) ROBERT BALDWIN, ART AS A LANGUAGE FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO MODERNITY 1 [revised August 2008] Robert Baldwin Associate

Professor of Art History Connecticut College New ondon! C" 0#$20 robert%baldwin&conncoll%edu '"(is essay was written in )***) and is revised every few years% "(e +aterial after ),-0 is indebted to t(e teac(ing and sc(olars(i. of "% /% Clar0%1 Introduction: Th !u "tion o# Sh$r d %$&u " 2. until t(e late eig(teent(3century! 4estern art functioned as an evolving yet relatively stable syste+ of conventional t(e+es and aest(etic 5ualities intelligible to artists! .atrons! and audiences% "(is co++on vocabulary of sub6ect and style allowed art to serve as an i+.ortant .ublic language for+ulating t(e (ig(est values of t(e day% 7ne way to understand t(e seriousness and centrality of 4estern art before ),-0 is to co+.are it to anot(er collective visual language% 2ntil t(e 8renc( Revolution! Augustine9s co++ent on t(e sacra+ents could 6ust as easily (ave been a..lied to art% "In no religion, whether true or false, can men be held in association together unless they are gathered together with a common share in some visible signs or sacraments"% 2 Alt(oug( 4estern values c(anged dra+atically fro+ anti5uity to t(e eig(teent( century! t(ey retained co(erence and stability largely because t(ey were defined by t(e social and .olitical elites w(o co++issioned and consu+ed +ost art and literature% 4(ile (ig( culture at any given +o+ent reflected t(e diversity of its .atrons! t(ree social grou.s : nobles! clerics! and burg(ers : +ono.oli;ed +ost art .atronage between )$00 and )800% <es.ite i+.ortant differences in outloo0! t(ese grou.s s(ared a co++on fait( in a series of transcendent (ierarc(ies .ervading nature and t(e social3.olitical order% "(roug(out t(is (ar+onious universe! +ind ruled body! educated aristocrats and wealt(y burg(ers governed t(ose born to .(ysical labor! +en controlled wo+en! C(ristianity triu+.(ed over ot(er religions! and =uro.e ruled t(e ot(er >uncivili;ed? continents% @n a social and cultural world elevating so+e grou.s w(ile subordinating ot(ers! it is clearly i+.ossible to s.ea0 of s(ared values wit(out i+.ortant 5ualifications tied to gender! class! religion! geogra.(y! and race% 8e+ale artists! writers! .atrons and audiences (ardly s(ared in t(e (eroic i+agery of +yt(ological ra.e reintroduced as a +a6or artistic sub6ect in t(e @talian Renaissance and .ro+inent for t(e neAt t(ree (undred years% $ @t is e5ually obvious t(at .easants! artisans! laborers! and t(e urban .oor did not s(are in t(e conte+.tuous or ro+antici;ing views of laborers and beggars develo.ed in court! c(urc(! and burg(er art and literature between )$00 and )800% B /ews did not s(are t(e anti3Ce+itic values co++on in C(ristian art and literature since t(e )$t( century! t(is des.ite atte+.ts to indoctrinate /ews by forcing t(e+ to attend C(ristian ser+ons%- 4it(in t(e C(ristian world! siAteent( and seventeent(3century Cat(olics did not s(are s.ecifically Protestant values and vice versa%

2 <es.ite fissures between social elites! =uro.e +aintained a relatively stable cultural syste+ of >s(ared? values until t(e late =nlig(ten+ent for at least t(ree reasons% 8irst! t(e t(ree do+inant grou.s 3 nobles! clergy! and wealt(y burg(ers 3 en6oyed sufficient co++on ground to sustain a s(ared fra+ewor0 of +oral! religious! social! and .olitical values for t(e five centuries leading u. to t(e 8renc( Revolution% Cecond! social elites .atroni;ed art wor0s focusing on universali;ing sub6ects tied to religion! +yt(! and nature9s co+ic order '.lanets! astrology1% "o be sure! aristocrats +ade conte+.orary court life an i+.ortant sub6ect fro+ t(e age of c(ivalry ')20031 until t(e late eig(teent( century% But t(is was .ossible because court life clai+ed for itself a uni5ue refine+ent! grace! luAury! beauty! and intellect w(ic( lifted it above +undane realities% 4it( t(is one eAce.tion! ti+eless sub6ects do+inated t(e art world t(roug( t(e +id to late eig(teent( century eAce.t for t(e seventeent(3century Net(erlands! t(e only burg(er re.ublic in =uro.e% 'Cee below for t(e rise of everyday life as a sub6ect in seventeent(3century art and t(e c(allenge it .osed to t(e rule of ti+eless sub6ects in t(e eig(teent( century%1% "(ird! wea0er or +arginali;ed grou.s were unable to eA.ress t(eir views directly in t(e arena of (ig( culture eit(er because t(ey lac0ed t(e dis.osable inco+e and education 'in t(e case of artisans! laborers and .easants1 or because t(ey were largely banis(ed fro+ .ublic discourse 'in t(e case of wo+en1%"o be sure! eAce.tions abounded% 4o+en always .layed a role as .atrons! writers! and artists! even if t(eir contributions were often overloo0ed% Artisans also +ade t(eir voices (eard t(roug( t(e collective .atronage of t(e guild syste+% Dore i+.ortantly! wea0er or +arginali;ed grou.s (el.ed s(a.e cultural c(ange as .art of t(e larger social dyna+ic of interaction! eAc(ange! and +utual transfor+ation between all social grou.s% 4o+en +ade i+.ortant contributions to t(e e+otionally c(arged s.irituality of t(e late Diddle Ages w(ic( .laced new e+.(asis on t(e body and on nu.tial and carnal +eta.(ors% "(e gradual rise of urban centers after ))00 gave ordinary towns.eo.le new weig(t in s(ifting t(e cultural center away fro+ t(e traditional +edieval centers of +onastery and court% 4(ereas earlier +on0s and nuns lived in a world of geogra.(ic isolation! ascetic .iety! and t(eological learning restricted to atin! t(e early t(irteent( century witnessed t(e creation of .o.ular urban .reac(ing orders! t(e 8ranciscans and <o+inicans! w(ic( esc(ewed t(eological learning for urban .astoral care! vernacular .reac(ing! and devotional literature ai+ed at t(e widest audiences% <es.ite i+.ortant in.ut fro+ all social grou.s! +ainstrea+ values were necessarily s0ewed toward t(e interests of do+inant social grou.s% "(is was .articularly true of t(e s(ared culture seen in t(e luAury world of art ob6ects% @t was t(e relative consensus a+ong social elites 'and ot(er grou.s1 w(ic( allowed art to u.(old serious vales and to en6oy an i+.ortant social role fro+ classical anti5uity to t(e late3eig(teent( century% Art was never se.arated out as an autono+ous Eaest(eticE real+ (eld a.art fro+ t(e vital issues of t(e day% Nor did it ever get lost in overly .ersonal visions allowing great artists to go unrecogni;ed in t(eir lifeti+es% =ven Bosc( and =l Freco! two of t(e +ost (ig(ly individual artists before t(e nineteent( century! en6oyed successful careers .ainting altar.ieces! a+ong ot(er sub6ects%% Bosc( was a (ig(ly .aid court artist widely estee+ed and i+itated for (is original an c(allenging allegories w(ile =l Freco sidelined in t(e .ortraits of nobles and c(urc( officials in a country 0nown for its artistic conservatis+% "(e following .a.er offers a s0etc( of t(e +a6or s(ifts in t(e language of 4estern art fro+ t(e Diddle Ages to t(e twentiet( century% @n t(e first section! @ will loo0 at t(e rise and fall of t(e t(ree +ost i+.ortant categories of artG religious scenes! +yt(ology! and everyday life fro+ )$00 to ),8*% <rawing on t(e ideas of "(o+as Crow and "% /% Clar0! @ will s(ow (ow t(e idea of art as a co(erent language! s(ared by artist and audience! ca+e under growing strain in t(e eig(teent( and nineteent( centuries% After t(e 8renc( Revolution! +any leading artists struggled to devise new languages of t(e+e and style at once true to +odern life and .ossessing t(e seriousness! grandeur! and transcendence found in Renaissance and Baro5ue art% 4(ile t(is struggle .roduced eAciting artistic innovations and wor0s of t(e (ig(est 5uality! t(e larger goal of creating universal artistic languages fro+ +odern sub6ects was doo+ed fro+ t(e start% Part of t(e .roble+ lay wit( +odern sub6ect

$ +atter w(ic( lac0ed stability! co(erence! and universality% Artists also struggled against a gradual loss of consensus following t(e cultural! .olitical! social! and econo+ic u.(eavals of t(e =nlig(ten+ent! t(e @ndustrial Revolution! t(e A+erican and 8renc( Revolutions and t(e s(ift fro+ an agrarian econo+y to industrial ca.italis+% Hi"tor' ($intin) $nd th L$n)u$) o# Art in R n$i""$nc $nd B$ro*u Euro+ @n contrast to +edieval notions of t(e .ainter or scul.tor as a (u+ble crafts+an wor0ing anony+ously for c(urc( and court! Renaissance writers fro+ t(e early fifteent(3century borrowed classical descri.tions of orators! .oets! and .(iloso.(ers to redefine art as a liberal .ursuit! t(at is! as an activity of t(e +ind% Borrowing dee.ly engrained classical distinctions between +ind and body! noble and base! free and enslaved! Renaissance writers invented t(e +odern idea of t(e artist as a t(in0er and inventor! 0nowledgeable in religion! classical +yt(ology! (istory! .oetry! anato+y! botany! geology! geo+etry and +at(e+atics '.ro.ortion and .ers.ective1% After )B00! .aintings and scul.tures were increasingly seen as dis.lays of individual artistic talent and 0nowledge wit( eac( artist .itted against rivals and against (i+ or (erself in a relentless drive for innovation! lucrative .atronage! and above all! eternal fa+e% Revived by Renaissance (u+anists fro+ classical culture! t(e new goal of fa+e re.laced Dedieval +onastic asceticis+ and t(e >triu+.( of deat(? wit( a..ealing ideas of secular i++ortality grounded in worldly acco+.lis(+ents% @n t(is new! intellectuali;ed world of >Art? +odeled on literature! t(e greatest art addressed t(e +ost lofty sub6ects tied to religion! +yt(! and (istory! t(e EuniversalE stories or (istories w(ic( e+bodied t(e (ig(est collective ideals for Renaissance elites% Cuc( E(istory .aintingE also .resu+ed corres.onding 5ualities of style! above all! grand figures and r(etorical co+.ositions! .oetic descri.tion of ideali;ed for+s! and large3si;ed canvases a..ro.riate to t(e sub6ect +atter and to t(e new i+.ortance of art in t(e .ublic s.(ere of Renaissance c(urc(es! s5uares! and town (alls 'and t(e 5uasi3.ublic s.aces of .alaces! villas! and town(ouses1% @n s(ort! E(istory .aintingE was t(e crowning category in an u.lifting! noble language of art% @t enco+.assed sub6ect and style! on t(e one (and! and educated artists and be(olders! on t(e ot(er% As t(is new world of art unfolded fro+ t(e early Renaissance ')B001 t(roug( t(e late eig(teent( century! it c(allenged its educated audiences wit( a growing variety! co+.leAity and subtlety of artistic effects a+idst an eA.anding vocabulary of sub6ect +atter e+bracing a wider range of (u+an eA.eriences and social ty.es% Cince t(e new Art invented by t(e Renaissance directed itself to t(e +ost significant sub6ects! +ost Renaissance .ainters avoided everyday scenes or li+ited t(e+ to t(e .rivate a+use+ent of s0etc(es! .rints! and s+all .aintings% "(e su.re+acy of E(istory .aintingE eA.lains t(e lesser status of .ortraiture : dee+ed descri.tive and inferior 3 and w(y t(e still3lower categories of landsca.e! genre .ainting 'everyday life1! and still3life only began to e+erge as categories in t(e early seventeent( century and even t(en wit( a lower ran0 affir+ed by al+ost every writer on art% Nor did genre .ainting or still3life tres.ass +uc( into t(e (eroic language of style and si;e reserved for (istory .ainting% "(is (ierarc(ical syste+ of art crowned by (istory .ainting was inse.arable fro+ t(e very idea of art! as forged in Renaissance (u+anis+! and re+ained in effect until t(e +id3eig(teent( to early nineteent( century w(en c(anging social! econo+ic! .olitical and cultural realities eroded its viability% "o understand +ore concretely (ow art wor0ed as a language between )B00 and ),-0! let us turn to so+e eAa+.les of (istory .ainting and loo0 at t(e two do+inant social cultures for t(e )-t( and )#t( 'and +ost of t(e seventeent( century1G t(e c(urc( and t(e nobility% Religious Art / Church Culture

Alt(oug( .ainted in )B$2 in t(e ow Countries before t(e s.read into Nort(ern =uro.e of Renaissance (u+anis+ and t(e new ideas of art! artist! and (istory .ainting! /an van =yc09s Ghent Altarpiece (el.s s.otlig(t t(e i+.ortant continuities between late +edieval c(urc( art and t(e religious .ainting of t(e Renaissance and Baro5ue ')B003),001% 7fficial in its .olitical! =uc(aristic! and salvational i+agery! in its grand si;e and .ro+inent .lace+ent in t(e cat(edral of F(ent! and in its su+.tuously colored! ornately3dressed! sole+n for+s! t(e F(ent Altar.iece eAe+.lified a Cat(olic s.irituality w(ic( re+ained central to 4estern art only t(roug( t(e +id3eig(teent( century% After t(e 8renc( Revolution! t(e +ost a+bitious =uro.ean artists loo0ed +ore to a wide array of secular sub6ects or .ainted religious scenes w(ic( could not (ang in any c(urc(% "(e age w(en c(urc( culture and C(ristian sub6ects do+inated artistic .atronage was over% Co++issioned for a .rivate fa+ily c(a.el by a .owerful aristocrat w(o would soon beco+e +ayor of F(ent 'li0e (is fat(er1! t(e F(ent Altar.iece de.icts Fod t(e 8at(er .residing over a celestial court% Below in a +ore terrestrial ;one! t(e fait(ful gat(er fro+ all four corners of t(e world to wors(i. t(e =uc(aristic a+b of Fod% @n t(is i+age! divine aut(ority flows down fro+ above into a liturgical C(rist% =A.loiting t(e t(e+e of t(e Holy "rinity to develo. a t(eological! s.atial! and co+.ositional (ierarc(y! Han =yc0 s(owed divine aut(ority and grace descending fro+ a frontal! static! ti+eless celestial ;one to an e5ually sy++etrical and (ierarc(ical world of t(e Ro+an Cat(olic c(urc( featuring nu+erous saints! religious orders! sacra+ents! and (ig( c(urc( officials '.o.es! cardinals! and bis(o.s1% "(e Paradise3li0e 5uality of t(e +eadow below and t(e .resence of Ada+ and =ve in t(e celestial ;one above re+inded viewers t(at salvation was .ossible only t(roug( t(e official c(urc( and its sacra+ents! doctrines! and inter+ediating figures% Co+e eig(ty years later! Ra.(ael9s Disputa gave eA.ression to si+ilar Cat(olic ideas wit( a +ore naturalistically .ainted allegory of "(eology% Co++issioned by Po.e /ulius @@ to decorate one of t(e walls in (is .rivate library! Ra.(ael used t(e new Renaissance artistic vocabulary of dra+atic figures carefully studied fro+ life! an innovative co+.osition drawing on t(e new one3.oint .ers.ective! and t(e beginnings of t(e (eroic anato+ical for+s revived fro+ classical art to i+age +any of t(e sa+e ideas already found in van =yc09s F(ent Altar.iece! or for t(at +atter! in t(e still earlier faIade scul.tures of C(artres Cat(edral scul.ted in t(e early twelft( century% As wit( van =c0! Ra.(ael also used a sy++etrical and (ierarc(ical co+.osition to give visual eA.ression to Cat(olic ideals of a single ogos descending along t(e Holy "rinity fro+ a courtly celestial ;one into t(e official =uc(aristic rituals and teAts of a single! universal c(urc( su.ervised and controlled by +asculine .o.es! bis(o.s! and saints% Between )B00 and ),2-! tens of t(ousands of c(urc( .aintings affir+ed si+ilar Cat(olic values! albeit wit( new aest(etic for+s% # et +e cite one eAa+.le! fro+ t(e )#*0sG Po;;o9s riumph of !t" Ignatius and the #esuit $rder% "(is giant ceiling fresco in t(e new c(urc( of Caint @gnatius served! li0e t(e c(urc( itself! to glorify t(e founder of t(e /esuit 7rder w(o was also t(e +ost i+.ortant figure in t(e Counter3Refor+ation Cat(olic .iety launc(ed in t(e later siAteent( century to co+bat t(e s.read of Protestant (eresy% Built in Ro+e to .roclai+ t(e su.re+e i+.ortance of t(e new order over all ot(er orders! t(e c(urc( was su+.tuously decorated in t(e seventeent( century in a +anner consistent wit( its newfound institutional i+.ortance% @ndeed! c(urc( and fresco (onor t(e /esuits as +uc( as t(eir founder! as seen in t(e ot(er leading /esuit saints .laced below @gnatius on lower clouds% @n t(e (eavenly center of Po;;oJs fresco! aut(ority and grace descend t(roug( t(e Holy "rinity via a strea+ of lig(t to t(e figure of Ct% @gnatius born u. by angels% As if (itting a +irror! t(is lig(t reflects off @gnatius down to t(e lower levels of t(e (eavens! in(abited by lesser /esuit +issionary saints '8rancis Kavier and 8rancis Borgia1! before s.reading out in t(e lower edges of t(e fresco to .ersonifications of t(e 8our ContinentsG Asia! Africa! A+erica! and a crowned! ruling =uro.a% Here t(e divine lig(t 0indles fla+ing torc(es used by angels and saints to re.el +onstrous figures re.resenting (eretics 'in =uro.e1 and infidels 'abroad1% At eit(er end of t(e

nave! triu+.(al arc(es! seen fro+ below! elaborate t(e t(e+e of Cat(olic ecclesiastical .ower and its si+ultaneous victories over sin! deat(! (eresy! and .aganis+% Po;;o9s illusionistic ceiling .ainting : an aest(etic (all+ar0 of seventeent(3century Baro5ue art 'in secular .alaces as +uc( as c(urc( ceilings1 affir+s Cat(olic values by connecting t(e (eavenly s.(ere to t(e real s.aces of t(e Ro+an c(urc( below! t(e two settings woven toget(er in a sea+less .ers.ectival! t(eological! and institutional unity% @n a s.ace w(ic( e+braces (eaven and eart(! Po;;o includes t(e viewer in a unified! (ar+onious! Cat(olic universe governed and redee+ed by a Cat(olic deity and! in t(e eart(ly s.(ere! by t(e Cat(olic c(urc( and its saints and rituals% "(is s.atial allegory is greatly en(anced by t(e .resence of t(e 8our Continents w(ic( i+age t(e new global +issionary wor0 of t(e Ro+an Cat(olic C(urc( s.ear(eaded by t(e /esuits% @t also eA.lains t(e eAtensive i+agery of fla+ing torc(es and (earts and t(e large inscri.tion re.eating @gnatius9 fa+ous in6unction to 8rancis Kavier as (e left to convert AsiaG >Fo and set t(e world on fire?% At t(e sa+e ti+e! t(e 8our Continents eA.ands t(e s.ace of t(e real c(urc( in Ro+e to i+age a truly global c(urc( fulfilling t(e .ro+ise of t(e word >Cat(olic? by unifying and redee+ing t(e world under one god! one c(urc(! one .o.e% he hreats to Religious %ainting "(oug( writers between )B-0 and ),00 agreed t(at (istory .ainting was t(e +ost i+.ortant category! its su.re+acy was c(allenged in a nu+ber of i+.ortant ways after )-00% "(e Refor+ation ')-),31 .ut a sudden end to +ost new c(urc( art% @n so+e areas suc( as t(e Calvinist Net(erlands! c(urc( leaders +anaged to re+ove al+ost all art fro+ <utc( c(urc(es! w(itewas(ing t(e walls to .urify t(e+ furt(er% Ceventeent(3century <utc( audiences celebrated t(eir Calvinis+ and .olitical inde.endence wit( a new category of .aintingG careful arc(itectural .ortraits of local c(urc(es% Hung in <utc( (o+es! t(ese .aintings offered an austerity! .urity! and inwardness of bare! w(ite walls w(ic( rebu0ed all Cat(olic i+age wors(i. and >+aterial? .iety% @nstead of altars and =uc(aristic scenes! <utc( c(urc( interiors focused on ser+ons in accord wit( t(e Protestant e+.(asis on t(e 4ord and wit( t(e <utc( Calvinist translation and .ublication of a state bible% @f we re+e+ber t(at c(urc( .ainting and scul.ture was t(e largest category of Renaissance art! we can better co+.re(end t(e devastating i+.act of t(e Refor+ation on religious art in .arts of Nort(ern =uro.e% "o be sure! Protestants en6oyed religious art for t(e (o+e tied to secular +orali;ing sub6ects 'li0e t(e .arables1% @n t(is way! t(ey created a +ore seculari;ing! didactic C(ristian art free of Cat(olic i+age wors(i.! liturgical values and ecclesiastical inter+ediaries% 7t(er c(allenges confronted t(e su.re+acy of (istory .ainting after )-00% =ven as Renaissance (u+anis+ created t(e idea of art and a new syste+ of art crowned by (istory .ainting! it eventually (el.ed under+ine t(e .restige of t(at category by redefining .iety fro+ devotional and liturgical ter+s to et(ical issues tied to civic virtue! do+estic settings and fa+iliar (u+an t(e+es% After )-00 'wit( a .ronounced increase after )#001! artists translated sacred sub6ects into increasingly conte+.orary settings! costu+es! and (u+an ty.es! all studied fro+ life% "(is trend also reflected a Renaissance (u+anist and later Protestant interest in translating Ccri.ture down into a conte+.orary vernacular geared to daily living% , @n t(e (ands of i+.ortant but lesser seventeent(3 century artists suc( as /an Cteen! t(e result was a dra+atic seculari;ation w(ere Biblical 'and +yt(ological1 events were reconfigured as conte+.orary events fro+ +odern <utc( life% Cubtler artists suc( as Caravaggio and Re+brandt used t(e lowly naturalis+ of Baro5ue art to translate t(e sacred down into fa+iliar (u+an ter+s wit(out sacrificing e+otional de.t( or s.iritual .ower% By confronting t(e +ysteries! .aradoAes! and tragic 5ualities of a C(ristian deity born into t(e lowly fles(! t(ese .ainters develo.ed a .owerful s.iritual aest(etic rooted in a (u+an eAistence at once conte+.orary and ti+eless% @n different ways! eac( develo.ed an aest(etic

# distinct fro+ bot( t(e classici;ing world of ideal beauty and outward grandeur! on t(e one (and! and t(e +ore .rosaic naturalis+ of Baro5ue .ainters li0e Cteen! on t(e ot(er% &ythology as Courtly 'istory %ainting Dost (istory .ainting fro+ )B003),00 was C(ristian in sub6ect +atter% After )-00! t(e s.read of Renaissance (u+anis+ and t(e revival of classical literature set t(e stage for +yt(ology to e+erge as an i+.ortant category of (istory .ainting! es.ecially a+ong t(e nobility w(o identified t(e+selves as gods on eart(% /ust as religious art offered a s.iritual fra+ewor0 situating t(e be(older in a larger C(ristian universe! +yt(ological .ainting also defined a larger cos+os and t(e (u+an .lace wit(in it on t(ree levelsG )1 cos+ology and natural science! 21 +oral allegory and (u+an be(avior! and $1 flattering genealogical (istory Co+e +yt(ological i+agery eA.lained nature9s cos+ic order and t(e origins of natural events suc( as t(e cycles of t(e seasons! nig(t and day! t(e stars! and t(e astrological influence of t(e .lanets on t(e terrestrial s.(ere% Because nature9s cos+ic order was understood as a (ierarc(y! +yt(ology as cos+ology and natural science was .articularly .o.ular a+ong rulers and +ore generally! a+ong t(e nobility w(o saw t(e+selves as gods on eart(% C+all wonder t(at so +any .alaces and courtly villas in t(e Renaissance and Baro5ue were decorated wit( astrological and cos+ic i+agery! suc( as t(is fifteent(3century .alace in 8errara +ade for t(e d9=ste fa+ily! w(ic( offered a co+.re(ensive i+agery of t(e .lanets and t(eir astrological influence on (u+an affairs! es.ecially court society% Here in t(e fresco on Henus! Dars 0neels in feudal (o+age li0e a courtly 0nig(t! allegorically ta+ed by Henus and >c(ained? by love w(ile to eit(er side% @talian aristocrats +a0e +usic! frolic! and dally in a fertile love garden overrun wit( rabbits% @n t(e early seventeent(3century! Poussin continued t(is cos+ic +yt(ological tradition by .ainting t(e 8our Ceasons <ancing to t(e Dusic of 8at(er "i+e% Cet into a fertile landsca.e! t(e orderly! circular dance of t(e Ceasons interweaves allegorically wit( anot(er cos+ic t(e+e 3 t(e "(ree Ages of (u+an life : w(ose cycle re.eats t(e cycles of day and nig(t i+aged in t(e celestial figure of A.ollo! (ere surrounded by a ;odiacal band% @n addition to offering u. >ti+eless? eA.lanations of t(e (ierarc(ical natural order! +yt(ology also flattered ruling fa+ilies wit( cos+ic (istories by creating flattering genealogies stretc(ing bac0 t(roug( ancient (eroes and 0ings to t(e gods% i0e Ro+an e+.erors before t(e+! Renaissance rulers and (ig( nobles li0ed to i+agine descent fro+ Hercules! t(e son of Leus! or fro+ so+e ot(er (ero wit( divine ancestry% "(e +yt(ologically3 dense festival i+agery develo.ed in Renaissance and Baro5ue =uro.e to celebrate 0ings and 5ueens 'and .o.es and cardinals in t(eir .rivate residences1 offers +any eAa+.les of t(is +yt(ological flattery% @n one te+.orary arc( erected to celebrate t(e triu+.(al entry into Paris of t(e new 0ing of 8rance! Henri @@! a royal Hercules rules over t(e 8renc( social body not wit( brute force but wit( wisdo+ and r(etorical .ersuasion! t(e c(ains uniting 8renc( nobles! clerics! and .easants e+erging fro+ (is +out(% Hundreds of ot(er re.resentations +ade between )-00 and ),00 offered +ore +ilitant i+ages of courtly victory and e+.ire by s(owing Hercules destroying a wide array of evil giants and +onsters% Beyond cos+ic (istory and flattering genealogy! Renaissance writers and artists followed classical .recedent by using every conceivable classical deity to flatter eart(ly .rinces% @n t(is early siAteent(3century ta.estry +ade for t(e 0ing and 5ueen of Portugal! /u.iter and /uno stand fir+ly and sy++etrically wit(in t(e star3s.angled universe as t(ey rule over t(e eart( in a ti+eless and grand allegory of cos+ic and +icrocos+ic order% At t(e sa+e ti+e! t(e i+age co+.ares t(e cos+ic aut(ority of t(e gods to t(e new! global rule of t(e Portugese crown w(ose international colonies are carefully +ar0ed wit( Portugese flags% @ndeed! t(e artist s(ifted t(e w(ole world off its nor+al aAis to give Portugal co+.ositional! geogra.(ic! and .olitical su.re+acy! its aut(ority conveniently blessed by t(e sce.ter of Leus% Dyt(ological .olitical flattery in court art reac(ed its ;enit( in t(e

, seventeent( century as seen in t(e court of ouis K@H! nic0na+ed t(e Cun Ming because (e was so fre5uently co+.are to A.ollo% 8inally! +yt(ology (el.ed art3.atroni;ing elites +a0e sense of t(e larger world by offering narratives allegori;ed in literature since anti5uity as +oral fables co++enting on birt(! deat(! love! (onor! loyalty! and betrayal and ot(er basic eA.eriences% Beginning in fifteent(3century Renaissance @taly! +yt(ological art offered u. a dense allegorical language ca.able of discussing every significant issue and 5uestion% BotticelliJs Pri+avera 'C.ring1 is anot(er case in .oint% 7ne of t(ree +yt(ological allegories co++issioned to celebrate a Dedici +arriage around )B82! it tells t(e story of t(e wind god! Le.(yr ra.ing a wood ny+.( na+ed C(loris and +a0ing a+ends by +arrying (er and transfor+ing (er into 8lora! goddess of s.ring and flowers% Presiding over t(is transfor+ation fro+ violence and virginal innocence into con6ugal love and fertility! a c(astely clot(ed Henus conducts t(e "(ree Fraces in a circular dance! a fa+iliar +eta.(or for seasonal c(ange and cos+ic order since anti5uity% At t(e far left! Dercury a..ears not 6ust as t(e god of ban0ing and co++erce! but also as t(e god of liberal arts and cultural flouris(ing : bot( activities dear to t(e (earts of t(e Dedici .atron! oren;o de9 Dedici% A (u+anist .oet (i+self! oren;o wrote (undreds of .ages of +yt(ological .oetry and .ublis(ed a boo0 of (is .oe+s wit( a frontis.iece de.icting A.ollo wit( t(e Duses on Dt% Parnassus He also wrote t(e first @talian treatise on t(e courtly art of dance% Co++issioned to (ang above t(e bedroo+ door of a recently +arried Dedici! Botticelli9s %rimavera drew selectively on ele+ents of classical +yt(ology to for+ an original co+.osition celebrating a C(ristian! con6ugal world of endless fertility and cos+ic renewal% At t(e sa+e ti+e! (e followed ancient Ro+an .oets w(o (ad long used nature9s .eace and .ros.erity and renewal in C.ring to allegori;e t(e .eace and .ros.erity 'or Folden Age as it was often called1 broug(t by newly elected rulers% Cince 8lorentine (u+anists clai+ed Henus (ad na+ed 8lorence after t(e Henus3li0e world of flowers! t(e city of 8lorence and (er (u+anist elites were 5uic0 to co+.are t(e flouris(ing natural world wit( t(e .ros.erity and renewal! econo+ic! .olitic! and cultural! of t(e city as a w(ole% @n t(e fifteent( and siAteent( century! t(is +eta.(oric neAus of rebirt( was often described wit( t(e @talian word! rinascita% "oday we use t(e 8renc( word for rebirt( 3 renaissance 3 to describe t(e sa+e econo+ic and cultural .ros.erity so densely allegori;ed in Botticelli9s %rimavera" Bron;ino9s (enus, Cupid, and ime ')-B-1 is anot(er case in .oint% @t offered allegorical warnings against uncontrolled .assion! yout(ful i+.ulse! and fe+ale carnality as witnessed disa..rovingly by t(e (ig(er! >+asculine reason? of 8at(er "i+e% "(at t(is recondite allegory also catered visually to t(e very lust w(ic( it allegorically conde+ned only +ade it +ore a..ealing to +ale art .atrons li0e Cosi+o de9 Dedici! Frand <u0e of "uscany! and to +ale art collectors li0e 8rancis @! 0ing of 8rance! to w(o+ Cosi+o gave t(e .ainting%

Bur)h r ,u&tur $nd th Ri" o# G nr ($intin) -E. r'd$' Li# / in North rn Euro+ : 101121311 4it( t(e eAce.tion of t(e aristocratic leisure and festivity '(unting! gardening! ban5ueting! dancing! wooing! conversation! bat(ing! +usic +a0ing! ga+es! and 6ousting1! everyday life was rarely de.icted in =uro.ean art during t(e Diddle Ages and =arly Renaissance ')-t( century1% Between )B00 and )-00! ordinary (u+an eAistence a..eared .ri+arily as an ele+ent in a larger fra+ewor0 of astrological i+agery tied to t(e abors of t(e Dont(s and i+ages of t(e Planets and "(eir "errestrial @nfluence% After )B#0! everyday life began to a..ear in t(e +odest and .rivate world of s+all .rints 'dis.layed in albu+s1 and a few eA.eri+ental .aintings suc( as t(e +oral allegories of Bosc( 'active )B803)-),% "(e reluctance to descend into >+undane? sub6ects c(anged wit( t(e rise of a .ros.erous burg(er class and t(e s.read into Nort(ern =uro.e of Renaissance (u+anis+ after )-00% 4it( its focus on virtue and godliness in

8 this world! and es.ecially in t(e areas of wor0! fa+ily! and civic .artici.ation! burg(er (u+anis+ set t(e stage for t(e re.resentation of everyday sub6ects! es.ecially in Net(erlandis( and Fer+an art as seen in t(e .easant scenes of Bruegel in +id3century% As wit( t(e earlier wor0s of Bosc(! genre .ainting 'everyday life1 e+erged into t(e world of art t(roug( t(e ennobling fra+ewor0 of +oral allegory% =veryday +aterial was selected for its t(e+atic ca.acity to address a wide range of 5uestions tied to c(anging social! econo+ic and .olitical realities and new burg(er values% 8or eAa+.le! t(e lives of t(e (ard3wor0ing .easantry and t(e si+.licity! godliness! and (ar+ony attributed to village life in Bruegel9s .rints and .aintings reflected urban burg(er nostalgia for rural life at a ti+e of ra.id urbani;ation and t(e e+ergence of a .roto3ca.italist! +ar0et econo+y% 4(en Antwer. grain traders could buy all t(e w(eat in Poland before it was .lanted and w(en grain (oarding! s.eculation! and war could (el. .reci.itate a terrible fa+ine in t(e Cout(ern Net(erlands in )-#-! Pieter Bruegel develo.ed large landsca.es offering reassuringly traditional views of a .eaceful and .ros.erous 8le+is( countryside% <ecorating a large roo+ in t(e art3stuffed villa of an Antwer. taA collector w(ose wealt( ca+e fro+ t(e trade in t(e =uro.e9s largest city! sea.ort! and international +oney3+ar0et! Bruegel9s .aintings of (ard3wor0ing .easants allowed burg(er elites to conte+.late a serene universe 5uietly inflected wit( burg(er values of wor0! +arriage and fa+ily! +oderation! si+.licity! and collective (ar+ony% @n t(is see+ingly i++utable! natural order grounded in new burg(er values! feudal castles signifying courtly do+inion si+.ly disa..eared! along wit( all courtly artifice! refine+ent! and .leasure% As long as courtly elites ruled all of =uro.e! t(e new (u+anist focus on t(is world could not generate +uc( artistic 'or literary1 interest in t(e daily lives of burg(ers! artisans! or .easants% 4(ile Bruegel was not t(e only artist in t(e +id3siAteent( century to begin .ainting >everyday life?! suc( sub6ects constituted a tiny fraction of t(e total out.ut of artistic .roduction until t(e end of t(e siAteent( century% All t(at c(anged wit( t(e e+ergence of t(e Net(erlands as a strong! .ros.erous burg(er re.ublic in t(e early seventeent( century% 4it( a living standard siA ti+es t(at of any ot(er country in =uro.e! t(e Net(erlands was ruled by burg(er elites w(o invested a good deal of t(eir dis.osable inco+e on oil .aintings de.icting a wide range of conte+.orary sub6ectsG above all! scenes of fa+ilies and do+estic interiors! still3life 'de.icting ordinary (ouse(old utensils! food! and flowers1! <utc( citysca.es and +ar0et scenes! <utc( seasca.e! (arbor views! and local landsca.es! even .ortraits of <utc( Calvinist c(urc(es as +entioned above% 2niting all of t(ese diverse sub6ects were <utc( Calvinist burg(er values of wor0! fa+ily! sober +oderation! and co++unity! valued w(ic( were allegorically interwoven into t(e scenes of everyday life% @n t(is sense! genre .ainting was no so different t(an (istory .aintingG bot( categories gave visual eA.ression to t(e (ig(est ideals! one using +ore (eroic! ideali;ed aristocratic for+s! t(e ot(er using a +ore everyday vocabulary to eAtol +iddle class values% =ven w(en <utc( burg(er tastes went courtly after )##0 : as seen in t(e wor0s of Her+eer and "er Borc( w(ic( re.laced godly fa+ily interiors wit( elegant drawing roo+s given over to refined conversation! wooing! c(a+ber +usic! elegant +anners and beautiful clot(ing! t(e focus of <utc( art re+ained on conte+.orary <utc( life even if it now loo0ed ideali;ed! elegant! and socially stratified% Alt(oug( <utc( citi;ens also invested in +ore ti+eless sub6ects fro+ religion! +yt(! and classical (istory t(roug(out t(e seventeent( century! t(ese were often translated down into a burg(er do+estic vernacular as seen in t(e strong interest in Biblical fa+ily t(e+es 'Abra(a+ and @saac! Prodigal Con! C(rist and t(e C(ildren1% Int rn$& (ro4& 5" 6ith M'tho&o)ic$& $nd A&& )oric$& Hi"tor' ($intin) Alt(oug( t(e rise of genre .ainting and still3life in seventeent(3century <utc( art .osed t(e only significant c(allenge to t(e su.re+acy of (istory .ainting at t(at ti+e! t(e c(allenge was confined to one s+all region in =uro.e wit( no international conse5uence until t(e eig(teent( century 'as discussed below1%

* @n t(e siAteent( and seventeent( century! +yt(ological and allegorical (istory .ainting suffered +ore fro+ t(ree tendencies w(ic( can be seen! to varying degrees! in different wor0s% 8irst! t(e self3conscious searc( for intellectual co+.leAity led to a certain .recious obscurity and difficulty w(ic( dis.layed (ig( education! art3 reading s0ills! and a certain eAclusive social ran0 +ore t(an any universal +oral! religious! and .olitical ideals% Cecond! a great deal of +yt(ological art co+.ro+ised its ostensible seriousness and lofty grandeur by succu+bing to easy titillation% '"(is was even true of religious art during t(e siAteent(! seventeent(! and eig(teent( centuries as seen in t(e flood of soft3core Biblical erotica in alluring scenes of Ada+ and =ve! Ca+son and <elila(! /udit( and Holofernes! ot and His <aug(ters! t(e Prodigal Con wit( t(e Harlots! Cu;anna( and t(e =lders! and so on% Bot( of t(ese wea0nesses are visible in Bron;inoJs (enus, Cupid, and ime% 4(ile gra..ling wit( +any of t(e sa+e t(e+es eA.lored in BotticelliJs %rimavera! es.ecially lust and con6ugal love! Bron;inoJs .ainting transfor+ed +yt(ology fro+ a co+.re(ensible for+ulation of s(ared! serious values into a courtly +ind3ga+e serving t(e self3conscious intellectual .retensions of t(e few ca.able of deci.(ering it and delig(ting in t(e very lasciviousness it .retended to conde+n% "(e t(ird wea0ness of (istory .ainting was t(e increasingly trans.arent .olitici;ing of +yt(ology in t(e (ands of absolutist +onarc(s% @f .olitical flattery was an i+.ortant ele+ent in +uc( +yt(ological .ainting fro+ t(e beginning, artists and .atrons too0 t(e .olitici;ing of +yt(ological narrative +uc( furt(er in t(e absolutist court culture of t(e later siAteent( and seventeent( centuries% "(e subordination of +yt(ology to .olitical flattery reac(ed a ;enit( at Hersailles after )##0% Here every classical deity was used to celebrate t(e god3li0e virtue! wisdo+! .ower! .iety! and con5uests of ouis K@H% Needless to say! t(e royal eAcess of suc( +yt(ological .ainting! t(e blatant .olitici;ing of t(e +yt(s! t(e ric( yet tireso+e co+.leAity of t(e allegories! t(e vast scale of t(e .aintings and scul.tures and t(e .alaces and gardens t(ey decorated! t(e un.recedented use of gold leaf! all t(is contributed to t(e devaluation of (istory .ainting in general and +yt(ological .ainting in .articular% Alt(oug( t(is devaluation was clear enoug( in early eig(teent(3century burg(er disdain for courtly bo+bast! it was! +ore i+.ortantly! s(ared increasingly by t(e aristocracy w(o turned away fro+ .olitici;ed +yt(ology in t(e early eig(teent( century in favor of lig(t! entertaining! erotic sub6ects fro+ +yt(ology li0e t(e oves of t(e Fods or t(e love lives of (eroes suc( as Hercules and Perseus% Th ,o&&$+" o# Hi"tor' ($intin) in th Mid2Ei)ht nth , ntur' @f traditional (istory .ainting was c(allenged in t(e seventeent( century by t(e Refor+ation! t(e s.read of (u+anis+! t(e rise of urban bourgeois culture and t(e e+ergence of a .ros.erous burg(er re.ublic! its (ege+ony wit(in t(e Renaissance syste+ of art began to colla.se in t(e eig(teent( century% 7ne factor was t(e rise of an =nlig(ten+ent reason and science w(ic( offered +ore co+.elling eA.lanations for nature and (u+an be(avior t(an traditional religion or +yt(% C+all wonder t(at religious and +yt(ological art retreated fro+ t(e ideal! (eroic naturalis+ of t(e Renaissance and Baro5ue and soug(t out a Rococo aest(etic of elegance! refine+ent! and t(e decorative% "(e serious world of beauty gave way to a +ore trivial world of t(e .retty% 7ne eAa+.le is "ie.oloJs &adonna and Child w(ere traditional s.iritual 5ualities yield to a ravis(ing aest(etic beauty w(ose refine+ent eA.resses a new and .recious courtly aest(eticis+% Anot(er factor was t(e s(ift of .olitical .ower away fro+ t(e traditional aristocracy to a new centrali;ed nation state governed by absolutist +onarc(s but ad+inistered by a growing class of burg(er functionaries and financiers% After being crus(ed by ouis K@H in t(e civil war of t(e +id3seventeent( century! t(e 8renc( aristocracy retreated fro+ t(e .ublic s.(ere into a .rivate world of deliberately unreal entertain+ent en6oyed at t(eir country estates% At t(e sa+e ti+e '),003),-01! +yt(ology retreated fro+ t(e (eroic! .ublic language of +oral3.(iloso.(ical allegory and accounts of t(e cos+os into aristocratic boudoir decoration geared +ore toward .rivate voyeuris+% 4or0s suc( as Bouc(erJs (ertumnus and %omona reduced +yt( to (ig( class

)0 titillation% =ven religious sub6ects could be erotici;ed! as in t(is )inding of &oses w(ic( concerns itself +ore wit( finding nu+erous undra.ed +aidens% "(e deliberately unreal! erotic fantasy world of t(e Rococo signaled t(e colla.se of (istory .ainting as an eAalted .ublic language for t(e very elite social grou. 3 t(e aristocracy 3 w(ic( (ad been its +ost i+.ortant .atron% "(e eig(teent(3century also witnessed t(e rise of a new institution w(ic( (el.ed +arginali;e t(e aristocracy as t(e traditional arbiters of artistic .roductionG t(e .ublic art eA(ibition 'and its later offs(oot! t(e art +useu+1% By establis(ing royal acade+ies of art and regular .ublic art eA(ibitions! =uro.ean +onarc(s 'starting in 8rance1 transferred art over to a non3aristocratic world of eA.erts starting wit( t(e artists and ending wit( t(e general .ublic% @n a social world +ar0ed by growing literacy and t(e eA.losion of +aga;ines and 6ournals! t(e new world of .ublic art eA(ibitions also s.awned a new eA.ert : t(e art critic or +an of letters 3 drawn fro+ t(e .eo.le and s.ea0ing on t(eir be(alf% Hencefort(! decisions on artistic 5uality! originality! and i+.ortance were left to a +uc( wider .ublic wit( s.ecial aut(ority delegated to educated! +iddle class writers! collectors! and viewers% @n an age w(ic( could i+agine t(at >all +en are created e5ual? and w(ic( could even go so far as to e5uate +onarc(y wit( tyranny! t(e age of courtly and religious elites do+inating literary and artistic .roduction as over% Not(ing was +ore sy+.to+atic of t(is colla.se of courtly (ege+ony t(an t(e rise of t(e novel and t(e re6ection of e.ic .oetry 3 t(e +ost courtly literary for+s 3 in satires li0e Po.e9s Rape of the *oc+" Th Triu5+h o# Bour) oi" ,u&tur in th Ei)ht nth , ntur' Ctruggling to devise new collective sy+bols w(ic( could once again restore art to a (ig( +oral tone and cultural centrality! =nlig(ten+ent writers suc( as <iderot singled out a very different 0ind of new art! bot( in sub6ect +atter and in style% 8or t(e first ti+e! fa+ily .ainting was .raised by a few leading critics as t(e (ig(est for+ of art and t(e basis on w(ic( to invent a new! +odern art% 8or <iderot and ot(ers! fa+ily .ainting offered a new! +odern! +oral vocabulary grounded in co++on (u+an eA.erience and t(us reac(ing out to a +uc( wider audience t(an t(e literary! often esoteric and elitist art of (istory .ainting% New (ere is t(e .raise (ea.ed on fa+ily .ainting as su.erior to (istory .ainting! so+et(ing no seventeent(3century <utc( art critic would (ave .resu+ed% New also is t(e ado.tion of suc( t(in0ing by t(e aristocracy itself w(ic( co+.eted to buy t(e best fa+ily .ainting in eig(teent(3century 8rance% 8renc( .ainters suc( as C(ardin and Freu;e develo.ed t(e new fa+ily .ainting using large canvases wit( an anti3aristocratic! anti3(edonistic! down to eart( naturalis+ of sober colors! dra+atic events in bourgeois or .easant fa+ilies! and even grand! at ti+es dra+atic co+.ositions 't(ereby elevating fa+ily to t(e traditional visual r(etoric of (istory .ainting1% <es.ite <iderotJs (o.es! genre .ainting did not .rove to be t(e salvation of +odern art! t(oug( it did reac( a new status t(roug(out =uro.e and! later! A+erica! as seen in t(e a..eal of conte+.orary genre .ainters suc( as 4yet(% =ig(teent(3century genre .ainting fell victi+ to own in(erent tendency toward t(e trite! t(e senti+ental! t(e (y.ocritical! t(e +ost co++ercially viable% Freu;e (i+self +ade a co+fortable inco+e .ainting little c(ildren wit( big eyes (olding 0ittens or .u..ies! or ostensibly +oral de.ictions of dissolute +aids carefully .osed to allow +ale be(olders unobstructed views down unbuttoned blouses% @n suc( wor0s! t(e new genre .ainting abandoned its own lofty r(etoric and a+bitions% As 8renc( society deteriorated in t(e late eig(teent( century! literature and art s(ifted towards serious .olitical issues far fro+ t(e .rivacy of aristocratic bedroo+s and bourgeois fa+ilies% Fenre .ainting re+ained a co++on category of art but it was no longer t(e s.ecialty of t(e best conte+.orary artists nor was it (eld u. by writers and critics as t(e (o.e for a new art of +odern life% (o&itic$& ($intin) $" $n Art o# Mod rn Li#

))

4it( t(e advent of t(e 8renc( Revolution '),8*1! t(e .ainter /ac5ues ouis <avid too0 u. conte+.orary .olitics w(ic( see+ed +uc( +ore .owerfully dra+atic! serious! and universal t(an any (istory or genre .ainting% <avid beca+e a +e+ber of and t(e .ro.aganda .ainter for t(e /acobins! t(e +ost radical of t(e revolutionary .arties% He was even a +e+ber of t(e secret .olice! signing deat( warrants for so+e of t(e t(ousands of .eo.le guillotined% 4it( (is .ainting! t(e Death of &arat! (e bro0e wit( History Painting! Rococo art '4atteau! Bouc(er! 8ragonard1! and eig(teent(3century 8renc( genre .ainting! finding trut( and reality in t(e conte+.orary deat( of a .ower (ungry! bloodt(irsty /acobin de+agogue% Durdered by t(e +oderate revolutionary! C(arlotte Corday! Darat beca+e a +artyr for t(e eAtre+e eft and a reviled target for ot(er grou.s fro+ royalists to +oderatesN (ere an =nglis( .rint co+.ares C(arlotte Corday to an earlier 8renc( (eroine! /oan of Arc% @t is in t(e +idst of t(is .ro.aganda war and .olitical c(aos t(at <avid introduced (is large! self3co++issioned .ainting% 8or <avid as a .olitical .ainter! t(e .roble+ was to stabili;e t(e +eaning of DaratJs deat( in t(is c(aos! to resolve t(e Etrut(E of Darat once and for all as t(e (eroic revolutionary +artyr% "(us <avid used a non3t(eatrical style of si+.le co+.osition! star0 lig(ting and volu+es! and s(ar. detail set against a .lain! al+ost abstract bac0ground% He carefully avoided any overtly .ro.agandistic! sensationali;ing blood and gore! c(oosing instead t(e +ore trut(ful see+ing language of understate+ent% @n t(is way! <avid transfor+ed an un(eroic! bloody deat( in a +edicinal bat( for ec;e+a into so+et(ing grand! ti+eless! tragically evocative of a Pieta! and above all! EtrueE! EtrueE because (ere were t(e .lain! star0! see+ingly true EfactsE of t(e event% Confir+ing t(e "rut( of t(e .ainting at its unveiling was t(e .resence of DaratJs real cor.se still in its bat(tub! t(e (and dangling over (olding a .en% Cince DaratJs real ar+ (ad fro;en in rigor +ortis! t(e ar+ of anot(er cor.se was used and t(e bat(tub raised on a .edestal to (ide t(e dece.tion and (eroici;e Darat even furt(er% At least five .roble+s .lagued t(e rise of .olitical .ainting as a .ri+ary vocabulary of great art and contributed to its de+ise forty years later% All of t(e+ are clear wit( <avid! Foya! Fericault! and <elacroiA! t(e four +ost i+.ortant artists w(o struggled to +a0e a+bitious art out of +odern .olitical sub6ects% % 8irst! .olitically co++itted artists ris0ed i+.rison+ent! eAile! and deat(! t(eir wor0s! su..ression or destruction% 4it( t(e colla.se of t(e /acobins! <avid was arrested! sentenced to deat( and s.ared only at t(e last +inute% 4it( Na.oleonJs rise! (e again beca+e .ro+inent! but w(en t(e dictator fell! t(e .ainter was eAiled to Brussels% Clearly t(is was not t(e +ost feasible .at( for +odern artists to follow% Cecond! .olitical sub6ects were li0ely to be too controversial to offer stable +eanings s(ared by wide audiences% 7ften initiated by artists t(e+selves! .olitical .aintings were wor0s of art in searc( of a co++on audience and not always finding one% <avidJs Darat! for eAa+.le re+ained as controversial as t(e dead +an (i+self% As a corollary! .olitical art was usually 6udged solely for its .olitical stance rat(er t(an evaluated seriously as art% No wonder t(e elderly <avid! in eAile! contented (i+self wit( safe! relatively a.olitical art of .ortraiture and erotic +yt(ology! t(e latter a .artial reversion to t(e Rococo tastes su..osedly banis(ed by <avidJs .olitical .ainting% "(ird! todayJs .olitical (eadlines could easily beco+e to+orrowJs forgotten stories! under+ining t(e artistJs (o.e t(at .olitics +ig(t re.lace t(e enduring! EuniversalE vocabularies of (istory .ainting% 4ere it not for <avidJs .ainting! few .ersons today would recogni;e t(e na+e Darat% 8ourt(! .olitical art (ad no visual tradition for t(e artist to draw onN t(e artist (ad to wor0 +uc( +ore fro+ scratc( in struggling to select t(e +ost eA.ressive +odern events! +o+ents in t(ose events! arrange+ents of figures! gestures! lig(ting! color! and so fort(% "(e need to reinvent t(e w(eel wit( eac( canvas +ade .olitical .ainting +ore difficult t(an ot(er 0inds of art% 8ift(G +odern .olitical sub6ects often .roved too c(aotic! too inco(erent to be translated into t(e ordered! co(erent! visual language of art% "(is .roble+ is even +ore clear in <elacroiAJs fa+ous *iberty *eading the %eople of )8$0% "(e sub6ect was t(e /uly Revolution of )8$0! a brief +o+ent w(en t(e +iddle class! wor0ing

)2 class! and National Fuard 6oined to bring down t(e re.ressive +onarc(y of C(arles K% Here is a street barricade erected against royalist troo.s! +anned by t(e various social classes and grou.s! eac( wit( its own! contradictory goals and understanding of t(e revolution% 4it( (is (ig(ly ordered! .yra+idal grou.ing! <elacroiA did (is best to unify t(ese dis.arate grou.s! to endow t(e+ wit( so+e .olitical consensus ca.able of legiti+i;ing t(e brutal carnage below% <es.ite t(e artistJs co+.ositional! .olitical! and +oral structuring! t(e i+age of a co++on .ur.ose w(ic( see+ed +o+entarily .resent on t(e barricades and in <elacroiAJs .ainting soon disintegrated into t(e reality of violent infig(ting% Co too! t(e .ainting was (otly contested% "(e eft .raised it as glorifying E"(e Peo.leE! t(e Rig(t loved it for s(owing t(e street fig(ters to be a coarse +ob! w(ile t(e .olitical center loat(ed t(e .icture for its a..arent ridicule of +ob3li0e activists% "(oug( .urc(ased by t(e crown and briefly eA(ibited! t(e .icture .roved +uc( too controversial and was .ut in storage% =ig(teen years (ad to .ass before t(e .ainting could be re+oved and (ung .ublicly and t(en only in a setting w(ic( denied it any .olitical +eaning and .raised it for t(e .urely aest(etic 5ualities% All t(is is ty.ical of t(e in(erent instability of +eaning in .olitical sub6ects% Dodern Parisian life as a w(ole s(owed t(is confusion and anarc(y! wit( nu+erous outbrea0s of street violence fro+ t(e Rig(t! Center! and eft t(roug( t(e )8$0s and B0s% Cuc( sub6ects resisted t(e visual orderings in(erent in all art% @ndeed! <elacroiA left Paris in (is later years! disgusted by its continual anarc(y and fed u. wit( bot( .olitics and .olitical .ainting% Retreating to a country (ouse and to a (er+etic artistic real+ of .rivate sensibility and i+agination! (e s.ent t(e rest of (is life .ainting (ig(ly eAotic flowers! ani+al (unts! and erotici;ed 7riental sub6ects% Cuc( late wor0s as <elacroiAJs Arab ,omen -athing offered a 0ind of esca.ist! Rococo Ro+anticis+ not unli0e 8ragonardJs eig(teent(3century -athers% L$nd"c$+ $" $n Art o# Mod rn Li# @f not genre or .olitics! w(at t(enO Dany writers and artists believed landsca.e +ig(t be t(e solution to t(e crisis in t(e language of +odern art% Nature see+ed to offer a co++on s.iritual eA.erience w(ic( +ig(t bring a new consensus! (ar+ony! and religious de.t( to a society increasingly tied to +aterial co+forts and urban concerns% "(e Fer+an critic August Cc(legel even wondered if landsca.e .ainting +ig(t beco+e w(at (istory .ainting (ad once been% 4it( t(e Fer+an Ro+antic .ainting! 8riedric(Js Cross in the &ountains of )808! we see (ow one landsca.e .ainting did al+ost re.lace religious (istory .ainting w(en it served as an altar.iece in a .rivate c(a.el% Rat(er t(an a traditional Passion scene! (ere was an e+.(atically Fer+an landsca.e wit( a wooden crucifiA% 4it( its star0 contrast of dar0 +ountain and eternal evergreens against a glowing sunset or sunrise! t(e .ainting relied as +uc( on landsca.e i+agery for its +eaning as on its +ore traditional religious +otif% "y.ical for 8riedric(! t(e setting was far fro+ any (u+an (abitation! far fro+ +odern Fer+an industry! co++erce! city or village% Here! in so+e ways! was nature as it (ad traditionally been .ainted in Renaissance and Baro5ue art suc( as AltdorferJs Danube *andscape% Here was Nature as an uncorru.ted! re+ote! sacred 7t(er real+ o..osed to and re+oved fro+ t(e un3natural conditions of city life% 4(ile Renaissance and Baro5ue artists didnJt (ave to go far at all to see suc( uns.oiled nature! t(e situation was vastly different by t(e early nineteent( century% By t(en! urban life was .us(ing into t(e countryside wit( ever eA.anding cities! suburbs! factories! wee0end resorts! railroads! and +ining% @n res.onse! t(e nineteent( century landsca.e .ainter (ad to travel fart(er! wor0 (arder! su..ress +odern social realities +ore co+.letely to arrive at so+et(ing rese+bling a traditional nature! an unc(anging! eternal ground of all being% @ndeed! t(e re+oteness of all of 8riedric(Js landsca.es 3 (is &ountain Climber, for eAa+.le 3 was itself a reflection of t(e growing crisis of +odern landsca.e .ainting in searc( of traditional nature%

)$ 8or 8riedric(! nature is no longer a .lace in(abited by +an0ind% His landsca.e viewers are not t(e .easant wor0ers or aristocratic country3(o+e dwellers of earlier landsca.e .ainting but rat(er city dwellers w(o lac0 any lived! daily contact wit( nature% "(is +odern nature can no longer o.erate as a si+.le religious ground of being for all (u+an beings! as a fiction of dee.er (u+an co++unity% @t (as beco+e increasing distant fro+ +odern +an0ind! .(ysically and s.iritually and +odern landsca.e .ainting now +ust confront t(at distance in trying to transcend it% ParadoAically! t(is +odern co++union wit( nature re5uires t(e (u+an being to wit(draw fro+ ot(ers% Co too! t(e nature it co++unes wit( re+ains a .rivate! EsolitaryE nature for t(e +ost .art! a nature devoid of (u+an co++unities! @n s(ort! 8riedric(Js new landsca.es are as +uc( about t(e radical religion of t(e Ro+antic self and its aut(entic! visionary i+agination as t(ey are about t(e religion of nature% @ndeed! t(ey are +ore about t(e self t(an about nature since nature see+s to e+anate fro+ t(e Einner eyeE of t(e self and is bot( created by t(e self and transfor+ed into a t(eatre for t(e eA.erience and re.resentation of its own isolation% As suc(! t(ere is so+et(ing .rofoundly! consciously alienated and alienating about t(e landsca.es of Ro+anticis+% 8riedric(Js &on+ by the !ea ')80*1 was an even +ore radical i+age w(ic( see+ed to offer Enot(ing to loo0 atE as one critic co+.lained% Here a tiny +on0 confronted a re+ote! vast! +ysterious universe not li0e any Nature .ainted earlier% @f t(e +on0 visuali;es +odern +an0indJs yearning for union wit( nature! (e is also cut off fro+ t(e nature (e yearns to 6oin! i+.risoned! we +ig(t say! on t(e s(ore of eart(ly life and self% 7nly deat( can bring t(e desired transcendence and fusion% 7ne conte+.orary artist noted of 8riedric(! EHere is a +an w(o (as discovered t(e tragedy of landsca.eE% Anot(er conte+.orary! t(e .oet! Heinric( von Mleist! co++ented on t(e &on+! Enot(ing can be sadder or +ore dis+al t(an t(is .osition in t(e worldG t(e only s.ar0 of life in t(e vast real+ of deat(! %%%in its unifor+ity and endlessnessE% "(e religious u.lift of t(e Cross in the &ountains see+ed to yield in t(e &on+ to a blea0 not(ingness% 4as t(is t(e answer to t(e +odern (o.e to find religion in landsca.eO 4ould an (onest loo0 at nature find not Fod but a void! or a Fod so abstract as so add u. to al+ost t(e sa+e t(ingO 4as not t(e Don0 too re+ote fro+ and even (ostile to t(e +aterialistic concerns of ordinary +odern daily life! too alienated! too unfa+iliar to (ave any a..ealO Rat(er t(an evo0ing a glorious subli+e! wasnJt t(e s+allness of t(e (u+an being (ere too .itiful! too de.ressingly solitary! too alienated to s.ea0 of any reassuring co++union wit( larger forces! any larger co++unities in nature and societyO @f t(e infinity of Nature was now t(e infinity of <eat(! (ow could suc( an austere Nature ever beco+e a successful vocabulary for a new +odern landsca.e .aintingO @t couldnJt% =ven (is Cross in the &ountains was .ossible as an altar.iece only in a .rivate c(a.elN no .ublic c(urc( could (ave dis.layed suc( EreligiousE wor0s lac0ing in doctrinal and deno+inational s.ecifics% 7ne critic even denounced t(e wor0! noting! Eit is truly .resu+.tuous of landsca.e .ainting to try to snea0 into c(urc( and cree. u. on altars%E @n t(e end! 8riedric(Js landsca.e .iety and art re+ained too .ersonal to reac( any wide conte+.orary audience% @f (is landsca.e tried to re.lace traditional religious (istory .ainting! so too (is .iety abandoned official ut(eran values wit( a .eculiarly +odern! alienated EreligionE of t(e +editating self% Needless to say! t(e very idea of a E.rivateE religion is so+ew(at of a contradiction and (el.s eA.lain w(y 8riedric(Js art touc(ed so few conte+.oraries in (is lifeti+e% As naturalis+ grew as an artistic style in Fer+any! t(e art of t(e older 8riedric( see+ed increasingly arc(aic% =ven before (is deat(! one of (is c(ief .u.ils wrote! E8riedric( is already forgottenE% R $&i"5 $" th End o# Hi"tor' ($intin) $nd th End o# 7Art8 "(e 7ld Dasters were never interested in si+.ly +i+ic0ing eAternal a..earances% 8ro+ t(e start! Renaissance naturalis+ .ursued (ig(er goals of +oral! s.iritual! and .(iloso.(ical trut(! using ideali;ed for+s to lead t(e eye to (ig(er realities beyond t(e +undane! +utable! s(allow! and dece.tive world of a..earances%

)B 8or t(is reason! w(ile studying +otifs fro+ nature was crucial fro+ eonardo on! no artist ever .ainted t(e final wor0 in front of t(e +otif% Cince art ca+e as +uc( fro+ t(e +ind as fro+ t(e eye! t(e artist .ainted t(e final wor0 in t(e studio% Here! re+oval fro+ t(e +otif allowed direct observations to be rewor0ed and assi+ilated into t(e (ig(er! ideali;ed world of Art% 8or +ore conservative writers and critics in t(e nineteent( century! t(e ideal 5ualities of Art allowed it to re.resent nature9s (ig(er trut(s! its +oral! s.iritual! and .olitical orders% 7ne critic called t(is ideal nature "permanent, fi.ed, invariable, and therefore characteristic, submissible, and representableE% 8 8unda+ental to all serious art and literature was t(e +oral and social re5uire+ent to u.lift and i+.rove viewers by s(owing a (ig(er reality% By t(e nineteent( century! t(e cardinal rule of +oral u.lift enco+.assed all categories of art including t(e +undane sub6ects of genre .ainting w(ic( could include scenes of .overty but not scenes of dissi.ation! ugliness! r de.ravity% "o write a novel about a +iddle class wo+an co++itting adultery! as did 8laubert or to .aint a reclining nude w(o loo0ed li0e a .rostitute scrutini;ing t(e viewer and transfor+ing (i+ fro+ an art lover to a .atron of w(ores! as did Danet9s $lympia! was to violate t(e first rule of literature and art%%4it( t(is in +ind! we can better understand t(e radical cultural revolution offered by Realists li0e Courbet and novelists li0e 8laubert and Lola% "(e +ost radial of all t(e Realist .ainters! Courbet e5uated t(e ideal wit( t(e false and struggled to eli+inate it altoget(er fro+ art% As a Cocialist activist eventually eAiled fro+ 8rance! (e was es.ecially (ostile to traditional religious and .olitical ideals% "(roug( (is (uge! coarsely brus(ed canvases de.icting +odern .easants! unideali;ed landsca.es! and +odern! na0ed wo+en 'not ideal nudes1! Courbet (o.ed to overt(row t(e official values of c(urc( and state and us(er in a Cocialist uto.ia% 4(ile Realist .ainting still .ursued ideas of trut(! it soug(t a new trut( tied to t(e +odern eA.eriences of ordinary .eo.le! es.ecially t(ose of t(e .easantry! t(e u.rooted and i+.overis(ed wor0er! and t(e urban +iddle class% "(e new artistic >trut(? of Realis+ re5uired an art of direct observation! free fro+ t(e rules of acade+ic .ainting wit( its +odels in classical scul.ture and t(e @talian Renaissance% As t(e artist (i+self .ut it! "the heart of realism is the negation of the ideal """ -y arriving at the negation of the ideal and everything that follows from it I arrive at the emancipation of the individual, and finally at democracy""
/

Note t(e connection between Realis+! t(e +odern >liberated? individual! and t(e new .olitical ideal of de+ocracy% Courbet9s co++ent eAe+.lifies t(e growing sub6ectivity of +odern art! literature! and +usic! and t(e growing fait( in t(e >trut(? of sub6ective eA.erience% <es.ite (is a+bitions and self3confidence! Courbet also understood t(e difficulty of refor+ing social conditions t(roug( art and ot(er for+s of individual eA.ression% " he more one distinguishes oneself from others the harder it gets" o change a public0s taste, its ways of seeing, is no small thing1 it is nothing less than to overturn what e.ists and replace it with something else """ %ainting, when you thin+ about it, is a state of fren2y, a continual struggle, a way of going cra2y"" 34 Alt(oug( Dillet9s Gleaners uses +onu+ental (u+an for+s and a grand co+.osition to dignify and elevate t(e lives of t(e 8renc( rural .oor! t(e .ainting s(ows t(e econo+ic devastation of t(e 8renc( .easantry broug(t by +odern far+ing% @nstead of s(owing t(e (a..y! self3sufficient .easantry and village life seen in t(e landsca.es of Bruegel! Claude! or <utc( Baro5ue .ainters! Dillet de.icts t(e transfor+ation of t(e 8renc( .easantry into a landless .roletariat! owning not(ing but its own labor and reduced to wor0ing land now owned by so+e distant and unseen agricultural investor% "(e w(eat (as all been (arvested and carted off into t(e bac0ground! ready for storage or s(i..ing w(ile t(e wor0ers are allowed to glean t(e scra.s left be(ind to

)su..le+ent t(eir +iserable wages% As a landsca.e! t(e .ainting confronts t(e colla.se of t(e =uro.ean rural econo+y w(ic( too0 .lace in t(e )*t( century as far+ing was radically reorgani;ed by +odern industry and ca.italis+% Alt(oug( t(is develo.+ent greatly increased agricultural .roduction! it destroyed t(e traditional rural econo+y of self3sufficient fa+ily far+s and collective village labor% Painted a year after t(e revolution of )8B8! Courbet9s !tone5-rea+ers offered a ty.ical brea0 wit( traditional art! on t(e one (and! and wit( traditional de.ictions of rural wor0ers! on t(e ot(er% Ctone3brea0ers belonged to t(e lowest! sub3.roletarian class of rural wor0ers% Brea0ing u. stones to create rubble for construction and roads was bac0brea0ing! .oorly3.aid wor0 w(ic( re5uired no s0ill and broug(t no res.ect or dignity% 2nli0e agricultural wor0 in t(e field! stone3brea0ing could not be ro+antici;ed in ter+s of .astoral landsca.e! rural co++unity! and a ti+eless! seasonal nature% As a sub6ect outside religious! courtly and burg(er values! it was also a sub6ect outside art itself % % % until Realis+% Courbet carefully c(ose t(is sub6ect not to eA.and t(e traditional universe of art by finding +eaning! value! and dignity to stone3brea0ing! by transfor+ing t(e sub6ect into so+et(ing +oral and u.lifting% @nstead! Courbet9s .ainting offered a radical re6ection of traditional art wit( its virtuous sub6ects! grand r(etoric! and reassuring i+agery% His stone3brea0ers are faceless! de(u+ani;ed! un(eroic in .ose! and unattractive in clot(ing% "(ey re+ain as insignificant and ugly as t(e stones t(ey .ound% "(us Courbet9s .airing of two wor0ers w(o see+ to be fat(er and son wor0ed not to suggest traditional t(e+es of t(e virtuous! rustic fa+ily (a..ily i+bedded in a larger co++unity or ideas of a ti+eless rural order! as seen in t(e .easant weddings and agricultural landsca.es of Pieter Bruegel% @nstead! Courbet9s conte+.orary grou. suggested t(e crus(ing lac0 of o..ortunity for i+.overis(ed! uneducated wor0ers and t(e cycles of .overty tra..ing successive generations% Adding insult to in6ury! Courbet9s !tonebrea+ers dis.layed (is ty.ically coarse brus(wor0 w(ic( violated basic eA.ectations of a certain finis( and tec(nical .olis( re5uired of final .aintings 'vs% .reli+inary s0etc(es%1 "(e lac0 of any attractive color! indeed! t(e w(olesale re6ection of aest(etic beauty added anot(er layer of insult% 4orst of all! t(e .ainting .resu+ed t(e large! +ural si;e traditionally reserved for t(e loftiest sub6ects of (istory .ainting and official art% Here! on t(e large scale of .ublic art! Courbet offered a rude! vulgar! +odern world of trut(% As sla. in t(e face of Art! taste! +orality! and 8renc( .olitics! t(e .ainting was as offensive and dangerous in its sub6ect +atter as in its style and tec(ni5ue% @t was stri0ingly at odds wit( al notions of taste including t(e .o.ular tastes of t(e general .ublic w(ic( .referred eA5uisitely .ainted! s+oot(ly bus(ed! senti+ental genre .aintings! t(e (ig(ly saniti;ed scenes of everyday life and innocent! lovely .easants cran0ed out by t(e li0es of Bouguereau% 4e s(ould be careful not to confuse t(e naturalis+ of t(e genre .ainters wit( t(e Realis+? .ut fort( by Courbet and novelists li0e Lola and 8laubert% @ndeed! Lola dis.layed a conte+.t for .o.ular aest(etic tastes ty.ical of avant3garde writers and artists after )8B0 and singled out genre .ainting in .articular as t(e art for+ +ost a..ealing to .(ilistines%% "" " " the melody of contours, the harmony of colors, are totally lost on them and are for them li+e a closed boo+" Given the lac+ of cultivation among the public, given the characteristics of superficiality by which it 6udges wor+s of art, it is not astonishing that its preferences are almost e.clusively for genre painting"" Not sur.risingly! Courbet found li+ited success in (is lifeti+e outside a s+all circle of radical friends and colleagues% He never ac(ieved t(e co++ercial success won by less radical Realists suc( as Corot and Dillet nor was (e willing to +a0e t(e co+.ro+ises t(ey +ade until late in life w(en (e was eAiled to Cwit;erland and too0 u. .ictures5ue landsca.e .ainting to su..ort (i+self% "(e difficulties encountered by Realists li0e Courbet underscore t(e radical c(allenge .osed by Realist aest(etics w(ic( was unwelco+e in t(e world of art acade+ies! 6uries! and critics! not to +ention t(e new world of t(e general .ubic now i+.ortant in an age of

)# eA(ibitions! +useu+s! and art criticis+% "(e relative success of +ore traditionally +inded Realists suc( as Corot and Dillet only confir+s t(e radical c(allenge of a Courbet%

I5+r ""ioni"5 $" th End o# R +r " nt$tion @f Realis+ dealt a serious blow to t(e =uro.ean artistic tradition of ideali;ed naturalis+ in .lace since t(e Renaissance ')B0031! t(e @+.ressionist +ove+ent w(ic( followed went +uc( furt(er to destroy traditional ideas of Art and it did t(is wit(out any of Courbet9s radical Cocialist .olitics% Dost of t(e @+.ressionists ca+e fro+ solid! u..er +iddle class bac0grounds and t(ey yearned for official acce.tance and success! Pet @+.ressionis+ .roved far +ore radical t(an Courbet9s Realis+ by banis(ing all traditional sub6ects to focus on t(e +odern suburban landsca.e and t(e +odern city! and to subordinate aest(etic (andling and inter.retation to t(e tec(nical goal of ca.turing lig(t and color accurately as t(ey (it t(e eye% ost in t(e new @+.ressionist goal of o.tical fidelity was any (ig(er idea of trut( w(ic( (ad driven naturalis+ and structured Art since t(e Renaissance% "o t(e eAtent t(at t(e @+.ressionists redefined trut( as color and lig(t and +a0e it t(e core of t(eir +ove+ent! t(ey banis(ed t(e very idea of significance fro+ art% 4it( so+e i+.ortant eAce.tions! es.ecially Danet and autrec! @+.ressionis+ wor0ed to e+.ty .ainting of any larger +eaning and to reduce it to t(e .urity and li+ited >trut(? of a (ig(ly sub6ective seeing% "o co++ent on t(e world! to inter.ret it! eA.lain it! and order it : t(ese basic .ur.oses of art before @+.ressionis+ w(ic( continued even in Courbet9s .olitically c(arged .aintings : all t(at was! to a large eAtent! banis(ed by @+.ressionis+ as false artifice and convention w(ic( needed to be eli+inated if .ainting was to see t(e world as t(e eye su..osedly saw it% @f Renaissance and Baro5ue naturalis+ (ad wor0ed (ard to integrate seeing wit( 0nowing! and in doing so! to raise t(e status of t(e artist to a t(in0er! .oet! and .(iloso.(er% 4it( @+.ressionis+! sig(t as o..osed to t(in0ing and artistic seeing stri..ed of any (ig(er 0nowledge or value% <es.ite t(e re.resentational nature of @+.ressionist aest(etics! @+.ressionis+ was not(ing less t(an t(e deat( 0nell of re.resentation and t(e end of all traditional art! even Realist art% "(e radical abstraction of @+.ressionist .aintings wit( t(eir s0etc(y brus(wor0! t(eir lac0 of one .oint .ers.ective and +odeling in lig(t and dar0! t(eir flattened! a+biguous (andling of sub6ect +atter! all t(is +ade @+.ressionis+ a dead end 5uic0ly abandoned by younger artists around )88-! 6ust fifteen years after t(e +ove+ent started% 4(ile Donet continued .ainting long after t(is! (e abandoned in )8*0 (is early co++it+ent to +odern sub6ects : es.ecially t(e suburban landsca.e and citysca.e! and retreated into t(e never3never land of a fauA /a.anese garden% By +oving as far fro+ +odern 8rance as (e could get 'w(ile e+bracing t(e (ig(ly +ar0etable 7rientalis+ of t(e day1! t(e older Donet followed t(e lead of t(e younger Post3@+.ressionist generation w(o (ad already retreated fro+ all +odern sub6ect +atter to a uns.oiled%! .re3+odern countryside! w(et(er in 8rance or "a(iti 'Ce;anne! Han Fog(! Fauguin1 or to an e5ually ti+eless! uns.oiled world of t(e i+agination 'Redon! <enis1% At t(e sa+e ti+e as (e fled into (is /a.anese garden! Donet abandoned t(e cool! i+.ersonal tec(ni5ue of early @+.ressionis+ ')8#*3)8*01 in favor of an intensely .oetic! e+otionally ric(! and coloristically ravis(ing @+.ressionis+% 8or all its roots in @+.ressionis+! t(is +usical3.oetic style s(ared +uc( wit( t(e .ost3 @+.ressionist aest(etic world of Cy+bolis+ e+braced by t(e younger generation! a grou. w(ic( (ad loudly re6ected @+.ressionis+ as su.erficial and decorative% Dy .oint (ere is not to bas( Donet9s later .aintings w(ic( offered a (ig(ly successful synt(esis of @+.ressionist and Post3@+.ressionist aest(etics% @ndeed! t(ese wor0s are! in +y o.inion! wort(y of t(e (ig(est .raise% @nstead! @ want to use Donet9s later wor0s to underscore (ow 5uic0ly @+.ressionists turned away fro+ 0ey ele+ents of @+.ressionis+! .ri+arily because it was a dead end% As early as )88#! Renoir announced t(at (e didn9t 0now (ow to draw or .aint as (e e+bar0ed on (is own

), version of a ate @+.ressionist aest(etic reverting to a traditional world of grand nudes and +yt(ological sub6ects% "(e larger .oint to t(is discussion is t(at @+.ressionis+ (el.ed 0ill of not 6ust traditional ideas of art but t(e +ore basic idea of re.resentation% 4(atever else c(anged during t(e @+.ressionist .eriod! t(eir .aintings grew +ore s0etc(y and abstract in t(e later .eriod! a s(ift .articularly evident in t(e world o Donet after )*)0 at a ti+e w(en 8auvis+! Cubis+! =A.ressionis+! and 8uturis+ +ade even t(e Post3@+.ressionists! not to +ention t(e @+.ressionists! see+ old3fas(ioned% By +oving into an al+ost w(olly abstract style after )*20! Donet continued to +odify and +oderni;e @+.ressionis+ u. until t(e end of (is life% After t(e radical innovations of @+.ressionis+! it was easy for t(e neAt generation to banis( traditional re.resentation altoget(er% Fradually turning t(eir bac0s on t(e s(ared world of recogni;able for+s! t(e Post3 @+.ressionists and Cy+bolists .ursued .rivate visionary worlds created by eac( artist and de.endent on an increasingly bold abstraction% "(ey also turned t(eir bac0 on t(e >su.erficial? seeing of @+.ressionis+ and +ade serious e+otional and s.iritual values central to +odern artistic .ractice for t(e neAt (alf century u. until Po. Art ')*#0s1% A4"tr$ction $" $ Di"tinct&' Mod rn Arti"tic L$n)u$) "(e rise of abstraction is too co+.leA to (ave any single eA.lanation or to be rooted in one! .revious develo.+ent% A+ong +any factors! one +ig(t .oint to t(e growing fatigue wit( traditional re.resentational +odes w(ic( +any +odern artists saw as triviali;ed by senti+ental genre .ainting! >false? acade+ic art! trite +yt(ological scenes! and +undane naturalis+ itself% 8ro+ t(is .ers.ective! +ost conte+.orary styles see+ed eA(austed by )8*0 : including Acade+ic Art! Historical Fenre! Realis+! and @+.ressionis+% Between )8*0 and )*)0! fatigue wit( artistic traditions gave way to outrig(t (ostility and denunciation of re.resentation and illusion as false or trite% By )*)0! +any artists felt t(e need to +a0e a decisive brea0 wit( t(e .ast by finding dra+atically new and distinctly +odern +odes% =+boldened by t(e success of t(e Cy+bolists to let go of naturalis+! t(e neAt generation develo.ed +uc( +ore radically abstracted +eans! eventually .us(ing into abstraction itself as a style uni5ue to t(e new age% 7t(er factors surely contributed to t(e rise of abstraction and t(e (ig(ly abstracted for+s of re.resentational art seen in Cubis+! 7r.(is+! 8uturis+! and =A.ressionis+% "(e rise of .(otogra.(y let t(e +odern .ainter off t(e (oo0 to .ursue +ore i+aginary 5ualities now t(at +odern tec(nology could ca.ture t(e >true? a..earances of t(ings% 4it( t(eir new focus on e+otion! Cy+bolists also discovered t(at abstracted for+s could (eig(ten t(e e+otional .ower of t(eir wor0s! a develo.+ent seen in Han Fog(9s !tarry 7ight and Dunc(9s !cream% "(e growing i+.act of late nineteent(3century +usical +odels on .ainting also ins.ired artists to see0 +ore abstracted .ictorial for+s ca.able of t(e sa+e 0inds of eA.ression and universality attributed to +usic% AbstractionJs Partial Roots in t(e Crisis of andsca.e 7ne +ig(t also see t(e rise of at least so+e abstract art in relation to t(e landsca.e .ainting out of w(ic( it e+erged% @t is not t(at landsca.e (el.ed create abstract art% Rat(er it was t(e .erceived decline of naturalistic landsca.e! w(ic( (ad been t(e nineteent( century9s +ost i+.ortant genre! w(ic( led .ainters to searc( for artistic for+s w(ic( +ig(t co++unicate si+ilar values wit(out a triviali;ing +i+esis% @ronically! it was t(e @+.ressionist +ove+ent! w(ic( (ad +ade landsca.e +ore central t(an any .revious +ove+ent! w(ic( dealt landsca.e .ainting a +ortal blow by reducing it to +ere .erce.tion%

)8 @n t(e late wor0s of Han Fog( and Ce;anne! landsca.e .ainting beca+e a 0ind of salvage o.eration! rescuing t(e traditional 5ualities of nature by salvaging t(e+ in t(e +ore abstracted language of aest(etic for+ increasingly geared toward itself% Frandly elo5uent landsca.es could still be .ainted but increasingly nature9s elo5uence would be transferred to grandly structured .aint! as in Ce;anne! or visionary w(orls of e+otionally ric( color! as in Han Fog(% @n t(is +ore abstractly .ainted world! nature could be freed fro+ everyt(ing w(ic( (ad .lagued it since t(e late eig(teent( centuryG fro+ +odern industriali;ation! urban co++erce! suburban s.rawl! .olitical! social! and econo+ic divisions! gender tensions! and t(e viewerJs own +aterialis+% Co +uc( abstracting and abstract art e+erged out of landsca.e .ainting because t(e clear order! self3 contain+ent! and .urity co++only attributed to early abstraction was an eAtension of t(e late nineteent(3 century landsca.istJs searc( for an unsullied! subli+e nature and a >.ri+itive? e+otion 'as seen in t(e landsca.e art of Ce;anne! Fauguin! Han Fog(! Datisse! Darc! Mandins0y! and Dondrian1% 8ro+ t(is .ers.ective! t(ere was a clear continuity between t(e radical new abstraction of Post3@+.ressionists li0e Han Fog( and t(e even +ore self3consciously +ystical style of early twentiet(3century landsca.e .ainting in t(e early wor0s of Mandins0y and Dondrian% Between )*)0 and )*)$! t(ese to .ainters +oved away fro+ a Post3@+.ressionist landsca.e to a co+.letely non3re.resentational abstraction% Pet all t(e w(ile! bot( artists insisted t(ey were +oving toward a +ore .erfect re.resentation of natureJs dee.er trut(! a reality now said to lie co+.letely beyond t(e visible world% Regardless of w(at we t(in0 about t(is clai+! one t(ing is certain% 4(en artists (ad to de.art co+.letely fro+ natural for+s to bring out natureJs trut(! traditional landsca.e .ainting (ad colla.sed% Th ,o5+& 9 A++ $& o# A4"tr$ction $" $ N 6 L$n)u$) 4(ile t(e searc( for +odern for+s was necessarily beset wit( internal doubts! t(e .syc(ological and s.iritual needs be(ind t(e 5uest for universal! stable! and serious artistic for+s were rooted .rofoundly in t(e wides.read .roble+s of t(e +odern world! .roble+s w(ic( +ost abstract art struggled to transcend% Ceen against t(e (istorical bac0ground of industriali;ation! tec(nological c(ange! ra.id urbani;ation! social transfor+ation! class conflict! .olitical violence! and war! t(e a..eal of abstraction +a0es +ore sense w(et(er it was serene and .leasing li0e Datisse! s.iritually soot(ing or dra+atic li0e Darc and Mandins0y! wildly uto.ian li0e t(e 8uturists and t(e Russian Constructivists! nostalgic and .ri+itivi;ing li0e Nolde and Mirc(ner! or intellectually (er+etic! li0e Cubis+ and Dondrian% "o be sure! so+e i+.ortant +odern artists directly confronted conte+.orary social realities! as did =A.ressionist li0e Fros; and <iA! +ac(ine3loving 8uturists and <ada Collagists! DarAist Russian Constructivists! and so+e Currealists% Nonet(eless! +ost +odern art between )*00 and )*#0 .referred sub6ects w(ic( offered a stri0ing distance fro+ +odern realities% )) "(is distance too0 on a variety of for+s in different +ove+ents and artists% @n t(e BrQc0e and Blue Rider! artists i+aged uto.ian! i+aginary landsca.es and an i+agined s.iritual future 't(oug( Mirc(ner also .ainted o+inous! +odern citysca.es1% @n Constructivis+! eger! and in early @nternational Ctyle arc(itecture! we see a tec(nological uto.ia located in an i+aginary future% @n t(e early 8auvis+ of Datisse! abstraction retreated to a nostalgic! ti+eless real+ of .astoral .leasure% @n Cubis+! +odern .ainting +oved 5uic0ly beyond a dalliance wit( African .ri+itivis+ to create a severe! autono+ous world of .ictorial structure! banis(ing all color! sensuality! and feeling% @n +ost Currealis+! .rivate drea+s su.erseded +odern realities even w(en t(e latter intruded% @n t(is larger dyna+ic of retreat! we can gli+.se one i+.ulse to abstraction w(ic( wor0ed to esca.e t(e +any .roble+s besetting t(e conte+.orary world% Abstraction as a 8niversal *anguage and 8topian !ocial $rder -eyond Class

)* At a ti+e w(en socialist! anarc(ist! and DarAist uto.ian ideologies were attracting great attention and (o.es in =uro.e! abstraction also (eld out t(e .ro+ise of a vocabulary w(ic( could transcend t(e traditional class structures funda+ental to traditional art and esca.e t(e cultural (ege+ony of .olitical! social! and intellectual elites% Cince t(e Renaissance! +uc( art (ad been transfor+ed into an intellectuali;ed co++odity for t(e (ig(er social strata! a .restigious outlet for eAcess ca.ital! and an i+.ortant status sy+bol as +uc( for 0ings! .o.es! and du0es as for social cli+bing burg(ers% 4(ile traditional religious art always ai+ed at viewers fro+ all wal0s of life! Renaissance and Baro5ue +yt(ological .ainting! allegory! landsca.e! and even genre .ainting! as seen in Poussin! Rubens! Claude! and Her+eer! cultivated a difficult and subtle artistry largely inaccessible to t(ose wit(out wealt(! (ig(er education! and t(e leisure needed to (one aest(etic sensibilities%% "(e searc( for an art w(ic( could co++unicate to all +an0ind! not 6ust snobbis( aristocrats and social3 cli+bing burg(ers! was a +a6or concern of t(e Cy+bolists! Post3@+.ressionists! and =A.ressionists and infor+ed t(eir +ore .o.ulist i+agery and t(eir focus on e+otion! for+al si+.licity! and color% Cideste..ing t(e intellectual! econo+ic and social .rere5uisites assu+ed by +uc( 4estern art! +odern artists saw in abstraction a greater universality w(ic( ins.ired uto.ian (o.es of contributing to a better world% Artists and critics believed color! line! and s(a.e would s.ea0 directly and in t(e sa+e way to everyone! regardless of class! wealt(! education! or cultural bac0ground @n e5uating .rivate vision wit( aut(entic feeling and (ig(er trut(! abstract art went considerably beyond earlier! si+ilar e5uations! co++on since Ro+anticis+% At t(e sa+e ti+e! +uc( abstract and +odern art e+braced larger social ideals of one 0ind or anot(er! even if t(ose collective ideals were so+ew(at under+ined by t(e .ersonal! i+aginary! artistic visions in w(ic( t(ey were eA.ressed% "(ese social ideals underlie t(e collective r(etoric of +uc( early +odern art wit( its uto.ian 8auve or =A.ressionist i+agery of .ure nature! =A.ressionist s.irituality 'Mandins0y1! DarAist i+ages of t(e nig(t+aris( city 'Fros;1! .ri+itive society 'Nolde1! +ac(ine3age visions of s.eed! .rogress! .ower! and freedo+ '8uturis+1! .ri+itive biological for+s and (ierogly.(ic signs 'Mlee1! or t(e new 8reudian world of t(e unconscious and t(e drea+ 'Currealis+1% Abstraction as a 'igher (agueness Abstraction also offered ot(er benefits as so+et(ing a0in to a ElanguageE or at least a new set of vocabularies% =ven t(e greater vagueness of abstract for+s was now a virtue% 8or it allowed artists to avoid t(e Estate+entsE of earlier art! now seen as overly defined! .articular! +orali;ing! esoteric! or +undane% @n contrast! abstract for+al ele+ents allowed t(e >direct!? visual eA.ression of +ore general or universal EideasE% "(e vagueness of abstract for+s was also +ore effective in eA.ressing irrational! e+otional! s.iritual! intuitive or .oetic values% Abstract for+s also o.ened u. +ore .artici.atory s.ace for t(e be(older! +a0ing >seeingE into a +ore creative! +using! consciousness3liberating activity% Abstraction as a %ersonal *anguage and the Coherence of Individual (ision By )*)-! 4estern art (ad +oved decisively away fro+ t(e eig(teent( and nineteent( century vocabularies of (istory! genre! .olitics! and landsca.e! into a new >language? of (ig(ly abstracting or fully abstract aest(etic for+% 4it(in t(is larger abstraction! eac( artist develo.ed a (ig(ly sub6ective! .ersonal style after an initial stage of eA.eri+entation and evolution% Dost artist9s styles continued to develo. and c(ange! often very significantly! so t(at t(ey wor0ed in two! t(ree! or four distinct styles over t(e course of t(eir career% Co+e artists li0e Picasso wor0ed in two or t(ree different styles at t(e sa+e +o+ent% "(e result was a .lenitude of (ig(ly .ersonal styles and a ra.idity of style develo.+ent as an increasing .re+iu+ was .laced on originality%

20 '"(e (eadlong rus( of t(e art +ar0et into t(e new field of +odern art and t(e rise of +odern art galleries! critics! 6ournals! and eventually! +useu+s of +odern art! increased t(e .ressure on artists to find a .ersonal style and to innovate continually lest t(e avant3garde .ass t(e+ by%1 How did abstraction wor0 as a ElanguageE so t(at it avoided degenerating into a w(olly .rivate! indeci.(erable series of +eaningless .ictorial +ar0sO 8irst! it (ad its own rigorous order of for+al ele+ents! its own rules! gra++ars! .rocedures! conventions! and larger +ove+ents '8auvis+! Cubis+! =A.ressionis+! etc%1% All of t(is gave +odern art a certain .otential for co++unication and intelligibility% "(e stylistic develo.+ent of +ost +odern artists s(ows a certain consistency! logic! and gradual .rogression in searc(ing for structured! for+al vocabularies ca.able of securing artistic +eaning and value% @n s(ort! it was t(e very sub6ectivity of +odern art w(ic( guaranteed an internal stability! co(erence! and seriousness for t(ose viewers willing to attend to t(e uni5ue i+agery of eac( artist% Abstraction as Authentic (oice in Collective, Impersonal ,orld 7n anot(er level! +odern art retained so+e sense as a ElanguageE in so far as it .reserved and eAalted a +odern individuality w(ic( was dra+atically .reserved a+idst a collectivi;ing +ac(ine age% "(is was .articularly clear wit( +ore sub6ective! e+otionally c(arged +ove+ents suc( as of Cy+bolis+! 8auvis+! =A.ressionis+! Currealis+! and Abstract =A.ressionis+% Ceen t(is way! even t(e initial strangeness! eAotic 5ualities! and illegibility of +uc( +odern art in t(e eyes of t(e general .ublic reinforced its ties to a stri0ingly .ersonal and t(us +odern and aut(entic sense of eA.ression and vision% @ronically! t(e initial illegibility of +odern art (eig(tened its clarity as a strong affir+ation of individual (u+an voice in an age of large! i+.ersonal cities! de(u+ani;ing tec(nology! collective .olitical ideologies! and syste+atic a..roac(es to social organi;ation and ot(er for+s of (u+an activity% Abstraction as 7ew !tart, 7ew -uilding, 7ew Architecture "(e gradual success of +odern art after t(e )*20s lay largely in t(e way +odern aest(etic for+s signaled a .owerful sense of +odernity w(ic( fit twentiet(3century eA.eriences! desires! needs! and (o.es in a variety of ways% "(e success of +odern art wit( a larger .ublic de.ended on t(e wides.read sense t(at traditional .olitical and social orders (ad failed s.ectacularly in t(e all3enco+.assing! global disaster of 4orld 4ar @% "(at war destroyed or severely under+ined +any traditional =uro.ean values and created a wides.read yearning to brea0 wit( t(e .ast! to start anew! to rebuild +aterially! culturally! .olitically! and econo+ically% Because it was suc( an co+.lete disaster! 4orld 4ar @ (el.ed created t(e .syc(ic s.aces in w(ic( +odern! abstract for+s could +ore easily enter every i+aginable real+ and +aterial s.ace as a new syste+ of design a..lied to everyt(ing .rinted and +anufactured! and in official culture! as a new syste+ of arc(itecture% 7ne year after t(e end of 44@! t(e +odernist arc(itect! 4alter Fro.ius! still see+ed anAious and uncertain% " oday0s artist lives in an era of dissolution without guidance" 'e stands alone" he old forms are in ruins, the benumbed world is sha+en up, the old human spirit in invalidated and in flu. towards a new form" ,e float in space and cannot perceive the new order"" Pet t(e sa+e year Fro.ius founded t(e Bau(aus sc(ool of +odernist arc(itecture in Fer+any wit( glowing! 5uasi3Cocialist (o.es% > ogether, let us desire, conceive, and create the new structure of the future " " "

2) which will one day rise toward heaven from the hands of a million wor+ers li+e the crystal symbol of a new faith?% )2 i0e t(e +odern arc(itect! e Corbusier! Fro.ius began writing boo0s (ailing +odern arc(itecture as t(e 0ey to building a brave new world of social (ar+ony! s(ared .ros.erity! and universal .eace% Ceen t(is way! t(e gradual success and legibility of +odernist art as an overall vocabulary and a set of individual (er+etic languages ca+e in t(e as(es of war and rebuilding% @ts first success was signaled in t(e world of gra.(ical and tec(nological design! circulating in all 0inds of .rint +edia! advertising i+agery! everyday ob6ects! and (ig( fas(ion% By ta0ing u. abstract aest(etic devices and i+agery very 5uic0ly! advertising (el.ed +a0e +odern design and +odern art not only fa+iliar but fas(ionable% @ts second great success ca+e after 4orld 4ar @@ w(en t(e need to rebuild in new for+s was felt even +ore 0eenly in t(e 4est% @t was t(en t(at =uro.ean and A+erican business! .olitical! educational! and institutional elites ado.ted t(e new! +odernist style of arc(itecture grounded in t(e )*$0s Fer+an Bau(aus Cc(ool and 5uic0ly dubbed t(e @nternational Ctyle% 'By t(en! t(e leading Bau(aus arc(itects (ad e+igrated to t(e 2nites Ctates and were directing t(e +ost i+.ortant A+erican arc(itecture sc(ools%1 As wit( Cubis+ and es.ecially Constructivis+! @nternational Ctyle arc(itecture re6ected t(e .ast! turned its bac0 on five (undred years of classici;ing for+s! and eli+inated all or +ost orna+ent in favor of a stri..ed down functionalis+ and t(e geo+etric severity of grid designs% As a +odern aest(etic language! abstraction ac(ieved its first great success bot( in t(e corridors of .ower and a+ong t(e general .ublic not as .ainting or scul.ture but rat(er as arc(itecture% @n arc(itectural for+! abstraction was intelligible! clear! orderly! functional! and even A+erican in its .racticality% @t was also young! .ur.oseful! and o.ti+istic% And in all of t(is! it was t(e .erfect for+ for a new age% 4(ile +odern .ainting and scul.ture art (ad +ade certain inroads in .arts of =uro.e and in t(e big cities on t(e =ast and 4est coasts! it was still far fro+ welco+e in +any .laces in )*B-% All t(at c(anged wit( t(e ra.id success of +odern arc(itecture in .ost3war =uro.e and A+erica% By t(e +id )*#0s! abstract .ainting and scul.ture (ad found wide acce.tance in t(e big cities and was even s.reading in t(e new art (istory curriculu+ in (ig(er education% Abstraction as &achine Age Abstraction also see+ed an a..ro.riately +odern language for an age dubbed t(e +ac(ine age fro+ t(e very beginning of t(e twentiet( century% 7.ti+is+ about tec(nology (ad grown significantly during t(e nineteent( century! even as t(is o.ti+is+ also .roduced t(e e+otional and s.iritual bac0las( seen in Cy+bolis+ or t(e nig(t+are science fiction of H% F% 4ells% "ec(nological o.ti+is+ increased dra+atically in t(e early twentiet( century fueled by t(e institutional cultures of industrial .roduction! asse+bly line factories! t(e growing tec(nological +astery of nature! and ra.id advances in +edicine% @n a new age of tec(nology and science! abstraction dis.layed its +odern! strea+3lined 5ualities es.ecially in t(ose +odern +ove+ents es.ousing intellectual and geo+etrical styles suc( as Cubis+ and Constructivis+% 4(ile t(is +ac(ine3age culture of tec(nology and Bau(aus arc(itecture generated no s(ortage of anAiety and criticis+ ranging fro+ =A.ressionist .ri+itivis+ and +ystical landsca.e to <ada and Currealist anti3+ac(ines! it also .rovided a solid! dee.ly entrenc(ed! +ainstrea+ culture in w(ic( +odernist artistic abstraction could register in a +eaningful and .ositive +anner% Abstraction and the Grand !cale of &odern Art 8inally! we need to recogni;e t(e i+.ortance of large3scale .aintings w(en discussing t(e way abstraction wor0ed as a language% "(e fact t(at so +any +odern artists wor0ed on a large scale signaled t(e as.iration to

22 large! serious! .ublic for+s and t(e +odernist nostalgia for an earlier (eroic and grand world of (istory .ainting largely abandoned since t(e Ro+antics%

he %roblems of Abstraction as a *anguage and a echni9ue By surrendering t(e world of natural for+s! abstract artists gave u. on t(e one vocabulary w(ic( (ad allowed all earlier artists since t(e Renaissance to reac( larger audiences wit( relative ease and to say so+et(ing to t(e+% @n giving u. on t(e visible world as a s(ared vocabulary! abstract art also see+ed to (ave abandoned t(e idea of art as a s(ared! intelligible language% Put even +ore strongly! one +ig(t argue t(at +odern art in its abstraction guaranteed for itself a +arginal! relatively uni+.ortant .lace in society in contrast to earlier art! es.ecially c(urc( and .ublic art ai+ed at t(e widest audiences! and burg(er art ai+ed at t(e +iddle class% 2nderstood as t(e abandon+ent of a s(ared vocabulary! +odern abstraction .er.etuated rat(er t(an solved t(e larger .roble+! felt since t(e early eig(teent( century 'as seen in 4atteau1! of artJs growing inability to eA.ress serious values wit( +a6esty and force! of its di+inis(ing larger value and i+.ortance% "o a certain eAtent! t(is is true! es.ecially since t(is very .roble+ was often la+ented since t(e +id3eig(teent( century and since t(e successive turn to bourgeois genre .ainting '),B03801! .olitical .ainting '),*03)8$01! landsca.e .ainting ')8003)*)01! and finally! abstract .ainting was fueled by t(e (o.e of resolving it% Anot(er .roble+ for abstraction was its loss of a traditional artistic tec(nical co+.etence w(ic( allowed even uneducated viewers to (ave so+e sense of 5uality% ac0ing traditional tec(nical EartisticE 5uality! abstract wor0s of art were (ard to 6udge and liable to dis+issal as non3art or bad art 'a .roble+ for artists wor0ing in +ore abstract styles ever since t(e late "urner w(o was attac0ed for .ainting >tinted va.ors?1% "(is was .articularly true for art w(ic( e+braced a deliberate E.ri+itivis+E of tec(ni5ue and color! as in t(e Cy+bolists! 8auves! =A.ressionists! t(e wilder Currealists li0e Dasson! and t(e Abstract =A.ressionists% And it was .robably one reason w(y +ost +odernist artists 5uic0ly +oved to a clear sense of drawing by t(e late teens in order to s(ow a certain tec(nical and artistic co+.etence% Abstraction Compared with :arlier *anguages of Art @n seeing abstraction as a +odern re.lace+ent for earlier artistic vocabularies suc( as (istory .ainting ')-3 ),t( centuries1! genre ')#3)8t( centuries1! .olitics ')83)*t( centuries1! and landsca.e art ')#3)*t( centuries1! we s(ould also be careful to note its funda+ental differences% 8or abstraction and +odernist art did not offer a co+.re(ensive and co(erent social3.olitical world view tied to t(e s(ared values of a grou. or .atron% @ndeed! +odernist art did not offer any co(esive values beyond .atriarc(y and a general sense of ru.ture wit( t(e .ast% =ven t(e s.irituality of artists li0e Mandins0y and Dondrian steered clear of t(e collective syste+ of be(avior! +orality! and wors(i. funda+ental to all organi;ed religion in favor of a +ore individualistic s.irituality w(ic( re+ained fu;;y! eclectic! non3sectarian! secular! and aest(etici;ing% Here is (ow t(e Fer+an =A.ressionist .oet! 8ran; 4erfel! wittily described =A.ressionist s.irituality in )*20% :ucharistic and homistic ;et a little bit &ar.istic heosophic, Communistic Gothic5small5town5Cathedral mystic

2$ !uper5:astern aoistic" !ee+ing in all 7egro plastic Refuge from an age so drastic Rolling words and barricades, &a+ing God and fo.trot mates" 3< 7n a basic level! t(e radically .rivate language of +odernist EuniversalsE .revented +odern art fro+ eA.ressing any grand syste+s of belief% "(e +odernist ens(rine+ent of artistic autono+y and .ersonal eA.ression or EgeniusE ruled t(is out% Co did a larger! +odern s0e.ticis+ toward official syste+s and all3e+bracing ort(odoAies born fro+ t(e wides.read destruction of 4orld 4ar @ and later! 4orld 4ar @@% 4(ile +odern art was (a..y to flirt wit( socialis+! .ri+itivis+! fascis+! uto.ian tec(nological wors(i.! and religious values! it avoided dee.er co++it+ents and .reserved its .ri;ed autono+y! its solitary! aut(entic voice% *etting Abstraction off the 'oo+ @f we view t(e retreat of +odern art into t(e .rivate world of abstraction and abstracted for+s as t(e colla.se of art as a language! we distort earlier art w(ose universality and seriousness was often s(ared only by a s+all nu+ber of elites% 4e also oversi+.lify +odern art% @ndeed! abstraction +a0es +ore sense (istorically as an atte+.t! (owever flawed! to return co(erence and lofty values to .ainting% Abstract for+ a..ealed .recisely because it was seen as a 0ind of ElanguageE and even a su.erior ElanguageE in +any ways! des.ite its li+itations% @f +odern art (ad a less central .lace in society t(an did Dedieval! Renaissance! and Baro5ue art! it was not alone% 7t(er for+s of (ig( culture suc( as +odernist fiction! .oetry! dance! and +usic also eA.erienced a new! relative +arginali;ation after )*00% "(is was .articularly true for +odern atonal +usic after )*)- w(ic( all but disa..eared fro+ recordings and .erfor+ance% @t wasn9t t(at t(is +usic lac0ed 5uality or i+.ortance% But it (ad surrendered everyt(ing +usical it needed to reac( any larger audience% Here is a traditionally +inded +usicologist! 4alter Nie+ann! describing t(e new atonal +usic of Cc(oenberg in (is &usic of the %resent Day =Die &usi+ der Gegenwart1! an encyclo.edic survey of +odern +usic since 4agner .ublis(ed in )*2)% &usic dissolves into speech, musical speech into screaming, groans, stammering and babbling" &usical color melts I to a senseless orgy of sound" -ut )antasy, 8rmutter of all creation, is bewitched and violated by wild faces and horrible visions > what in painting the ultra5modern cubists and futurists specifically aim for is a metaphysical dream5art in which all is ghosts and ugliness and where clarity and beauty count for nothing > this end ? it would really mean the end of music ? is what the most radical Impressionists and :.pressionists of all cultured nations strive for" )B 2nderstood as a linguistic s(ift! t(e c(ange to abstraction e+erged fro+ t(e .erce.tion of late nineteent(3 century artists t(at art (ad already begin to colla.se as a language wit(in t(e s.(ere of re.resentational art% DonetJs retreat to (is Fiverny garden! Ce;anneJs and Han Fog(Js tri. to t(e sout( of 8rance and FauguinJs voyage to "a(iti! and t(e larger flig(t fro+ reality into t(e increasingly abstract .oetry of Cy+bolis+ artistic for+ in t(e )880s and )8*0s suggests t(at artists felt fa+iliar! visual reality (ad beco+e inade5uate as a viable +eta.(or! as t(e basis for a serious! even s.iritual art% <e.ending on t(e individual artistic .oint of view! t(e visible world no longer offered t(e +aterials for an artistic vocabulary because it (ad beco+e too +undane! +aterialistic! urban! +ass3.roduced! .olitically divided! contested! .oisoned wit( .olitical and social strife! lac0ing in .owerful co++unal sy+bols! confused and uncertain in its ra.id c(ange! overly constricted by

2B (istory and tradition 'es.ecially wit( res.ect to acade+ic art1! su.erficial and devoid of any dee.er s.irituality! and so on% Abstract offered art a new c(ance for at least so+e of t(e traditional 5ualities once clai+ed by (istory! genre! .olitics! and landsca.e art! for t(e universal and co++unal! t(e grand and (eroic! t(e s.iritual! t(e ti+eless! t(e stable and reassuring% And by brea0ing t(roug( to a E.urely visualE real+! +odern artists (o.ed to free art fro+ t(e burdens and outdated! EfalseE syste+s of t(e .ast and t(e constrictions of all (istory%% A Cautionary 7ote on &odern Representational Art Abstraction was (ardly t(e rule in +odern art% @ndeed! it was t(e eAce.tion in .ainting! t(oug( it was so+ew(at +ore co++on in scul.ture% Co+.letely abstract .ainters of significance before )*-0 can be counted on two (ands and include <elaunay! Mandins0y! Mlee! Dondrian! Dasson! "anguy! Diro! For0y! and t(e Russian Constructivists% Al+ost all i+.ortant +odern .ainters before )*-0 were re.resentational% )- Pet all of t(ese .ainters s(ared t(e .rivate vision of non3re.resentation aest(etics in t(eir co++it+ent to abstracted visible for+s '8auves! =A.ressionists1 or in t(eir decision to subverted artistic naturalis+ by +a0ing it drea+li0e! irrational! and i+aginary '<ali! Dagritte! <elvauA! =rnst! and t(e ot(er re.resentational Currealists1% "(is trend toward t(e sub6ective began wit( t(e Ro+antics w(en .ainters first defined art as an increasingly .ersonal vision tied to feeling% @n t(e Realist and @+.ressionist .eriods! art was still individuali;ed but grounded in .erce.tion% @n t(e Post3i+.ressionist and Cy+bolis+ .eriod! art grounded itself once again in feeling or in (ig(ly .ersonal abstractions 'Ce;anne! Ceurat1% "(e final ste. toward co+.lete sub6ectivity ca+e after )*00 w(en eac( artist defined a uni5uely .ersonal vision of t(e world% 8ro+ t(en on! it was u. to t(e be(older to ta0e t(e trouble to understand t(e artist% 2. t(roug( t(e Cy+bolists! t(e artist used fa+iliar! visual for+s to +eet t(e viewer (alfway! wor0ing wit( a s(ared vocabulary% After t(e Cy+bolists! t(e burden was .laced on t(e viewer to investigate t(e artist9s .ersonal vision in order to +a0e sense of a given .ainting% 8or all of our dissatisfaction wit( so+e +odern art for its inaccessibility! unintelligibility! and (er+etic 5ualities! we (ave t(e art we want% @t is! after all! t(e art of t(e +odern self w(ic( we (old dear in our own .ersonal identities% After t(e 8renc( Revolution! t(e larger arc of cultural c(ange re6ected traditional aristocratic ideals of (ierarc(y! continuity! and consensus to e+brace t(e >trut(? of +odern individual consciousness grounded in t(e >aut(entic?! .rivate self invented by Ro+anticis+% Alt(oug( Realists li0e Courbet and Lola dis+issed t(e Ro+antic ideal of i+agination and feeling! t(ey continued t(e new Ro+antic belief in t(e (ig(er trut( of sub6ective eA.erience% 4it( t(eir focus on frag+ented! individual .erce.tion! t(e @+.ressionists created an even +ore radically sub6ective trut( for art to .ursue w(ic( 5uic0ly reac(ed a dead end and s.urred t(e colla.se of traditional re.resentation in t(e decades w(ic( followed% By t(e early twentiet( century! +odern civili;ation celebrated t(e autono+ous individual >freely? forging (is 'and! to a lesser eAtent! (er1 destiny% "(e new world of nation states! industrial ca.italis+! giant cities swar+ing wit( anony+ous strangers! ra.id tec(nological and scientific .rogress! and .olitical and social e+anci.ation offered an eAciting! distinctly +odern world of boundless .ossibilities! on t(e one (and! and growing worries about bureaucracy! tec(nology! +aterialis+! and loss of +eaningful identity! on t(e ot(er% @n t(is new universe! t(e solitary .ro.(et! artist! .oet! or +usical >genius? 'and to a lesser eAtent! t(e individual scientist! inventor! and business+an1 e+erged as new (eroes% =ven if t(e .endulu+ (as swung bac0 in recent decades toward an art of social and .olitical involve+ent and! in t(e case of C(risto and /eanne3Claude! to a .ublic art situated in t(e life of t(e co++unity! we still want artists to be solitary visionaries! autono+ous and

2free! 6ust li0e we i+agine ourselves to be% "(e aut(entic voice is still t(e .ersonal voice! t(e individual voice! t(e >original? voice% A %ostscript on 7ostalgia as a Core :lement in &odernism "(e growing sense of ru.ture wit( t(e .ast after ),,0 +ade nostalgia and nostalgic +ove+ents a 0ey ele+ent in +odern art fro+ ),,0 to )*,0% 4(en art and literature loo0ed bac0 in t(e late eig(teent( century! as wit( t(e Fot(ic Revival or Neoclassical +ove+ents! traditional cultural for+s were radically rewor0ed to eA.ress +odern valuesG s.iritual yearnings in t(e case of t(e Fot(ic Revival and re.ublican .olitics in t(e case of Neoclassicis+% =ven t(e .ublic collecting and dis.laying of traditional art : institutionali;ed in t(e new art +useu+ : e+erged fro+ t(e Ro+antic conflation of traditional s.iritual values wit( +odern aest(etic yearnings% =ns(rining art in te+.le3li0e buildings geared toward u..er3class viewers! t(e +odern +useu+ offered a seculari;ed >religion? w(ic( clai+ed to safeguard s.iritual values fro+ t(e crass +aterialis+ widely attributed to +odern life% )# @n t(e world of artistic .ractice after )800! t(e ad+iration for t(e s(ared cultural traditions of t(e .ast was at best a nostalgic eAercise en6oyed by .ainters and scul.tors wit( little interest in turning bac0 t(e cloc0% As t(e .ace of social! .olitical! econo+ic! and cultural c(ange (eated u. during t(e nineteent( century! t(e sense of a .er+anent ru.ture wit( t(e .ast increased! as did nostalgic (o.es to resurrect art w(ic( .ossessed grandeur and significance% @ndeed! t(ose +ost eager to banis( t(e .ast and forge a(ead into radically .ersonal artistic vocabularies between )88- and )*20 : t(e Cy+bolists! 8auves! =A.ressionists! Cubists! and Bau(aus Constructivists : all felt t(e loss of traditional for+s and vocabularies +ost 0eenly% "(is (el.s eA.lain t(e intense nostalgia in late nineteent( and early twentiet( century art for a wide variety of traditional sub6ects including landsca.es fro+ 5uiet .astoral to wilderness subli+e! (eroic .easants! noble savages! tran5uil do+estic scenes! C(ristian sub6ects! grand nudes 'es.ecially set into .re3+odern landsca.es1! +ystical i+ages of uns.oiled c(ildren! s.iritual .aeans to t(e >eternal fe+inine!? and erotici;ed fe+ale nudes including odalis5ues! sirens! slee.ing ny+.(s! s(e.(erdesses! goddesses! bat(ers! and fe++e fatales% 8or+ed in t(e i++ediate after+at( of t(e 4ei+ar re.ublic 'created by an alliance of liberal de+ocrats and Cocialists1! t(e new Bau(aus sc(ool in 4ei+ar advertised its new artistic ideas wit( a .oster of a Fot(ic cat(edral rendered in a Cubist3=A.ressionist style by 8eininger and entitled! >"(e Cat(edral of Cocialis+?% Here is a .articularly clear eAa+.le of +odernist artistic nostalgia% 8or all t(eir co++it+ent to +odern aest(etics! +any Bau(aus artists also i+agined (ey were reviving +edieval artistic ideals of anony+ous crafts+ans(i. serving a greater collective good% @ndeed! to Bau(aus artists! t(e intensely co++unal world of t(e later Diddle Ages loo0ed li0e a Cocialist uto.ia in an earlier age% Pet no Bau(aus artist tried to e+ulate +edieval art in style or sub6ect +atter% "(e +edieval references in Bau(aus and Fer+an =A.ressionist art were at best a nostalgic eAercises in i+agining reassuring continuities wit( a cultural and s.iritual Fer+an .ast% "(oug( t(e Fer+an =A.ressionist! =+ile Nolde and 8ran; Darc +ay (ave i+agined t(ey were .ainting altar.ieces for a new religion or a new age! no conte+.orary c(urc( would (ave even (ung t(eir wor0 above t(e altar! not even t(e Passion scenes of Nolde%

"(is tal0 was first given at t(e National Fallery of Art in )*88% Dy discussion of )*t( and 20t(3 century art is indebted to t(e ideas of "% /% Clar0 in w(ose survey course @ served as a teac(ing assistant in )*8)32% 8or Clar09s ideas! see )arewell to an Idea@ :pisodes from a 'istory of &odernism! Pale! )***%
2

Bernard ee+ing! %rinciples of !acramental heology!

8or +ost writers until t(e early twentiet( century1! not(ing was so see+ingly universal! so ele+entally grounded in nature! so funda+ental to ideas of education! civili;ation! .olitics! institutional governance! fa+ily and +arriage! so transcendent in reac(ing beyond divisions of class and religion t(an t(e basic .rinci.le of +ale over fe+ale% "(e un5uestioned .atriarc(y w(ic( flowed t(roug( discussions of every conceivable to.ic including t(e creation of art and literature s(owed itself +ost vividly in =uro.ean art in t(e (eroic sub6ect of +yt(ological ra.e w(ic( Renaissance artists revived fro+ classical art and literature% =ns(rined in t(ousands of .aintings and scul.tures between )B,- and ),,-! so+e large scul.ture were co++issioned by local rulers for .alaces and town s5uares as was t(e case wit( Fia+bologna9s Rape of the !abines! co++issioned by t(e Frand <u0e of "uscany in t(e late )-,0s for t(e +ain .ia;;a in 8lorence% @n =uro.ean art between )B,- and )800! +yt(ological ra.e wor0ed as a co+.leA sub6ect eA.ressing good govern+ent! divine .rovidence! royal or i+.erial con5uest and triu+.(! cos+ic order! divine love! C(ristian salvation! and t(e divine origins of =uro.ean rulers! descended by ra.e fro+ t(e gods% Beyond eA.ressing society9s (ig(est .olitical! s.iritual! and social values! ra.e could also figure +atri+onial ideals as seen in t(e +any de.ictions of classical bridal ra.es suc( as t(e Ra.e of t(e Cabines! Pluto and Perse.(one! Le.(yr and C(loris! Bacc(us and Ariadne! and Castor and PolluA wit( P(oebe and Hilaire% =ven de.ictions of non3bridal ra.es were co++only given as wedding .resents in siAteent( and seventeent( century court society%
$

Between )$00 and ),00! aristocrats and burg(er elites co++only +oc0ed t(ose at t(e botto+ of t(e social ladder '.easants and beggars1 as bestial! crude! violent brutes conde+ned to live in a +aterial substratu+ of t(e body! a .(ysical world of labor! a..etites and unrestrained .assions 'gluttony! lust! drun0enness! and anger1% @n t(e fa+ous calendar landsca.es of t(e res Riches 'eures 'ca% )B)-1 .ainted for t(e brot(er of t(e 0ing of 8rance! t(e first two +ont(s contrasted t(e elegantly dressed du0e ban5ueting wit( a bis(o. in a well3(eated! su+.tuously ta.estried .alace wit( a crude (ut w(ere free;ing! genitally na0ed .easants clustered around a s+all fire% At t(e sa+e ti+e as t(ey +oc0ed .easants! courtly .atrons also entertained t(e+selves wit( .astoral fantasies w(ere a+orous s(e.(erds and s(e.(erdesses acted out t(e erotic fantasies! endless leisure! and refined +usical3.oetic activities of t(e aristocracy! conveniently set in idyllic landsca.es of an eternal s.ring% 4it( t(e rise of +iddle class culture in t(e Renaissance ')B003),001! burg(er elites develo.ed t(eir own version of t(is view fro+ above in t(e influential .easant i+agery of Pieter Bruegel 'd% )-#*1% @n so+e of Bruegel9s i+ages! .easants a..eared as swinis( brutes s(oved into .ig sties w(ere t(ey su..osedly belonged% @n ot(er i+ages suc( as Bruegel9s grand calendar landsca.es! .easants were ro+antici;ed in burg(er ter+s as (ard3wor0ing! +arried! coo.erative +e+bers of idyllic village co++unities% <is.layed wit( ot(er .aintings in lavis(ly decorated burg(er country (o+es! Bruegel9s cos+ic landsca.es allowed ban0ers and +erc(ants to survey a serene universe w(ere everyone stayed in t(eir natural .lace wit( burg(ers 5uietly inscribed at t(e to. in a >noble? world of aest(etic leisure and .(iloso.(ical conte+.lation% Needless to say! t(e real .easantry of late Dedieval and Renaissance =uro.e did not define t(e+selves in courtly or burg(er ter+s% @ndeed t(ey were (el.less to define t(e+selves in any ter+s w(en it ca+e to t(e grand arena of art! literature! and >serious? +usic%
-

Dost of t(e anti3Ce+itis+ flowing t(roug( +ainstrea+ =uro.ean culture t(roug( t(e eig(teent( century derives fro+ late Dedieval and Renaissance =uro.e at a ti+e w(en growing cities and social

and econo+ic .roble+s generated t(e need for sca.egoats% @t was late Dedieval =uro.e w(ic( began .ersecuting /ews on a larger scale! segregating t(e+ into g(ettos! re5uiring t(e+ to wear badges! de+oni;ing t(e+ in art wit( .(ysiogno+ic stereoty.es! and circulating vicious +yt(s about /ews desecrating =uc(arists and (oly i+ages and +urdering C(ristian babies to collect blood for ba0ing +at;o bread% Anti3Ce+itic and anti3Dusli+ i+agery was co++on.lace in C(ristian religious art and literature between )$00 and ),00% Co+e fifteent(3century @talian towns even forced /ews to attend <o+inican or 8ranciscan ser+ons intended to convert t(e+ by conde+ning t(eir su..osed blindness! obstinacy! .redatory greed! ties to t(e devil and guilt as >+urderers? of C(rist% 7ne .o.ular i+age between )$-0 and )--0 was t(e iving Cross w(ere C(rist9s ar+s reac( down fro+ t(e cross to crown a stallion3riding =cclesia on t(e rig(t w(ile stabbing or be(eading a blindfolded Cynagoga on t(e left% @+ages of /ews desecrating consecrated (osts circulated widely in ser+ons! .rinted boo0s! and i+ages% Around )B#0! 8ederico da Dontefeltro! <u0e of 2rbino! co++issioned a large altar.iece for t(e +ain c(urc( in 2rbino w(ic( de.icted C(rist (anding out t(e =uc(arist to (is disci.les% Below t(is i+age! siA s+aller scenes detailed t(e >true? story of a /ewis( +oneylender in fourteent(3century Paris w(o su..osedly obtained a consecrated =uc(arist! stabbed and burned it to reenact t(e >/ewis( +urder? of C(rist! and was arrested and burned along wit( (is wife and c(ildren% 4(ile eAtre+e sub6ects li0e t(ese were rare in art! +ore subtle eA.ressions of anti3Ce+itis+ were ubi5uitous! even in wor0s li0e Dic(elangelo9s Cistine Ceiling w(ic( de.icted /udais+ in a largely .ositive lig(t wit( (eroic scenes fro+ Fenesis flan0ed by grand .ro.(ets% Dic(elangelo9s (istorical narrative reaffir+ed t(e basic C(ristian idea! universal a+ong C(ristians until t(e +id3twentiet( century! t(at /udais+ was at best a .recursor religion! and as suc( could be co+.ared to .aganis+ as anot(er .recursor religion van5uis(ed by C(ristianity% '8ollowing longstanding tradition! Dic(elangelo alternated 7ld "esta+ent .ro.(ets wit( sibyls : .agan .ro.(etesses w(o su..osedly foresaw t(e co+ing of C(rist%1 By ending (is .ainted (istory of t(e 7ld "esta+ent e.oc( wit( t(e sinful drun0enness and Ada+3li0e na0edness of t(e elderly Noa( a+idst nu+erous references to t(e co+ing of C(rist! Dic(elangelo9s frescos loo0ed beyond t(e sinful wea0ness and li+itations of a >carnal? /udais+ 'as it was co++only described1 to t(e aut(entic s.irituality and universal rede+.tion offered by C(rist% Alt(oug( slaves i+.orted fro+ Africa cannot be included in any su++ary of t(e social elites +ono.oli;ing (ig( culture! it is clear t(at enslaved Africans did not s(are t(e =uro.ean view of blac0s as sy+bols of dar0ness! sin! i++orality! and savagery 'noble or ot(erwise1%
#

RubensJ &iracles of !t" Ignatius 'c% )#),1 offers anot(er good eAa+.le of official Cat(olic .iety in t(e seventeent( century% @n t(is large (ig( altar.iece for a Counter3Refor+ation c(urc( in Antwer.! we see (ow religious (istory .ainting still +aintains a (ierarc(ical structure% Here an all3.owerful saint elevated on a .edestal above +ortals and t(e real s.ectator (eals t(e blind! raises t(e dead! and destroys t(e false idols and c(urc(es of C(ina! a double allusion to t(e c(urc(Js global +issionary a+bition and to @gnatiusJs i+.ortance as a founder of t(e /esuits and t(e Counter3Refor+ation! t(at aggressive Cat(olic res.onse to t(e false religion of Protestantis+% Crowning t(e co+.osition is t(e .ersonified Dot(er C(urc( dis.laying a c(alice and (ost and flan0ed by angels wielding crosses! (ere e+ble+atic of t(e c(urc(Js triu+.( over deat( and its twin ene+ies of (eresy and .aganis+% @n s(ort! t(e .ainting itself e+bodies t(e true i+age of t(e true fait(! suggesting blindness! deat( and da+nation to all t(ose w(o fail to sub+it to t(e .ro.er Cat(olic (ierarc(ies of Fod! c(urc(! saints! and liturgy% By using a .ers.ective w(ic( ec(oes t(e lower .osition of t(e real viewer standing on t(e c(urc( floor! Rubens gave for+ to t(e viewerJs .lace in t(is religious (ierarc(y and defined salvation as t(e obedience to t(e official .ractices and i+ages of t(e Cat(olic C(urc(%

After t(e Counter3Refor+ation ')-#031 Cat(olic writers also eagerly e+braced t(e vernacular even if t(e Bible was restricted to atin%
, 8

% Peisse! e Constitutionnel! /une 8! )8-)! cited in /% Ceigel! Bo(e+ian Paris! NP! )*8#! .% 8)% Courbet! letter of )8-)! cited in Fustave Courbet! eA% cat%! Paris! )*,8! $#% Courbet! letter to (is fa+ily! Darc(! )-! )8B#! cited in Ceigel! o.% cit%! 8#38,%

)0

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7nly a few artists wor0ed to co+bine abstracted for+s wit( .leasant! do+estic realities! es.ecially Picasso in (is witty collage Cubis+ of t(e +id to late teens! C(agall t(roug( (is long career! and t(e establis(ed! well3.aid Datisse of t(e )*20s and $0s%
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4alter Fro.ius! >Progra+ of t(e Ctaatlic(es Bau(aus in 4ei+ar!? in Anton Maes! Dartin /ay! and =dward <i+endberg! eds%! "(e 4ei+ar Re.ublic Courceboo0! Ber0eley! )**B! .% B$-%
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Cited in <onald Fordon! :.pressionism" Art and Idea! New HavenG Pale 2n Press! )*8,! .% )),%

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Ruoted in Peter 8ran0lin! >94ilde Dusi09G Co+.osers! Critics! and =A.ressionis+!? in :.pressionism Reassessed! eds% Cc(ula+it( Be(r! et al! Danc(ester 2niversity Press! )**$! .% ))-%
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"(ese include Picasso! Datisse! Huillard! Bonnard! <e C(irico! al+ost all of t(e =A.ressionistsG Mli+t! Cc(iele! Mo0osc(0a! Doderso(n3Bec0er! Nolde! Darc! Dac0e! Mirc0ner! <iA! Fror;! Cc(+idt3Rottluf! Pec(stein! Hec0el! Deuller! Mollwit;! and Bec0+ann! +ost of t(e CurrealistsG Dagritte! =rnst! <elvauA! 7..en(ei+! <ali! t(e +a6or DeAican .aintersG Ci5uieros! Rivera! and Ma(lo! and A+ericans suc( as Ho..er! <avis! and 70eeffe and Russians suc( as C(agall%
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@n (is !+etches of the %rincipal %icture Galleries in :ngland ' ondon! )82B1! 4illia+ Ha;litt wrote!

>"(e eye is not caug(t by glitter and varnis(N we see t(e .ictures by t(eir own internal lig(t% "(is is not a ba;aar! a raree3s(ow of art! a Noa(9s ar0 of all t(e Cc(ools +arc(ing out in endless .rocessionN but a sanctuary! a (oly of (olies! collected by taste S [A visit] is li0e going on a .ilgri+age : it is an act of devotion .erfor+ed at t(e s(rine of ArtT @t is a cure 'for t(e ti+e at least1 for low3t(oug(ted cares and uneasy .assions% 4e are trans.orted to anot(er s.(ere S 4e breat( e+.yrean airN we enter into t(e +inds of Ra.(ael! of "itian! of Poussin! of t(e Carracci! and loo0 at nature wit( t(eir eyesN we live in ti+es .ast! and see+ identified wit( t(e .er+anent for+s of t(ings% "(e business of t(e world at large! and of its .leasures! a..ear li0e a vanity and an i+.ertinence% 4(at signify t(e (ubbub! t(e s(ifting scenery! % % % t(e folly! t(e idle fas(ions wit(out! w(en co+.ared to t(e solitude! t(e silence! t(e s.ea0ing loo0s! t(e unfading for+s wit(inO Here is t(e +ind9s true (o+e% "(e conte+.lation of trut( and beauty is t(e .ro.er ob6ect for w(ic( we were created! w(ic( calls fort( t(e +ost intense desires of t(e soul! and of w(ic( it never tires%?