeome is justified sinee the teaeher is responsible for reading and presenting the text during the book session. In addition, young ehildren are less able to regulate their affeetive states (Bugental et al., 1995) and therefore, it is mueh easier for them to eateh the feelings and emotions displayed by their teaehers. As expeeted, signifieant differenees appeared in both teaehers' affeetive presentation and young ehildren's affeetive reaetions between fietion and information books but also between the two fietion books. Therefore, there is eonsiderable variation in the presentation style of

414

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI

teachers, according to book genre and the content of the text. No differences were found between the narrative and expository text of the two information books. Thus, teachers' affective presentation and children's affective reactions are not always dependent on text genre. The use of more children's books with various text features and illustrations can substantiate this point further. The next objective was to explore how teachers' use of affective strategies prompts young children's affective reactions and how that varies across the four books. The most striking finding in all four books was the bi-directional relationship between teachers' demonstration of personal involvement and young children's displays of their personal engagement. Teachers' personal stance is transmitted to children who also seem to share the feelings and attitudes of the teacher. On the other hand, the more children demonstrate their pleasure, excitement, interest, empathy and sorrow through their comments and paralinguistic cues, it is more likely that teachers will react in a similar manner, sharing children's feelings. An example of such an interaction follows: T C T C T He blew it up with dynamite! (Sad voice). But why don't they go to their mother? (With empathy). But their mother told them that they should built a house by themselves. Look, fire children! Dynamite is a very bad thing. He destroyed this house as well. They must be dead now! (Sad voice). They are desperate. (Sad voice).

The particular outcome is consistent with theories of emotional contagion which postulate that people tend to catch others' emotions and that affective states are transmitted (Hatfield et al., 1994). In addition, teachers' voice reenactment of the text is usually followed by children's imitations of such reenactments. This relationship was found separately in both fiction books and in "Life under Earth". However, the highest proportion was found in "The three little wolves" with a proportion twice as much as in "Winnie the witch". The fact that the particular text had a lot of dialogues encouraged many teachers to adopt a more dramatic style of presentation by reenacting the dialogues using different voices. In addition, the author had incorporated in the text reenactment of scenes, such as the blowing of the house and the smelling of the house made of flowers. Thus, teachers had only to follow the text to engage in such reenactments. Some teachers explicitly asked children to imitate them; in other groups children took the initiative to imitate teachers' behavior. It is interesting though, that the transitional probability of children's dramatization followed by teachers' dramatization reached a significant level only in "Winnie the witch". It seems that teachers' reenactment is followed by children's reenactment, rather than the other way around. Furthermore, teachers' intonation was followed by children's language play in "Life under Earth" and in both fiction books while teachers' dramatization followed by children's language play appeared only in the two fiction books. The highest proportion of children's language play took place in "The three little wolves". The author uses a lot of rhymes, repeated throughout the text and has given funny names to the heroes of the stories (e.g., the pig is called Rouni Rouni, the kangaroo Zip Zip Zorro, the rhino Popo Libopo, the flamingo Fingo Mingo). As the teacher followed the text, the children's pleasure became evident. They tuned to the text and started chiming, they laughed or made comments which showed their delight. This outcome substantiates Chukovsky's (1971) observations of children's pleasure when engaging in rhyming games. Conversely, the transitional probability of children's language play followed by teacher intonation reached the significant level only in "Life under Earth". No significant relationship was found for children's language play followed by teachers' reenactment of dialogues in all four books. Thus, we can not suggest that children's language play during the reading of text has an impact on teachers' choice of text presentation. In both fiction books and in "Life under Earth" teacher's intonation was followed by children's personal engagement. During the reading of information books teachers adopted an

AFFECTIVE PRESENTATION OF BOOKS

415

interaetive style thus, in most eases, book illustrations invoked sueh reaetions. In fietion books, however, the majority of teaehers adopted a performanee oriented style during whieh ehildren did not have aeeess to the book illustrations so that the eontent of the text and its presentation style had a greater impaet. It is interesting to note that "Winnie the witeh", a book with no dialogues or rhyming, had the highest proportion of sueh sequenees. Children's reaetions eonsisted mainly of laughter or spontaneous eomments that demonstrated their pleasure at the misfortunes of the witeh. Yet, not only the eontent of the text, but also its presentation in a lively tone of voiee, paraphrasing parts of the text (e.g., adding dialogues, emphatie partieles ete.) made the text more appealing. For example the original text has as follows: "When Wilbur sat on the earpet with his eyes open, Winnie eould see him. But when Wilbur elosed his eyes and went to sleep, Winnie eouldn't see him at all. So she tripped over him" (Paul & Thomas, 1990, pp. 9-10). Teaeher 13 paraphrased it and presented it slightly differently. T (reads) When Wilbur sat on the earpet with his eyes open, Winnie eould see him beeause his green eyes were shining. But when Wilbur went to sleep on the earpet, Winnie eouldn't see him on the blaek earpet sinee he was blaek. Not again! What did she do? She fell on him, she didn't see him and tripped over him. The Witeh fell down and the eat was in pain with the witeh over him. (Prolongs the ending) She fell down (laughing).

C T Cs

Notably, ehildren's personal engagement was followed by teaehers' intonation in all four books. Sueh a eausal relationship suggests that ehildren's spontaneous reaetions are more likely to eneourage teaehers to present the text in a more lively way through the use of voiee intonation and paraphrasing. In the two information books, teaehers' intonation was followed by ehildren's dramatization. These were rare eases and usually teaehers eneouraged ehildren to reenaet seenes. A eausal relationship also appeared between ehildren's dramatization and teaehers' intonation in "Life under earth" where ehildren reenaeted the shooting of the hunters during the reading ofthe text. Finally, teaehers' dramatization was followed by ehildren's personal engagement, a relationship that reaehed a signifieant level only in the two information books. It refers to spontaneous reaetions (laughter) to teaehers' voiee reenaetments. No relationship was found for ehildren's personal engagement being followed by teaehers' dramatization. In summary, the present outeomes elueidate how teaehers beeome mediators between the implied reader and the audienee. Teaehers' affeetive presentation was eausally related to young ehildren's affeetive reaetions. Sueh a relationship, also funetions in the opposite direetion sinee ehildren's demonstration of their affeetive engagement eneourages teaehers' affeetive representation of texts. In partieular, a strong bi-direetional relationship emerged between teaehers' personal involvement and young ehildren's personal engagement. This eausal relationship does not seem to be dependent on book and text genre. A strong bidireetional relationship was also found between teaehers' intonation and ehildren's personal engagement. Apart from the illustrations, narrative texts (story form) are more likely to invoke sueh reaetions, therefore the eontent of the text has a greater impaet. On the other hand, ehildren's spontaneous reaetions of pleasure, exeitement, sorrow ete. reinforee teaehers' lively presentation of the text. A bi-direetional relationship also appeared between teaehers' dramatization and ehildren's dramatization. The eontent ofthe text plays a signifieant role in the extent of sueh reenaetments. Finally, text features sueh as rhyming, are mainly responsible for ehildren's language play. The outeomes of the study illustrate how intersubjeetivity is aehieved during group book reading. Teaehers' strategies of intonation and dramatization bring the text to life, making it easier for ehildren to understand the eontent of the written text. On the other hand, the emotional eontent ofthe adults' eommentary assists ehildren's interpretation of what is said or

416

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI

read. Most importantly when teachers explicitly express their emotions of pleasure, sadness, interest, children imitate them and end up sharing their feelings. Such a process assists children to experience the book reading session as a pleasurable activity, motivating them to immerse themselves in it. Thus, teachers' affective strategies are important for both text comprehension and children's affective engagement. On the other hand, children's affective reactions also influence teachers' affective presentation of the text thus, both parts are constantly adapting to one another. This study has certain limitations. The coding of affect for all participants was mainly based on their verbal behavior. Although fieldnotes were kept during data collection, these were not made in a systematic way so as to have an accurate picture of their nonverbal behavior. Additionally, a significant amount of data related to children's affective reactions is being missed, such as their facial expressions and body language during the reading of the story. Future research can use video recording in order to have an accurate and systematic recording of non verbal behavior and incorporate it to the coding system of affect. Furthermore, since we were looking at group interaction, the measure of children's affect did not take into consideration individual differences in their affective reactions. Because young children have not yet developed regulatory strategies of their emotional state, it is difficult for them to resist the affective atmosphere the teacher transmits. Our experience by observing the group interaction is that excitement, empathy and laughter are contagious and all children react more or less in a similar manner. Nevertheless, fiiture research should focus on individual children either by using video recording or by systematic observation of their behavior for a more detailed description of their affective engagement.

Implications for future research and practice The results of this study can be usefiil to practitioners. Teachers need to become aware of the use of various affective strategies as a mean of attracting children's interest and prompting their emotional reactions, especially for those children who lack book reading experiences at home. In particular, emotional comments of personal interest, pleasure, excitement, empathy and sorrow are effectively transmitted to children who react accordingly. This might prove a particularly effective strategy for children who find it difficult to concentrate during the book session. The outcomes of this study have also implications for future research. To date, research on reading aloud has focused on the quality of discussion and neglected text presentation. Our results provide evidence that teachers' affective presentation of the text prompts children's affective reactions and vice versa. Therefore it is most likely that children are more concentrated and more actively engaged during the discussion. Future research should examine the impact of teachers' affective presentation of books on children's attentive behavior, their spontaneous participation and their ability to retell a story. Additionally, research should investigate how variation in the affective presentation of a given book influences young children's affective reactions. Such an analysis will clarify the extent to which the text or teachers' use of affective strategies, are responsible for children's affective engagement. Moreover, the use of other children's books can elucidate further the impact of various text features and the effect of illustrations on teachers' affective presentation and children's affective reactions. In light of the present findings, research on the short and long term effects of book reading styles on young children's developmental outcomes should also be reconsidered. In particular, the performance oriented style where affect seems to be accentuated benefits the development of language and print skills (Dickinson & Smith, 1994; Reese & Cox, 1999). Given the fact that such skills are essential for children's reading development, it is important to investigate if, apart from the quality of discussion, affect is also an essential component of a reading aloud style. There is some proof for this from a Watson and Shapiro (1988) study that

AFFECTIVE PRESENTATION OF BOOKS

417

found a signifieant eorrelation between teaehers' and ehildren's use of affeetive words and ehildren's development of print skills. Given the positive effeets ofthe dialogie style of story reading on ehildren's language and literaey development of very young ehildren (Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998; Whitehurst et al., 1994a,b, 1988), it is possible that the affeetive dimension of the performanee style eneourages ineidental learning and suits better the needs of the older ehildren. It is therefore imperative for future researeh to examine how young ehildren's affeetive engagement influenees their eognitive engagement within the eontext of book reading as well as any long term effeets on their reading development.

Appendix Examples of the eoding system

TEACHER 1, Book: "The three little wolves " 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 T: "Please, rhino, they said, as soon as he applied the brakes, will you give us some of your barbed wire, a few iron bars and armor plates, and some heavy metal padlocks?" (Teacher reads, intonation) "Sure", said the rhinoceros whose name was Popo Libopo. (Teacher reads, intonation) C (laughing): Popo Libopo (Child, Language play) T: And he gave them everything and armor plates and barbed wire and iron bars, and padlocks and an iron door of a safe. (Teacher reads, 0) So the little wolves were very busy working and built themselves a house of steel, with curtains from wire and a door of safe. (Teacher reads, 0). "That is really safe and secure!" they said as soon as they fmished. (Teacher reads, intonation) "God save Popo Libopo!" (Teacher reads, intonation) Cs (laughing) Popo Libopo. (Child, language play) T: The other day, while they were skipping in the garden, what do they see (questioning)? (Teacher reads, intonation) C: The pig. (Child, 0). T: Rouni Rouni the sneaky bad pig! [In Greek it rhymes.] (Teacher reads, intonation) Cs: Rouni Rouni the sneaky bad pig (Child, language play) T: Immediately, they ran inside their house of steel and locked the door. (Teacher reads, 0)

TEACHER 12: Book: 'Life under Earth ". 108 T: After a lot of digging the house was ready. (Teacher reads, 0) 109 C: The whole house. (Child, 0) 200 T (Shows illustration): They started digging from here and made this enormous (prolongs) tunnel and here is the house. (Teacher, intonation) 201 C: How big it is! (With amazement) (Child, personal engagement)

References
Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J.M. (1986). Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Bakeman, R., & Quera, V. (1995). Analyzing interaction: Sequential analysis with SDIS and GSEQ. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Beals, D.E., DeTetnple, J.M., & Dickinson, D.K. (1994). Talking and listening that support early literacy development of children from low-income families. In D.K. Dickinson (Ed.), Bridges to literacy (pp. 19-40). Cambridge MA, Oxford UK: Blaekwell. Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J.V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication and cognition (pp. 21-34). Catnbridge: Cambridge University Press. Bugental, D.B., Lin, E.K., & Susskind, J.E. (1995). Influences of affect on cognitive processes of different ages: Why the change? In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Social development (pp. 159-184). 15th Review of Personality and Social Psychology. London: Sage. Bus, A.G., & Van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1988). Mother-child interactions, attachment and emergent literacy: A crosssectional study. Child Development, 59, 1262-1272.

418

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI

Chafe, W.L. (1982). Integration and involvement in speaking, writing and oral literature. In D. Tannen (Ed.), Spoken and written language: Exploring orality and literacy. Advances in Discourse Practices (vol. 9, pp. 35-53). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Chukovsky, K. (1971). Erom two to five, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. Cochran-Smith, M. (1984). The making of a reader, Norwood, NJ: Ablex Dickinson, D.K., & Smith, M.W. (1994). Long-term effects of pre-school teachers' book readings on low-income children's vocabulary and story comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 29, 104-122. Egan, K. (1988). Primary understanding. Education in early childhood. New York: Routledge. Goodsitt, J., Raitan, J.G., & Perlmutter, M. (1988). Interaction between mothers and preschool children when reading a novel and familiar book. International Journal of Behavioral Development, II, 489-505. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J.T., & Rapson, R.L. (1994). Emotional contagion. Cambridge: Cambridge Llniversity Press. Klinnert, M.D., Campos, J.J., Sorce, J.F., Emde, R.N., & Svejda, M. (1983). Emotions as behavior regulators: Social referencing in infancy. In R. Plutchink & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research and experience, Vol, 2, Emotions in early development (pp. 57-86). New York: Academic Press. Lonigan, C.J., & Whitehurst, G.J. (1998). Relative efficacy of parent and teacher involvement in a shared-reading intervention for preschool children from low-income backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 263290. Mason, J.M., Peterman, C.L., & Kerr, B.M. (1989). Reading to kindergarten children. In D.S. Strickland & L. Morrow Mandel (Eds.), Emerging literacy: Young children learn to read and write (pp. 52-62). Newark, Delaware: Intemational Reading Association. Paul, K., & Thomas, V. (1990). H/jayiooa Flcda^a) [Winnie the witch]. Adrjva: ^iapyapna,

Pellegrini, A.D., Perlmutter, J.C., Galda, L., & Brody, G.H. (1990). Joint reading between black head start children and their mothers. Child Development, 61, 443-453. Reese, E., & Cox, A. (1999). Quality of adult book reading affects children's emergent literacy. Psychology, 35, 20-28. Rius, M., & Parramon, J.M. (1992). Ta TEOoepa moixEia: 0ajna[The Developmental

four elements: Fire]. ABrjva; KEdpos,

Rius, M.,& Parramon, J. M. (1994). H^cu;; /caraj a^o T>;U Ft/ [Life under Earth], PSrfva: K(5pos. Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York: Oxford University Press. Stem, D.N., Hofer, L., Hafl, W., & Dore, J. (1985). Affect attunement: The sharing of feeling states between mother and infant by means of inter-modal fluency. In T.M. Field & N.A. Fox (Eds.), Social perception in infants (pp. 249268). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Sulzby, H., &Teale, W. (1987). Young children's storybook reading: Longitudinal study of parent-child interaction and children's independent functioning (Final report to the Spencer Foundation). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan (ERIC: ED 334 54!). Trivizas, E.. (1993). Ta rpia/umpaXvKaKia [The three little wolves]. tsBr]va\ Mfvaiar.

Watson, R., & Shapiro, J. (1988). Discourse from home to school. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 37, 395-409. Wells, G. (1975). Coding manual for the description of child speech in its conversational manuscript. University of Bristol, Graduate School of Education. context. Unpublished

Whitehurst, G.J., Arnold, D.S., Epstein J.N., Angell, A.L., Smith, M., & Fischel, J.E. (1994a). A picture book reading intervention in daycare and home for children from low-income families. Developmental Psychology, 30, 679689. Whitehurst, G.J., Epstein, J.N., Angell, A.C, Payne, A.C., Crone, D.A., & Fischel, J.E. (1994b). Outcomes of an emergent literacy intervention in Head Start. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 542-555. Whitehurst, G.J., Falco, F.L., Lonigan, C , Fischel, J.E., De Baryshe, B.D., Valdez-Menchaca, M.C., & Caulfield, M. (1988). Accelerating language development through picture book reading. Developmental Psychology, 24, 552-558.

AFFECTIVE PRESENTATION OF BOOKS

419

Cette etude examine comment I'emploi de strategies affectives (intonation, dramatisation, commentaire d'engagement personnel) par les enseignants, pendant la lecture et discussion des livres, influence les reactions affective des enfants (dramatisation, engagement personnel, jeu linguistique). Vingt enseignants des ecoles maternelles ont lu quatre livres -deux livre de litterature et deux livre instructifs (texte narratif/d 'exposition). Nous avons trouve des differences considerable entre les livres de litterature et les livres instructifs ainsi qu 'entre les deux livres de litterature, main pas entre le texte narratif et celui d 'exposition. On a trouve une forte relation bidirectionnelle entre la presentation affective des histoires par les enseignants et les reactions affectives des enfants. En particulier, le commentaire personnel des enseignants a incite les enfants aux reactions d'engagement personnel; la reconstitution par les enseignants a ete suivie par I 'imitation de cette reconstitution par les enfants; I 'intonation employee par les enseignants a provoque des commentaires d 'engagement personnel par les enfants. Par contre, I 'emploi de signaux paralinguistiques et des commentaires personnels par les enfants a renforce I'emploi d'intonation et des commentaires personnels par les enseignants. Finalement, les traits du texte comme la rime ont ete suivi par lejeu linguistique des enfants.

Key words; Affeetive presentation. Book reading. Early literaey, Presehool edueation.

Received: March 2005 Revision received: May 2006

Eleni Moschovaki. School Adviser, Ministry of Education, Ritsou 9 Atsiki, 82100 Chios, Greece. E-mail: gkem(gotenet.gr
Current theme of research: Book reading and early literacy in preschool settings. Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education: Moschovaki, E. (2001). Young children's language participation during the presentation of children's books in kindergarten schools. In P. Papoulia-Tzelepi (Ed.), The emergence of literacy (pp. 297-325). Athens: Kastaniotis. (In Greek). Moschovaki, E. (2003). Teachers' affective presentation of children's books and its impact on young children's attentive behavior. In A. Pappas, A. Tsiplitaris, B. Petroulakis, S. Nikodimos, K. Haris, & N.D. Zoukis (Eds.), Greek Pedagogic and Educational Research (vol. B, pp. 834-847). Athens: Atrapos. (In Greek). Moschovaki, E., & Meadows S. (2004). A short term longitudinal study of classroom book reading in Greek kindergartens schools. L1 -Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 4, 151 -168. Moschovaki, E., & Meadows S. (2005). Young children's spontaneous participation during classroom book reading: Differences according to various types of books. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 7(1): http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v7nl/moschovaki.html. Moschovaki, E., & Meadows S. (2005). Young children's cognitive engagement during classroom book reading: Differences according to book, text genre and story format. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 7(2): http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v7n2/moschovaki.html

420

E. MOSCHOVAKl, S. MEADOWS, & A. PELLEGRINI

Sara Meadows. Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol, 35 Berkeley Square, Bristol BS8 lJA, United Kingdom. E-mail: Sara.Meadows@Bristol.ac.uk; Web site: www.bris.ac.uk/
Current theme of research: Adult-child interaction and psychological development. Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education: Meadows, S. (1996). Parenting behaviour and children's cognitive development. Hove: The Psychology Press. Meadows, S. (1998). Children learning to think: Learning from others? Vygotskian theory and educational psychology. Educational and Child Psychology 15(2), 6-13. Meadows, S. (2006). The child as thinker: The development and acquisition of cognition in childhood, London: Routledge. Meadows, S., Herrick, D., & the ALSPAC Study Team (2007). Improvement in National Test Arithmetic scores at KSl; grade inflation or better achievement? British Educational Research Journal, in press. Meadows, S., Herrick, D., Feiler, A., & the ALSPAC Study Team (2007). Improvement in National Test Reading scores at KS1; grade inflation or better achievement? British Educational Research Journal, January 2007.

Anthony D. Pellegrini. Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, Mintieapolis, MN 55405, U.S.A. E-mail: pelleO13@umn.edu
Current theme of research: Currently studying preschoolers' social dominance and sex segregation. Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education: Pellegrini, A.D. (2005). Recess: Its role in education and development, Mahwah, NJ: Eribaum. Pellegrini, A.D. (in press) Schools and models of development: The place of recess. In J. Meece & J. Eccles (Eds.), Handbook of research on schools, schooling, and human development, Mahwah, NJ: Eribaum. Pellegrini, A.D., & Galda, L. (in press). Theory and evidence in the dramatic play and literacy connection: Roles of dramatic play in the communicative and visual arts. In J. Flood, S.B. Heath, & D. Lapp (Eds.), A handbook of literacy education: Research on teaching the communicative and visual arts, 2nd Edition, New York: Macmillian. Pellegrini, A.D., & Gustafson, K. (2005). Boys' and girls' uses of objects for exploration, play, and tools in early childhood. In A.D. Pellegrini & P.K. Smith (Eds.), The nature of play: Great apes and humans. New York: Guilford. Pellegrini, A.D., Blatchford, P., Kato, K., & Baines, E. (2004). A short-time longitudinal study of children's playground games in primary school: Implications for adjustment to school and social adjustment in the USA and the UK. Social Development, 13, 107-123.