Rural womens empowerment in a communication technology project: some contradictory effects

June Lennie Paper published in Rural Society, Vol 12, No 3, 2002, pp.224-245 Abstract This paper presents selected indin!s ro" the e#aluation o a e"inist action research pro$ect that ai"ed to enhance %ueensland rural &o"en's access to interacti#e co""unication technolo!ies ()*Ts+. ,ro$ect acti#ities ai"ed to -e e"po&erin! and inclusi#e. They included online con#ersation !roups, &or.shops and audiocon erences. / "odel o &o"en's e"po&er"ent is used that co"prises social, technological, political and psychological or"s o e"po&er"ent. The e#aluation results su!!est that "any participants e0perienced each o these or"s o e"po&er"ent. The online !roup welink (&o"en's electronic lin.+ &as considered particularly i"portant in acilitatin! &o"en's e"po&er"ent. 1o&e#er, the analysis also indicated #arious dise"po&erin! e ects o participatin! in the pro$ect. *ase studies o t&o participants illustrate these contradictory e ects. These results su!!est that enhancin! rural &o"en's technolo!ical e"po&er"ent is ur!ently re2uired, !i#en that use o )*Ts is -eco"in! increasin!ly i"portant to their leadership and participation in co""unity de#elop"ent. Strate!ies or enhancin! rural &o"en's e"po&er"ent are su!!ested.

Introduction 3ith the shi t to&ards a 4.no&led!e society', the role o interacti#e co""unication technolo!ies ()*Ts+ such as e"ail and the )nternet1 in sustaina-le co""unity and econo"ic de#elop"ent is -eco"in! increasin!ly i"portant (5ansell and 3ehn, 1667+. The e ecti#e use o )*Ts in co""unity de#elop"ent pro$ects has -een ar!ued to ha#e "any potentially e"po&erin! -ene its and e ects, such as !reater inclusion, cooperation, participation and &ell-ein! (Scott, 8ia"ond and S"ith, 1669: Si"pson et al, 2001: 5ilio, 166;+. 5any &o"en in rural /ustralia are ta.in! leadership in co""unity and econo"ic de#elop"ent acti#ities and are o ten e0tre"ely reliant on a ran!e o co""unication technolo!ies or personal, a"ily, -usiness and net&or.in! purposes. 8espite o ten lac.in! access to !ood 2uality in rastructure, technical support and trainin!, rural &o"en ha#e -een ound to -e enthusiastic adopters o ne& )*Ts (<race, Lundin and 8a&s, 166;: =3)*Ts =esearch Tea", 1666+. The e"po&erin! e ects o the use o )*Ts or &o"en and other co""unity "e"-ers ha#e -een indicated in se#eral pu-lications (see 8a&s, 1669: 1arcourt, 1666: 5ilio, 166;: Schuler, 166;+. 1o&e#er, so"e researchers ar!ue that there is a dan!er in placin! too "uch aith in the e"ancipatory po&er o the )nternet or &o"en (#an >oonen, 1662+. /n i"portant actor is that, as ?oucault (1670+ ar!ues, po&er relations are present in all interactions. ?e"inist research into !ender di erences in online co""unication (1errin!, 1664: Truon! et al, 1663+ su!!ests that this is li.ely to -e the case &hether such interactions are "ediated -y technolo!y or are ace-to- ace. The potentially dise"po&erin! or unintentionally ne!ati#e e ects o usin! )*Ts in rural co""unity de#elop"ent pro$ects there ore need to -e considered. Nu"erous criti2ues o the pro-le"atic concept o e"po&er"ent ha#e -een pu-lished (<ill"an, 166;: <ore, 1662: 1u"phries, 1664: ,eters and 5arshall, 1661+. This literature su!!ests that rural researchers need to adopt a "ore critical approach to the concept and to -e "ore e0plicit a-out the processes they clai" ha#e acilitated e"po&er"ent. This re2uires the de#elop"ent o use ul "odels o e"po&er"ent and e ecti#e "ethods or e#aluatin! and critically assessin! clai"s or e"po&er"ent (/nderson, 166;+. /n inclusi#e approach to such e#aluations also re2uires a ocus on !ender and other di erences and use o participatory e#aluation "ethodolo!ies (Shapiro, 1677+. This paper presents selected indin!s ro" the e#aluation o a e"inist action research pro$ect that ai"ed to enhance %ueensland rural &o"en's access to )*Ts, &hich &as underta.en as part o "y doctoral research (see Lennie, 2001+. ?ollo&in! a su""ary o the indin!s ro" the needs analysis and assess"ent, a "odel that identi ies social, technological, political and psychological or"s o e"po&er"ent is used to analyse participants' e0periences o these or"s o e"po&er"ent and the use o )*Ts in this process. *orrespondin! or"s o dise"po&er"ent are also identi ied and analysed. *ase studies o t&o participants urther illustrate the contradictory e ects o )*Ts and participation in the pro$ect. @ased on the indin!s, strate!ies are su!!ested or enhancin! rural &o"en's e"po&er"ent in relation to )*T pro$ects.
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3hile e"ail is one o the .ey uses o the )nternet, in this paper the ter" 4the )nternet' is used to re er "ainly to the 3orld 3ide 3e-, as distinct ro" e"ail and e"ail discussion lists.

The Rural Women and ICTs research project ?ro" early 166; to 8ece"-er 1669 ) &as part o a tea" o researchers, -ased at %ueensland Ani#ersity o Technolo!y in @ris-ane, &ho undertoo. a "a$or action research pro$ect Enhancing Rural Womens Access to Interactive ommunication !echnologies. The ai" o this pro$ect &as to e0plore the current and potential i"pacts o )*Ts or &o"en in rural, re!ional and re"ote %ueensland, in ter"s o personal, -usiness and co""unity de#elop"ent. The pro$ect's e"inist participatory action research "ethodolo!y ai"ed 4to de#elop and i"ple"ent a participatory process &hich &as inclusi#e and e"po&erin! or participants, ta.es the di erences -et&een rural &o"en into account, and encoura!es &o"en to ta.e action leadin! to desira-le chan!e' (=3)*Ts =esearch Tea", 1666B12+. =e!ular critical re lection and an on!oin! process o e#aluation (-oth or"al and in or"al+ &ere i"portant eatures o this "ethodolo!y. )n addition to #arious online con#ersation !roups, pro$ect acti#ities included &or.shops held in ten %ueensland co""unities and re!ular audiocon erences &ith participants. 3e conducted this pro$ect in colla-oration &ith &o"en in rural co""unities and ei!ht !o#ern"ent and industry partners. The partners in#ol#ed &ere Telstra *orporation, ,e!asus Net&or.s (an )nternet ser#ice pro#ider+, the C ices o 3o"en's / airs and =ural *o""unities, %ueensland 1ealth, and the 8epart"ents o ,u-lic 3or.s and 1ousin!, ,ri"ary )ndustries, and Social Security. The pro$ect partners acti#ely participated in so"e pro$ect acti#ities and pro#ided on!oin! input into the e#aluation. /round 350 co""unity "e"-ers, "ainly &o"en, had so"e in#ol#e"ent in the pro$ect. ,articipants included &o"en li#in! in rural to&ns and on re"ote ar"in! and !raDin! properties, &o"en &ho &ere retired, and &o"en o #arious occupations and a!e !roups. 3hile "ost participants had a &hite /n!lo-*eltic -ac.!round, a s"all nu"-er o indi!enous and "i!rant &o"en, includin! a e& &o"en ro" non-En!lish spea.in! -ac.!rounds, too. part in so"e pro$ect acti#ities. E aluation methodology and methods 8ra&in! on Shapiro (1677+, 3ads&orth (1669+ and others, a participatory e"inist e#aluation "ethodolo!y &as de#eloped to critically e#aluate the pro$ect's "ethods and acti#ities. This &as -ased on a pra0is e"inist ra"e&or. that ai"ed to !i#e #oice to, and #alidate the needs, #alues and e0periences o the participants. The e#aluation included a ri!orous analysis o ho& &ell the pro$ect's "ethods and acti#ities "et the di#erse needs o the participants, and "et the ai"s o e"po&erin! &o"en and includin! a di#ersity o &o"en. 5ultiple research "ethods &ere used, includin!B ,articipant o-ser#ations o pro$ect acti#ities such as &or.shops and online con#ersation !roups. )n depth, se"i-structured, indi#idual inter#ie&s &ith t&enty-si0 participants and pro$ect sta.eholders co"prisin! thirteen participants (all &o"en+, si0 research tea" "e"-ers ( our &o"en and t&o "en+, and se#en industry partner representati#es ( i#e &o"en and t&o "en+. C these inter#ie&ees, nine participants, i#e research tea" "e"-ers and three industry partners too. part in the pro$ect's online !roups. C the co""unity inter#ie&ees &ho participated in the online !roups, ele#en had
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also ta.en part in &or.shops, or &or.shops plus other pro$ect acti#ities, &hile si0 participated in the pro$ect #ia the online !roups only. T&o ocus !roup inter#ie&s conducted #ia audiocon erence &ith i#e participants in each (nine rural and one ur-an+. Ei!ht o the participants &ere online !roup "e"-ers. /nalysis o diaries .ept -y si0 participants in the pro$ect's s"all online !roup 4wechat. /nalysis o selected e"ail "essa!es sent to the online !roups. 3or.shop eed-ac. 2uestionnaires that pro#ided 2ualitati#e and 2uantitati#e data. Statistical analysis o de"o!raphic and personal -ac.!round in or"ation pro#ided -y &or.shop and online !roup participants.

The 2ualitati#e data analysis pro!ra" NA8F)ST &as used to code and analyse all o the ocus !roup and inter#ie& data, &hile statistical analysis o 2uestionnaire data &as underta.en usin! the S,SS pro!ra". The #alidation process included trian!ulation o the #arious data collected and the use o "ultiple analytical strate!ies and "ethods. ?eed-ac. on so"e o the analysis &as also o-tained ro" selected participants. 8urin! indi#idual and ocus !roup inter#ie&s, the participants, research tea" "e"-ers and industry partners pro#ided de initions o the concept 4e"po&er"ent'. To!ether &ith rele#ant literature on e"po&er"ent and the results o the analysis, this data &as used to de#elop a "odel o rural &o"en's e"po&er"ent. !riedmanns framewor" of empowerment ?ried"ann's (1662+ alternati#e de#elop"ent and e"po&er"ent "odel pro#ided a use ul ra"e&or. or the analysis. This "odel o e"po&er"ent in#ol#es local sel reliance, direct participatory de"ocracy and e0periential social learnin!. ?ried"ann's #ie& that e"po&er"ent cannot -e con erred -y e0ternal a!ents is si"ilar to that o *larid!e (166;+ and Lather (1661+, &hose &or. &as also dra&n on. 1o&e#er, he su!!ests that such a!ents can play a role in pro#idin! 4support in &ays that encoura!e the dise"po&ered to ree the"sel#es o traditional dependency' (?ried"ann, 1662B 99+. Ta.in! the perspecti#e o people in households, ?ried"ann ar!ues that they potentially ha#e access to three .inds o po&erB social, political and psychological. 4Social po&er' re2uires 4access to certain G-asesH o household production such as in or"ation, .no&led!e and s.ills, participation in social or!anisations, and inancial resources' (?ried"ann, 1662B 33+. This or" o e"po&er"ent there ore includes .ey eatures o social capital, &hich has -een identi ied as an essential ele"ent o sustaina-le rural co""unity de#elop"ent (1arrison, 1667: Si"pson et al, 2001+. The concept o 4political po&er' includes access to the process -y &hich decisions are "ade, particularly those that a ect people's o&n uture. )t also includes the po&er to #ote, as &ell as the po&er o #oice and collecti#e action (?ried"ann, 1662B 33+. ?ried"ann su!!ests that this re2uires a prior process o social e"po&er"ent to ena-le e ecti#e participation.
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,sycholo!ical po&er is de ined -y ?ried"ann as an indi#idual sense o potency &hich is de"onstrated in sel -con ident -eha#iour that o ten results ro" success ul action in the social or political do"ains, althou!h 4it "ay also result ro" intersu-$ecti#e &or.' (?ried"ann, 1662B 33+. Se#eral researchers ha#e identi ied sel -con idence and sel estee" as essential 4 irst steps' to e"po&er"ent (/nderson, 166;: *larid!e, 166;+. ?eelin!s o !reater indi#idual control are another i"portant aspect o psycholo!ical e"po&er"ent (/nderson, 166;+. /ll three .inds o e"po&er"ent are seen -y ?ried"ann as rele#ant to &o"en's stru!!les and or" an interconnectin! triad. ?ried"ann (1662B 11;+ su!!ests that 4&hen this triad, centred on an indi#idual &o"an and household, is lin.ed up &ith others, the result is a social net&or. o e"po&erin! relations that, -ecause it is "utually rein orcin!, has e0traordinary potential or social chan!e'. /lthou!h so"e&hat idealistic, ?ried"ann's ra"e&or. o e"po&er"ent is use ul -ecause it su!!ests that e"po&er"ent and social chan!e is a "ultidi"ensional process &hich re2uires analysis at the "icro and "acro le#els o the indi#idual and the co""unity, or!anisation or !roup, and the interrelationships -et&een the" sho&n. )t also hi!hli!hts the po&er and #alue o /ustralian rural &o"en's net&or.in! acti#ities that ha#e -een success ul in !eneratin! action and chan!e (<race and Lennie, 1667+. Net&or.in! &as an i"portant co"ponent o the online con#ersation !roups esta-lished as part o the =ural 3o"en and )*Ts pro$ect. These online !roups connected the rural participants &ith the %AT research tea" and &o"en &or.in! in relati#ely po&er ul positions in !o#ern"ent and industry, thus potentially acilitatin! political e"po&er"ent. Technological empowerment The #arious "eanin!s that the inter#ie&ees in the study !a#e to e"po&er"ent, and other indicators o the e"po&erin! e ects o the pro$ect could -e readily coded in ?ried"ann's cate!ories o social, political and psycholo!ical e"po&er"ent. 1o&e#er, "y analysis identi ied an i"portant ourth or" o e"po&er"ent that &as la-elled 4technolo!ical e"po&er"ent'. Li.e social e"po&er"ent, this or" o e"po&er"ent also re2uires access to in or"ation, .no&led!e, s.ills and resources. ?e"inists such as /rnold and ?aul.ner (1675+ and 3a$c"an (1661+ ar!ue that an i"portant actor in &o"en's e"po&er"ent is the de#elop"ent o .no&led!e and s.ills that enhance their technical co"petence and e0pertise. /s 3a$c"an (1661B 1;5+ points outB 4technical co"petence is certainly not the only source o "ale po&er, -ut it is an i"portant one, especially in relation to &o"en'. <i#en the technolo!ical ocus o the =ural 3o"en and )*Ts pro$ect, se#eral o the "eanin!s o e"po&er"ent pro#ided -y the inter#ie&ees re erred to con idence and co"petence in usin! technolo!ies, and the -ene its to &o"en ro" usin! ne& )*Ts. )t can -e ar!ued that, &ith the increasin! use o the )nternet to access !o#ern"ent in or"ation and to lo--y and or!anise ca"pai!ns on i"portant social, econo"ic and en#iron"ental issues, technolo!ical e"po&er"ent is an i"portant ne& prere2uisite to political e"po&er"ent. A new model of rural womens empowerment 8ra&in! on ?ried"ann's ra"e&or. and the "eanin!s and indicators o e"po&er"ent identi ied in the analysis, ?i!ure 1 presents the "odel o rural &o"en's e"po&er"ent

that &as de#eloped. This illustrates the interrelationships -et&een the our or"s o e"po&er"ent that &ere identi ied, and su""arises the .ey eatures o each or" o e"po&er"ent. /lthou!h these our or"s o e"po&er"ent are discussed separately in this paper, there are clearly "any interrelationships and o#erlaps -et&een the". !igure #: The "ey forms and features of rural women$s empowerment
Ne& .no&led!e and in or"ation /&areness and understandin! o issues S.ills, a-ilities and co"petence Support, riendship and inspiration ,articipatin! in !roup acti#ities &ith &o"en Net&or.in! 1a#in! a #oice and -ein! listened to ,articipatin! in policy "a.in! Ta.in! action to chan!e your li e or your co""unity Net&or.in! and lo--yin! *han!in! stereotypes a-out rural &o"en

'ocial empowerment

(olitical empowerment

Technological empowerment

(sychological empowerment

Ino&led!e a-out )*Ts /&areness and understandin! a-out )*Ts S.ills and co"petence in usin! ne& )*Ts Cn!oin! support and ad#ice in usin! )*Ts /ccess to hi!h 2uality technolo!ies *on idence to use and spea. a-out )*Ts

Sel con idence and sel estee" ?eelin! "ore #alued and respected 5oti#ation, interest and enthusias" ?reedo" to do thin!s or e0press yoursel ?eelin!s o -elon!in! 3ell-ein! and happiness

%nderstanding &disempowerment The ter" 4dise"po&er"ent' &as used to indicate a state or a sense o po&erlessness, oppression, "ar!inalisation, e0clusion or disad#anta!e. 3hile the inter#ie&ees in "y study rarely used the ter"s 4dise"po&er"ent' or 4dise"po&ered', a e& used ter"s such as 4e0cluded', 4oppression', 4disad#anta!ed', and 4po&erless', or phrases such as 4don't ha#e the po&er'.

Joun!'s analysis o oppression &as considered #alua-le in de inin! the concept o dise"po&er"ent. Joun! (1677B 291+ la-els the 4 i#e aces o oppression'B 4e0ploitation, "ar!inality, po&erlessness, cultural i"perialis", and #iolence'. She ar!ues that #arious !roups &ho are said to -e oppressed, such as 4&o"en, -lac.s K Nati#e /"ericans ... and poor people' are not oppressed 4to the sa"e de!ree or in the sa"e &ays' (Joun!, 1677B 290L291+. 1o&e#er, she -elie#es that 4in the "ost !eneral sense, all oppressed people share so"e inhi-ition o their a-ility to de#elop and e0ercise their capacities and e0press their needs, thou!hts, and eelin!s' (p.291+. Joun! considers that "ost people Min North /"ericaN lac. si!ni icant po&er due to their lac. o participation in "a.in! decisions a ectin! their li#es. 4,o&erlessness' descri-es the li#es o people &ho ha#e little or no &or. autono"y, e0ercise little creati#e $ud!e"ent in their &or., ha#e no technical e0pertise or authority, e0press the"sel#es a&.&ardly, especially in pu-lic or -ureaucratic settin!s, and do not co""and respect. (Joun!, 1677B 273+ This analysis is use ul -ecause it su!!ests that, li.e e"po&er"ent, oppression (as a or" o dise"po&er"ent+ has se#eral di erent acets that a ect !roups o people in di erent &ays. )n addition, -ecause 4di erent actors or co"-inations o actors, constitute the oppression o di erent !roups', it is not possi-le to ha#e one 4essential' de inition o this concept (Joun!, 1677B 29;+. 8ra&in! on Joun!'s analysis, the #arious or"s o dise"po&er"ent related to participation in the =ural 3o"en and )*Ts pro$ect &ere identi ied. 8ise"po&er"ent &as seen as ha#in! #arious or"s that are the -inary opposite o the our or"s o e"po&er"ent, su""arised a-o#e. They &ere la-elled social, technological, political and psychological disempowerment. 1o&e#er, usin! a e"inist poststructuralist ra"e&or. o analysis, "y study also sho&ed the intersections -et&een e"po&er"ent and dise"po&er"ent and challen!ed #arious e"inist assu"ptions: such as !i#in! #oice to &o"en &ill lead to e"po&er"ent (see Lennie, 2001+. )ey acti ities of the Rural Women and ICTs project The "a$or acti#ities o the =ural 3o"en and )*Ts pro$ect &ere &or.shops, online con#ersation !roups and audiocon erences. The ai"s o these acti#ities included !i#in! #oice to participants a-out their .ey needs and issues related to co""unication technolo!ies, -uildin! con idence and s.ills in usin! ne& )*Ts, "aintainin! on!oin! co""unication, or!anisin! acti#ities, and learnin! a-out the #arious uses that rural &o"en "a.e o )*Ts. These acti#ities there ore sou!ht to acilitate "any o the or"s o e"po&er"ent identi ied a-o#e. The research tea" conducted ull and hal -day &or.shops in #arious co""unities in rural, re!ional and re"ote %ueensland2 in -oth years o the pro$ect. The researchers ai"ed to use processes that &o"en &ould eel co" orta-le &ith and easily understood and appropriate lan!ua!e. The #arious &or.shop sessions included participants !i#in!
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These co""unities &ere Loc.yer Valley and <y"pie in the South East, E"erald and Lon!reach in *entral and 3estern %ueensland, and *harters To&ers, 5ount )sa and /therton in North and North 3est %ueensland. )n 166; only, &or.shops &ere held at <oo"eri in the South East and *loncurry in the North 3est. )n 1669, a &or.shop or /-ori!inal &o"en &as conducted at @lac.&ater in *entral %ueensland.

#oice to their 4-urnin! issues' related to )*Ts. Cnly 29O o &or.shop participants had so"e pre#ious e0perience &ith usin! the )nternet so so"e hands-on e0perience &ith usin! e"ail and the )nternet &as pro#ided &here possi-le. The online con#ersation !roups &ere an i"portant "eans o "aintainin! re!ular co""unication -et&een those in#ol#ed in the pro$ect. Three di erent online !roups &ere esta-lishedB 1. wechat (&o"en's electronic chat+ a s"all in or"al list that operated #ia "ultiple addressin! o e"ail "essa!es. This list operated -et&een /u!ust 166; and 5ay 1669. Wechat &as an i"portant orerunner to the "uch lar!er welink !roup. )t ai"ed to pro#ide a non-threatenin! en#iron"ent or -uildin! &or.shop participants' con idence in usin! e"ail, o ten or the irst ti"e. ,articipants &ere encoura!ed to tal. a-out anythin! they &anted to, and a &ide #ariety o topics &ere discussed. 2. wechat"l, a lar!er, short-li#ed list that &as esta-lished or a #irtual con erence in con$unction &ith a %ueensland =ural 3o"en's Net&or. (%=3N+ con erence in Ccto-er 166;. )t could -e accessed -y either e"ail or as an online con erence. The so t&are used to access the list ailed shortly a ter the con erence ended and the list &as ter"inated. 3. welink (&o"en's electronic lin.+, a lar!er con#ersation !roup &hich operated as a "a$ordo"o e"ail discussion list. )t -e!an in 5arch 1669 and is still on!oin! as a #ery acti#e list. )t &as open to a &ider ran!e o people, includin! people ro" interstate and o#erseas. @y No#e"-er 1669, it had 112 "e"-ers. 1o&e#er, $ust o#er hal the "e"-ers &ere acti#e. / #ery &ide di#ersity o topics &as discussed and a riendly, in or"al and supporti#e at"osphere 2uic.ly de#eloped. / &e- site on the pro$ect included in or"ation on the pro$ect and ho& to $oin the welink !roup, stories and photo!raphs o participants, pro iles and photo!raphs o the research tea", and lin.s to industry partner &e- sites. The audiocon erences conducted at re!ular inter#als durin! the pro$ect ai"ed to "aintain !ood relationships and acilitate on!oin! contact &ith .ey participants, o-tain re!ular eed-ac., share updates on acti#ities, and de#elop partnerships -et&een the !roups in#ol#ed. 5ost participants &ere already e0perienced in ta.in! part in audiocon erences so &ere co" orta-le &ith the process in#ol#ed. !indings from the needs analysis and assessment The needs identification and assessment process / ri!orous assess"ent o ho& &ell the #arious pro$ect acti#ities "et participants' needs &as underta.en. This pro#ided i"portant data or analysin! the #arious or"s o e"po&er"ent and dise"po&er"ent that &ere e0perienced. 1o&e#er, identi yin! the participants' needs and assessin! ho& &ell they &ere "et &as a co"ple0 process. This process included identi yin! #arious cate!ories o needs, dra&in! ta-les sho&in! the si!ni icance o these needs, creatin! "atrices o needs or three "a$or !roups o participants, and analysin! ho& &ell each o the !eneral needs and the needs associated &ith the #arious pro$ect acti#ities &ere "et. 8i erences -et&een the three "a$or !roups

o participants - 4hi!h pro ile' ar"ers, 4lo& pro ile' ar"ers3 and pro essionals li#in! in rural to&ns - &ere also analysed. Summary of the findings / lar!e nu"-er o needs &ere identi ied and di#ided into three -road cate!oriesB 1. 4<eneral' needs that &ere not so speci ically related to the pro$ect acti#ities, such as the need to share or access in or"ation or to eel less isolated. These needs &ere di#ided into our su- cate!oriesB SocialPpsycholo!ical needs <roup co""unication and interaction needs ,articipation and decision-"a.in! needs )n or"ation and a&areness needs. 2. Needs speci ic to the &or.shops (such as the need or hands-on e0perience &ith e"ail or or s"all !roup discussions+. 3. Needs speci ic to the online !roups (such as the need to interact daily &ith other &o"en, or the !roups to ha#e a sa e, co" orta-le at"osphere, or the co""unication to -e personalised, and to eel a-le to co""unicate online easily and openly+. The analysis indicated that the "a$ority o the needs identi ied &ere #ery &ell "et and, or a e& &o"en, so"e o their needs &ere e0tre"ely &ell "et. 1o&e#er, there &ere also so"e needs that &ere only "oderately or airly &ell "et and needs that &ere not "et. The online !roups, particularly welink, appeared to -e the "ost success ul pro$ect acti#ity in ter"s o "eetin! a lar!e nu"-er o si!ni icant needs. The &or.shops also success ully "et 2uite a lar!e proportion o the si!ni icant needs, &hile the audiocon erences "et a s"aller nu"-er o the si!ni icant needs. 5any e"inists ar!ue that &o"en-only acti#ities such as &or.shops and online discussion !roups are o ten "ore e"po&erin! or &o"en than "i0ed !ender acti#ities (@utler and 3intra", 1661: Spender, 1665: 3el-ourn, 1661+. The e#aluation indin!s su!!est that the pro$ect's "ethodolo!y and "ethods, and "any o the &o"en-centred acti#ities, &ere #ery success ul in "eetin! the di#erse needs o "ost participants. / hi!h proportion o the &or.shop and online !roup participants #alued these !roups -ein! "ainly &o"en and the sa e, co" orta-le and riendly at"osphere o these acti#ities. The online !roup "e"-ers #alued the personalised style and content o the co""unication, the supporti#e nature o the !roups and the sense o co""unity that de#eloped. 5any also #alued the di#ersity o the &o"en &ho participated, particularly those in#ol#ed in the online !roups. 1o&e#er, the analysis also indicated that so"e
3

The ter"s 4hi!h pro ile' and 4lo& pro ile' &ere used to indicate the le#el o co""unity or industry acti#is" o the ar"in! &o"en and the e0tent to &hich they had a pu-lic pro ile. This type o distinction could not -e so readily "ade &ith the non- ar"in! &o"en.

participants e0perienced #arious or"s and de!rees o dise"po&er"ent as a result o their participation in #arious pro$ect acti#ities. Empowering effects of the project Each inter#ie&ee &as as.edB 41o& &ell did the pro$ect "eet the ai" o e"po&erin! &o"enQ' The analysis sho&ed that 1;O o the inter#ie&ees indicated that the ai" o e"po&er"ent &as e0tre"ely &ell "et, 57O indicated that the ai" &as #ery &ell "et, 23O indicated that the ai" had -een 2uite &ell "et, and one thou!ht the ai" &as not "et. Table #: *ow well inter iewees thought the aim of empowerment was met in relation to the project+ welink and the wor"shops
E,tremely well
,ro$ect as a &hole The welink !roup The &or.shops 4 3 -

-ery well
7 12 3

!airly well
5 2

.ot met

/nly met for some

; 1

Ta-le 1 sho&s that si!ni icantly "ore the co""ents indicatin! that the ai" o e"po&erin! &o"en &as e0tre"ely &ell or #ery &ell "et &ere "ade a-out the welink !roup, co"pared &ith the &or.shops. The forms of empowerment e,perienced The needs analysis and assess"ent indicated that a si!ni icant proportion o the inter#ie&ees and others &ho pro#ided eed-ac. e0perienced #arious or"s and de!rees o e"po&er"ent as a result o their participation in the pro$ect and the use o )*Ts in the pro$ect. The "a$or types o e"po&er"ent that participants reported e0periencin!, or &ere indicated -y the data analysis, are no& su""arised. Social empowerment 5any o the participants e0perienced the ollo&in! or"s o social e"po&er"entB <ainin! access to ne& and use ul .no&led!e, in or"ation and a&areness a-out a ran!e o issues, topics and acti#ities o interest to &o"en. This ne& in or"ation and .no&led!e o ten pro#ided "ental sti"ulation and -roadened participants' thin.in!. 8e#elopin! ne& s.ills, a-ilities, con idence and co"petence, includin! those re2uired to participate in the #arious !roup co""unication and interaction processes used in the pro$ect. C-tainin! the riendship and support o other &o"en in rural and ur-an areas &ho ha#e co""onalities &ith each other and di erences ro" each other. ,articipatin! in #arious acti#ities &ith other &o"en and people in positions o in luence &here you can openly discuss issues, share concerns and e0periences, and re lect on issues a ectin! you.
10

Net&or.in! &ith or "a.in! contact &ith others in#ol#ed in the participants' areas o interest such as rural co""unity de#elop"ent, tele&or.in!, and &ritin!.

So"e inter#ie&ees also !ained -ene its in relation to their paid &or. or their -usinesses. E0a"ples that &ere !i#en includedB T&o !raDiers de#eloped #alua-le contacts and ideas or their ar" touris" #entures. Cne industry partner considered that a 4 antastic e0a"ple' o the opportunities pro#ided -y the pro$ect &as the &o"an &ho "o#ed ro" a property into a near-y rural to&n to success ully esta-lish a s"all -usiness pro#idin! co"puter support and trainin! to ne& users.

Technological empowerment Ta.in! part in the pro$ect also pro#ided "any participants &ith #aryin! de!rees o the ollo&in! or"s o technolo!ical e"po&er"entB Ne& .no&led!e, a&areness and understandin! a-out ne& )*Ts and their potential -ene its and i"pacts. The de#elop"ent o ne& s.ills, e0perience and !reater con idence and co"petence in usin! ne& co""unication technolo!ies. /d#ice and support in usin! e"ail and the )nternet, pro#ided in &ays that o ten "et the participants' needs #ery &ell.

So"e participants also -eca"e "ore con ident in tal.in! a-out )*Ts, as.in! or e0planations a-out co"puters, as.in! or help &ith co"puter pro-le"s, or helpin! others use or access )*Ts. Ten rural inter#ie&ees reported an increase in their con idence in usin! co"puters, e"ail and the )nternet as a result o ta.in! part in the pro$ect. /n outco"e o the social and technolo!ical e"po&er"ent so"e participants e0perienced &as enhanced &or. or -usiness opportunities. Se#eral inter#ie&ees "entioned the e0a"ple o a #ery enthusiastic and acti#e pro$ect participant on a relati#ely re"ote property &ho &as o ered the irst tele&or.in! position &ith the %ueensland !o#ern"ent on a trial -asis. Cther outco"es o this technolo!ical e"po&er"ent includedB 8iscussin! &ith a riend the possi-ility o de#elopin! a $oint tele&or.in! #enture throu!h co"-inin! their co"puter and &ritin! s.ills. Encoura!in! other rural &o"en to !et online or assistin! the" &ith !ettin! online. Cr!anisin! co"puter and )nternet &or.shops or others in their local co""unity. Tal.in! to local or!anisations and rural &o"en's !roups a-out tele&or.in! and the )nternet.

11

Political empowerment /s &ell as social and technolo!ical e"po&er"ent, se#eral participants also e0perienced the ollo&in! or"s o political e"po&er"entB 1a#in! a #oice and -ein! listened to -y the researchers and people in decision"a.in! positions in !o#ern"ent and industry. ,articipatin! in or"ulatin! ideas and reco""endations or -etter teleco""unications and )nternet ser#ices and support, and in luencin! other !o#ern"ent policies and decisions that a ect rural &o"en and rural co""unities. *han!in! ur-an and to&n--ased people's -elie s and stereotypes a-out ar"in! &o"en. Net&or.in! or "eetin! &ith people in !o#ern"ent and industry and other &o"en to lo--y or discuss issues a ectin! rural &o"en and rural co""unities, and to or!anise #arious actions.

So"e participants also !ained ne& understandin!s a-out e"inis" and !ender e2uity issues. Cne 4hi!h pro ile' ar"in! &o"en reported that she identi ied as a e"inist or the irst ti"e ollo&in! a welink discussion on e"inis". /n i"portant or" o political and social e"po&er"ent &hich se#eral inter#ie&ees e0perienced &as ta.in! indi#idual and collecti#e action to i"pro#e teleco""unication ser#ices and )nternet access or to pro"ote the -ene its o the )nternet or rural co""unities. These actions includedB *onductin! re!ular "eetin!s o &o"en in#ol#ed in the pro$ect in 5t )sa to discuss co""unity--ased initiati#es. /pplyin! or "a$or !o#ern"ent undin! to i"ple"ent #arious rural co""unity de#elop"ent pro$ects that in#ol#ed the use o ne& )*Ts. The "ost success ul e0a"ple o this &as the %=3N's application to the =e!ional Teleco""unications )n rastructure ?und or the 4@rid!)T' pro$ect. This %ueensland-&ide )nternet trainin! pro$ect recei#ed R2,000,000 in initial undin! and su-se2uently -eca"e an e0tre"ely success ul pro$ect. 5a.in! speeches and presentations at con erences and se"inars a-out rural access to )*Ts, and the -ene its o )*Ts or rural co""unity de#elop"ent.

Psychological empowerment 5any pro$ect participants also reported e0periencin! the ollo&in! or"s o psycholo!ical e"po&er"entB /n increase in sel -con idence and sel -estee". Se#en rural inter#ie&ees "entioned that they or others had de#eloped "ore con idence to e0press their opinions or #ie&s.

12

?eelin! "ore #alued, respected or that you ha#e "ore standin! or credi-ility. ,articipatin! in welink appeared to -e particularly e ecti#e in de#elopin! this eelin!. <reater "oti#ation, inspiration, enthusias" and interest to de#elop ne& s.ills and .no&led!e, to .eep pushin! or -etter ser#ices or rural people, and to learn "ore a-out or !ain access to co"puters and the )nternet. So"e participants also !ained "ore enthusias" a-out the use o )*Ts or rural co""unity de#elop"ent. ?eelin! "uch less isolated ro" others (particularly other supporti#e &o"en+ and, as a result, e0periencin! !reater &ell-ein!, happiness and en$oy"ent o li e. ?eelin!s o -elon!in! related to participation in the online !roups in particular.

!orms of disempowerment e,perienced /s &ell as e0periencin! e"po&er"ent, so"e participants also indicated that they e0perienced #arious or"s and de!rees o dise"po&er"ent at certain ti"es durin! the pro$ect. This &as so"eti"es the result o actors not directly related to the pro$ect acti#ities, such as poor 2uality teleco""unications in rastructure. /s &ith e"po&er"ent, there are clearly #arious de!rees o dise"po&er"ent. ?or e0a"ple, eelin!s o disco" ort durin! a &or.shop "ay -e 2uite "o"entary, &hile an!er and rustration a-out your poor teleco""unications ser#ices "i!ht -e e0perienced on a re!ular -asis. The ollo&in! pro#ides a su""ary o these e0periences. So"e participants indicated that they e0perienced the ollo&in! or"s o social dise"po&er"ent at ti"esB ?eelin! e0cluded ro" the &or.shop or the online !roups. Not o-tainin! the .no&led!e and in or"ation they &anted. ?eelin! unco" orta-le participatin! in certain !roup acti#ities or una-le to tal. a-out certain social or personal topics. @ein! una-le to ully participate in pro$ect acti#ities they &ould ha#e li.ed to ta.e part in due to &or., -usiness or a"ily responsi-ilities, co""unity--ased co""it"ents, or the hi!h inancial cost o ta.in! part.

So"e o the participants also indicated that they e0perienced #arious or"s o technological dise"po&er"ent, includin!B Not !ainin! ne& s.ills or e0perience in usin! )*Ts due to a ran!e o actors, includin! the lac. o hands-on e0perience at the &or.shops, or -ein! una-le to a ord co"puter e2uip"ent and )nternet ser#ices. @ein! una-le to understand the technical in or"ation pro#ided at &or.shops or -y co"puter or )nternet ser#ice pro#iders. / lac. o con idence and co"petence in usin! co"puters, e"ail and the )nternet or in spea.in! a-out these technolo!ies.
13

/n increase in concern or ear a-out the potentially ne!ati#e social i"pacts o ne& )*Ts. ?eelin! an!er and rustration -ecause o the poor 2uality teleco""unications in rastructure in their area or the lac. o appropriate and e ecti#e custo"er ser#ice. This &as a .ey e0perience o "any participants and pre#ented so"e &o"en ro" ta.in! part in the online !roups. 1a#in! little or no access to appropriate technical support or ad#ice ro" others.

*ertain participants also e0perienced the ollo&in! or"s o political dise"po&er"ent at ti"esB Not ha#in! your #oice heard or not -ein! !i#en an opportunity to e0press your 4-urnin! issues' due to #arious actors. ?eelin! that your issues &ere not &ell understood or listened to -y others. Little or no i""ediate action -ein! ta.en -y !o#ern"ent or industry on the issues raised due to the slo&ness o the policy-"a.in! process, &hich increased cynicis" and scepticis". @ein! silenced or eelin! restricted in tal.in! a-out socially or politically contro#ersial issues on the online !roups (see Lennie, 2000+.

Various types o psychological dise"po&er"ent &ere reported as -ein! e0perienced -y so"e participants at ti"es, includin!B ?eelin! #ery ner#ous or lac.in! con idence to spea. out, as. 2uestions, or to ta.e part in certain pro$ect acti#ities. ?eelin! "ore ear ul or concerned a-out the uture o rural co""unities ollo&in! participation in pro$ect acti#ities such as &or.shops. Lac. o a sense o -elon!in! to &or.shop or online !roups. ?eelin! that you are not #alued or respected -y the people or or!anisations in#ol#ed in the pro$ect. ?eelin! inti"idated -y others ta.in! part in the &or.shops or online !roups. ?eelin! concerned a-out the e0tent to &hich other welink "e"-ers "aintained the con identiality o personal issues raised on the list.

14

Case studies of empowerment and disempowerment To urther illustrate the participants' co"ple0 e0periences o e"po&er"ent and dise"po&er"ent resultin! ro" their participation in the pro$ect and the use o )*Ts, our case studies o indi#idual participants &ere prepared. These case studies &ere sent to each o the &o"en in#ol#ed. /ll o the" a!reed that their e0periences had -een accurately represented, and !a#e per"ission or personal details that "ay identi y the" to -e included. T&o o these case studies are no& presented. Na"es ha#e -een chan!ed. Ingrids experience: more excited about the use of this technology )n!rid had a "oderate le#el o participation in the pro$ect. She too. part in the irst &or.shop held in *o""unity ; (the co""unities &here &or.shops &ere held &ere rando"ly nu"-ered+, a ollo&-up audiocon erence held a ter this &or.shop, and the wechat and welink !roups. 8ue to #arious actors, )n!rid had 2uite a lo& le#el o participation in these online !roups. )n!rid &as 40 years old and had a de"andin! pro essional position that in#ol#ed pro#idin! in or"ation and support to rural a"ilies a ected -y the drou!ht. She and her hus-and also o&ned a -usiness in the rural to&n &here they li#ed. They had t&o pri"ary school a!ed children. 1er #oluntary &or. included -ein! a co""unity representati#e on the %ueensland Landcare *ouncil and sittin! on t&o health councils. )n!rid &as #ery interested in !ender e2uity issues and &as a %=3N "e"-er. She used e"inist principles and ideas and co""ented that the pro$ect's ocus on &o"en &as 4in#alua-le'. She thou!ht that the welink !roup allo&ed &o"en 4to -e a-le to co""unicate in that particularly supporti#e &ay that &o"en co""unicate'. ,rior to the pro$ect, )n!rid said she had a 4 ear' o usin! e"ail and the )nternet. 1o&e#er, as a result o her participation, she -eca"e 4"uch, "uch "ore con ident a-out and e0cited a-out the use o this technolo!y as a tool in rural co""unity de#elop"ent' and 4con#inced' that 4this is the area that ) should !o into'. ,articipatin! in the online !roups pro#ided use ul 4practical' e0perience &ith usin! e"ail. ?ollo&in! the &or.shop she too. part in, she spo.e enthusiastically to other people in her co""unity a-out the -ene its o the )nternet and one &o"an 4!ot really e0cited a-out it and she's no& on the )nternet, and sa& it as a tool or her -usiness'. )n!rid e0perienced a 4!reat deal o rustration' -ecause o "a$or pro-le"s &ith the co"puter so t&are and hard&are at her &or.place. Technical support and trainin!, pro"ised -y another participant, did not e#entuate and she &as una-le to participate in the 1669 &or.shop &here so"e )nternet trainin! &as pro#ided. / urther rustration &as that the local trainers 4don't co""unicate, they don't teach #ery &ell'. Soon a ter she $oined the wechat !roup, )n!rid sent a "essa!e sayin! that she elt 4!uilty o not ha#in! #ery "uch to say' and that she elt 4a -it li.e an interloper'. )n!rid identi ied a nu"-er o reasons &hy she 4 elt 2uite e0cluded at ti"es' as a wechat "e"-er. These included the predo"inantly ar"--ased issues -ein! discussed not -ein! 4issues that ) eel ) can contri-ute to', and the sense that she &as not part o 4the clu-' that she thou!ht had de#eloped a"on! the acti#e "e"-ers. Cther actors &ere that her e"ail access &as only at &or. and she &as o ten a&ay ro" the o ice and 4"y le#el o

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stress &ith "y &or.'. 1o&e#er, in a ollo&-up "essa!e she said 4) do -elie#e that ) can learn ro" -ein! part o this !roup a-out the issues that do interest &o"en that are isolated not $ust GruralH and ho& you cope &ith the stressors in your li e'. )n!rid considered that welink "ore e ecti#ely "et her need or 4"ore sti"ulatin! issue-ased co""unication' than the "uch s"aller wechat !roup. She thou!ht the di#ersity o issues discussed on welink &as 4 antastic' and 4really en$oyMedN readin! K ho& other people thin., and ho& "y thin.in! di ers ro" other people'. )n!rid also thou!ht that welink 4challen!es your preconcei#ed ideas a-out Goh she li#es 50,000 "iles ro" no&here, she "i!ht -e a -it du"-H'. 1o&e#er, she e0pressed disappoint"ent that she &as not al&ays a-le to ta.e part in welink 4as ully as ) &ould ha#e li.ed to ha#e'. 1a#in! access to in or"ation on welink that 4&e &ouldn't necessarily -e pri#y to throu!h the nor"al net&or.s' &as considered one o 4the "ost #alua-le, the "ost en$oya-le (aspects+ or "e K -ecause it allo&s "e to ha#e a -it o an ed!e'. /nother e"po&erin! outco"e o participatin! in welink &as the #alua-le ne& contacts and net&or.s that she de#eloped. This included her contacts &ith so"e 4hi!h pro ile' ar"in! &o"en, and an /"erican co""unity de#elop"ent specialist &ho &as &or.in! on 4really e0citin! stu '. )n!rid had planned to conduct in or"al )nternet sessions &ith s"all !roups o rural &o"en in her co""unity. ?ollo&in! her de"onstration o the #alue o e"ail or their &or., )n!rid's e"ployer a!reed to lin. up her o ice &ith &or.ers in t&o other rural co""unities #ia e"ail. She &as later in#ol#ed in preparin! a "a$or undin! su-"ission or a co""unity--ased initiati#e that in#ol#ed the use o )*Ts. Leilas experience: a sense of empowerment in my community Leila's le#el o participation in the pro$ect &as #ery hi!h. She helped to or!anise, then acti#ely participated in -oth &or.shops in *o""unity 7, too. part in our audiocon erences, and &as o ten a #ery acti#e "e"-er o the wechat and welink !roups. Leila had pre#iously -een in#ol#ed in the pro$ect -y <race, Lundin and 8a&s &hich included participatin! in a s"all e"ail !roup. @y the end o 1669, Leila had there ore -een closely in#ol#ed in research ocussed on rural &o"en and )*Ts or nearly our years. 8urin! this ti"e, she or"ed stron! riendships &ith se#eral %AT researchers and other pro$ect participants. Leila &as 43 years old and &or.ed &ith her hus-and as a !raDier on a cattle station located 130 .ilo"etres ro" her nearest to&n. 1o&e#er, she considered hersel 42uite su-ur-an in "any &ays' -ecause a -itu"en hi!h&ay ran throu!h the "iddle o their property. She had a dau!hter &ho li#ed a&ay ro" ho"e, a youn! son at -oardin! school and an older son &ho &or.ed on the property. Leila &as the #ice president o her local School o 8istance Education's ,S*, a -oard "e"-er o a local !irls colle!e and &as acti#ely in#ol#ed in other or!anisations. Throu!h her #oluntary &or., and her participation in the research pro$ects, she had -een in#ited to spea. a-out distance education and teleco""unications access issues at #arious %ueensland and interstate con erences. /lthou!h Leila e0pressed si!ni icant a"-i#alence a-out e"inis", she &as an ad#ocate or the ad#ance"ent and reco!nition o rural &o"en's leadership and or !ender e2uity in education.

1;

Ta.in! part in the pro$ect resulted in Leila e0periencin! a si!ni icant increase in her social and psycholo!ical e"po&er"ent. This included -eco"in! 4a lot "ore con ident' and !ainin! a sense o 4e"po&er"ent in "y co""unity' -ecause o her !ro&in! reputation as a &o"an &ith so"e .no&led!e a-out ne& )*Ts and an ad#ocate or -etter teleco""unication ser#ices in the -ush. Leila thou!ht this 4&as really !ood' or her as 4it &as so"ethin! that ) elt &as o "y o&n', co"pared &ith her &or. as a !raDier. Ta.in! part in welink had -een 4e"po&erin!' -ecause 4people &ere actually seein! that &e (ie ar"in! &o"en+ &ere runnin! -usinesses, &e &ere educatin! children, &e &ere K doin! a lot o thin!s'. /nother i"portant outco"e o her participation in the online !roups &as 4a "ar#ellous eelin!' o 4support ro" a !roup o &o"en', so"e o &ho" &ere in 4si"ilar circu"stances' and others that &ere not. /s &ell as in ti"es o natural disasters, she also appreciated this support &hen she so"eti"es elt depressed a-out -usiness or a"ily pro-le"s or rustrated a-out the 4second class citiDen' status o rural people in ter"s o their access to )*Ts. Lelia ound that she could o ten 4pour her heart out' on wechat and e0pressed concern a-out -ein! a-le to do this &hen the lar!er welink !roup &as esta-lished. Cnce welink -e!an, she o ten pre erred to post "ore personal "essa!es to wechat. Lelia also !ained 4a pretty !ood eelin!' ro" 4-ein! a part o a !roup o &o"en &ho are achie#in!, and not all the ti"e, -ut in their o&n &ay, they're achie#in! a -i! -rea.throu!h'. This co""ent re erred to the stron! riendships that she had de#eloped &ith so"e o the other 4ne& pioneers' &ho participated in the pro$ect. Li.e Leila, these &o"en &ere "ostly ar"ers and !raDiers &ho &ere usin! e"ail and other )*Ts to enhance their personal, pro essional and co""unity de#elop"ent &or., despite the "any access -arriers they aced. ,articipatin! in the pro$ect had 4encoura!ed' and 4inspired' Leila to 4.eep pushin! or -etter co""unications or rural people'. )n a welink "essa!e, Leila su""arised the e ects it had on her -y sayin! 4welink .eeps "e !oin!'. /lthou!h Leila deri#ed a lot o -ene it and en$oy"ent ro" participatin! in welink, she also had so"e dise"po&erin! e0periences. These included o ten eelin! 4a little -it inti"idated' -y the acade"ics on welink. She elt this &ay, in part, -ecause she had not o-tained any tertiary education. Leila also spo.e o so"eti"es eelin! li.e 4a -it o a !old ish in a -o&l' -ecause o the hi!h nu"-ers o uni#ersity and !o#ern"ent people &ho had $oined welink and 4&ant to ind out a-out ho& &e li#e'. 3hile she could understand this interest -ecause 4our li estyles are so di erent', she thou!ht that 4-asically &e're all people that ha#e the sa"e interests and pro-le"s and thin!s li.e that, so this is &hy ) thin. the &hole thin! &or.s so &ell'. Leila also spo.e o eelin! 4#ery inti"idated or a &hile' -y a ("ale+ welink participant. This e0perience had "ade her reluctant to participate. /nother reason or 4han!in! -ac.' ro" participation &as that, at one sta!e, "any ne& people &ere $oinin! welink and 4&e &eren't !ettin! to .no& the people'. /s &ell as the #alua-le riendships and support that in#ol#e"ent in the pro$ect pro#ided, Leila !ained access to use ul in or"ation and net&or.s and enhanced her pu-lic pro ile. Throu!h in or"ation a-out a ne& !o#ern"ent undin! sche"e posted on welink, she -eca"e in#ol#ed in a success ul proposal to e0tend her local co""unity's access to the )nternet. Ne&spaper articles &ere also pu-lished a-out her pioneerin! use
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o e"ail or her -usiness and in her personal li e. )n 1669, "e"-ers o the research tea" no"inated Lelia or the /@* =adio =ural 3o"en o the Jear /&ard and she &as deli!hted to -eco"e a State inalist. Analysis of the case studies Ingrids case study 3hile )n!rid appeared to ha#e airly hi!h e0istin! le#els o social, political and psycholo!ical e"po&er"ent, ta.in! part in the pro$ect clearly enhanced these or"s o e"po&er"ent in -ene icial &ays. The "ost si!ni icant chan!e she e0perienced &as in her le#el o technolo!ical e"po&er"ent. This led her to -eco"e in#ol#ed in #arious initiati#es related to the use o )*Ts in her &or. and her co""unity. 1o&e#er, )n!rid also e0perienced si!ni icant dise"po&er"ent o #arious .inds in the process o settin! up and learnin! to use e"ail and the )nternet, and see.in! technical trainin! and support. Cnce connected, she elt e0cluded ro" the wechat !roup and &as una-le to participate in welink as "uch as she &anted to due to her &or. co""it"ents and other actors, includin! the need to access the list daily or e ecti#e participation. )n!rid's participation in the pro$ect there ore had a nu"-er o contradictory e ects. So"e o these &ere an outco"e o the inclusi#e and participatory nature o the pro$ect, &hile others &ere associated &ith her &or. and co""unity co""it"ents, the poor 2uality o the technolo!y, and a lac. o e ecti#e local trainin! and technical support. )n a personal e"ail sent in 8ece"-er 2000, )n!rid indicated that she e0perienced si!ni icant a"-i#alence a-out usin! e"ail rather than spo.en co""unication in her &or.. Leilas case study Li.e the other 4hi!h pro ile' ar"ers &ho &ere inter#ie&ed, Leila already had a airly si!ni icant de!ree o e"po&er"ent prior to her participation in the pro$ect. This included technolo!ical e"po&er"ent, !i#en that she already had a hi!h le#el o e0perience &ith usin! co"puters and e"ail. 1o&e#er, her on!oin! rustration &ith the poor 2uality teleco""unications in rastructure on her property "eant that she also e0perienced so"e de!ree o technolo!ical dise"po&er"ent &hich "ade her eel 4a -it o en#y' o others &ith aster line speeds &ho &ere a-le to learn and do "ore usin! the )nternet. /lthou!h Lelia &as already e"po&ered in "any &ays, she appeared to ha#e increased her le#el o social and psycholo!ical e"po&er"ent in airly si!ni icant &ays. ,articipatin! in welink ena-led Leila and others to alter so"e o the stereotypes a-out ar"in! &o"en and this resulted in her eelin! "uch "ore #alued and respected. Throu!h the inspiration and on!oin! support o others in#ol#ed in the pro$ect, Leila also e0perienced enhanced political e"po&er"ent and her leadership and acti#is" &as later pu-licly reco!nised and re&arded. 1o&e#er, ta.in! part in welink also resulted in #arious or"s o dise"po&er"ent, includin! so"eti"es eelin! 4inti"idated' -y others or restricted in her participation, and that so"e non-rural "e"-ers o welink &ere placin! her daily li e under un&anted o-ser#ation.

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'trategies for enhancing rural womens empowerment The indin!s ro" "y e#aluation o the pro$ect (Lennie, 2001+ and ro" the pro$ect itsel (=3)*Ts =esearch Tea", 1666+ su!!ested a nu"-er o strate!ies that "ay -e success ul in enhancin! rural &o"en's e"po&er"ent in rural co""unity de#elop"ent pro$ects that use )*Ts. ?actors that could hinder the e ecti#eness o these strate!ies are also noted. )ncorporatin! participatory or"s o e#aluation into acti#ities to ena-le an on!oin! assess"ent o &hether they are "eetin! the di#erse needs o participants, and to "a.e chan!es that i"pro#e acti#ities and processes. Encoura!in! participants to assu"e $oint o&nership o pro$ects and acti#ities such as online !roups. 1o&e#er, a sense o o&nership can result in certain !roups o participants do"inatin! acti#ities such as online !roups, thus e0cludin! other !roups o &o"en. Asin! a ran!e o participation processes, such as those ound success ul in the =ural 3o"en and )*Ts pro$ect, that can -e e ecti#e in acilitatin! social, technolo!ical, political and psycholo!ical e"po&er"ent. Such processes included esta-lishin! supporti#e online !roups that ena-le participants to net&or. and share in or"ation on a re!ular -asis, and conductin! so"e &o"en-only &or.shops in &hich they eel co" orta-le to openly #oice their issues and concerns. ,articipants' e0istin! le#els o the #arious or"s o e"po&er"ent need to -e considered, as &ell as the e0tent to &hich they &ant to o-tain or increase all our or"s o e"po&er"ent. Encoura!in! the acti#e participation o &o"en ro" di#erse -ac.!rounds and interests. This can acilitate enhanced understandin!s o 4other' &o"en and can result in -roadenin! participants' .no&led!e and perspecti#es and the de#elop"ent o "ore creati#e ideas and strate!ies or personal and co""unity de#elop"ent. 1o&e#er, a&areness is needed o the po&er issues that can arise &hen &o"en o di#erse -ac.!rounds and le#els o s.ills and .no&led!e are -rou!ht to!ether. Asin! #arious co""unication technolo!ies in &ays that "eet a di#ersity o &o"en's needs. This could include audio and #ideocon erences and the esta-lish"ent o online !roups. 1o&e#er, the li"itations and potentially dise"po&erin! e ects o )*Ts need to -e ta.en into account. Asin! co""unication and interaction strate!ies such as &or.shops, se"inars, online !roups, audio and #ideocon erences that ena-les the acti#e participation o colla-oratin! researchers and !o#ern"ent and industry partners. This can ena-le &o"en to ha#e a direct #oice &ith people in strate!ic or policy-"a.in! positions, and thus acilitate political e"po&er"ent. Such strate!ies can also pro#ide decision"a.ers &ith a -etter understandin! o rural &o"en's li#es and issues. 1o&e#er, to -e "ost e ecti#e, prior ace-to- ace contact -et&een pro$ect participants and sta.eholders is re2uired and co""unication and in or"ation sharin! needs to -e personalised. This helps to -uild "utual trust. *onductin! a ran!e o all-&o"en acti#ities that are acilitated in a rela0ed, riendly, inclusi#e, less hierarchical and non-patronisin! "anner that is sensiti#e to

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di erences a"on! participants. These processes should ai" to -uild "utual trust and understandin! and ena-le t&o-&ay sharin! o in or"ation and e0periences. 3or.shop presentations a-out ne& technolo!ies and other issues also need to use lan!ua!e that is easily understood and appropriate. )n pro$ects that ai" to enhance )nternet access, so"e hands-on use o e"ail and the )nternet is essential &here participants lac. e0perience &ith these technolo!ies. /llo&in! ade2uate ti"e to prepare, underta.e and re lect on acti#ities in a rela0ed and unhurried ashion. ,articipatory processes, particularly those that in#ol#e the use o )*Ts, o ten ta.e "uch lon!er to plan, prepare, conduct and e#aluate e ecti#ely than is anticipated. C-tainin! !ood 2uality e2uip"ent and technical support to underta.e &or.shops that include li#e )nternet de"onstrations and trainin! sessions, and -ein! prepared or technical pro-le"s &ith )nternet connections that can occur in so"e rural areas. Conclusion )n -oth /ustralia and o#erseas, there is a !ro&in! e"phasis on research "ethodolo!ies and rural co""unity de#elop"ent pro$ects that ai" to -e participatory, e"po&erin! and inclusi#e. )*Ts such as e"ail and the )nternet are o ten used e0tensi#ely in these pro$ects. 1o&e#er, as 1u"phries (166;+ ar!ues, the co"ple0 and contradictory nature o e"po&er"ent processes needs to -e "ore &idely ac.no&led!ed and understood. The indin!s outlined in this paper su!!est that, desi!ned and i"ple"ented in &ays that "eet rural &o"en's di#erse needs, co""unity participation processes that use )*Ts can -e i"portant to acilitatin! social, technolo!ical, political and psycholo!ical e"po&er"ent. The pro$ect's online !roup welink &as particularly e ecti#e in producin! these e ects. 1o&e#er, the e#aluation also identi ied #arious dise"po&erin! e ects o participatin! in the pro$ect and usin! )*Ts. 5any o these e ects &ere associated &ith #arious -arriers to participation that &ere e0perienced, includin! a lac. o e ecti#e access to )*Ts, &hile others &ere associated &ith the po&er relations a"on! the participants and sta.eholders. The e"inist participatory e#aluation "ethodolo!y and the analytical ra"e&or.s used in this research &ere considered to ha#e ena-led an e ecti#e and ri!orous assess"ent and analysis o the contradictory e ects o the pro$ect. The results o this e#aluation su!!ested a ran!e o strate!ies that could enhance rural &o"en's e"po&er"ent, includin! the use o )*Ts in this process. Technolo!ical e"po&er"ent &as identi ied as a si!ni icant ne& under-theorised or" o e"po&er"ent that re2uires "ore research. The results o this study su!!est that enhancin! rural &o"en's technolo!ical e"po&er"ent is ur!ently re2uired. /s &ell as or personal and social purposes, e ecti#e access to and use o )*Ts is -eco"in! increasin!ly i"portant to rural &o"en's leadership and participation in co""unity and econo"ic de#elop"ent acti#ities. References

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/nderson, J. 166;. 4Jes, -ut is it e"po&er"entQ )nitiation, i"ple"entation and outco"es o co""unity action'. In @. 1u"phries (ed+. ritical perspectives on empowerment. @ir"in!ha"B Venture ,ress, pp. ;6L73. /rnold, E. and 3. ?aul.ner. 1675. 4S"othered -y in#ention. The "asculinity o technolo!y'. In 3. ?aul.ner and E. /rnold (eds+. #mothered by invention. !echnology in womens lives. London, ,luto ,ress, pp.17L50. @utler, S. and 3intra", *. 1661. $eminist groupwork. LondonB Sa!e. *larid!e, *. 166;. Women, development and the environment% A method to &acilitate womens empowerment. Anpu-lished ,h8 thesis, @ris-aneB 8epart"ent o /!riculture, The Ani#ersity o %ueensland. 8a&s, L.1669. /n analysis o the role o the )nternet in supportin! rural &o"en's leadership initiati#es. ,aper presented to the Si0th 3o"en and La-our *on erence, 8ea.in Ani#ersity, <eelon!, 27L30 No#e"-er. ?oucault, 5. 1670. Power'knowledge. #elected interviews and other writings ()*+, ()**. (*. <ordon ed+ Ne& Jor.B 1ar#ester 3heatshea . ?ried"ann, J. 1662. Empowerment. !he politics o& alternative development. *a"-rid!eB @lac.&ell. <ill"an, 5. 166;. 4E"po&erin! pro essionals in hi!her educationQ'. In @. 1u"phries (ed+. ritical perspectives on empowerment. @ir"in!ha"B Venture ,ress, pp.66-11;. <ore, J. 1662. 43hat &e can do or youT 3hat can G&eH do or GyouHQB Stru!!lin! o#er e"po&er"ent in critical and e"inist peda!o!y'. In *. Lu.e and J. <ore (eds+. $eminisms and critical pedagogy. Ne& Jor.B =outled!e, pp.54L93. <race, 5. and Lennie, J. 1667. *onstructin! and reconstructin! rural &o"en in /ustraliaB the politics o chan!e, di#ersity and identity. #ociologia Ruralis, 37 (3+, 351L 390. <race, 5., Lundin, =. and 8a&s, L. 166;. Women and networking% Womens voices &rom elsewhere. A report on the pro-ect% .ueensland rural womens use o& communication technologies% Implications &or in&ormation and re&erral services and &or networking organisations. @ris-aneB *entre or ,olicy and Leadership Studies in Education, %ueensland Ani#ersity o Technolo!y. 1arcourt, 3. 1666. *y-or! "elody. /n introduction to &o"en on the net (3oN+. In 3. 1arcourt (ed+. Women/Internet. reating new cultures in cyberspace. London and Ne& Jor.B >ed @oo.s, pp.1L20. 1arrison, L., 1667. 4Asin! co""unity learnin! to identi y stores o social capitalB 1a#e &e ound the 4ri!ht' co""unityQ'. In 0earning communities, regional sustainability and the learning society, an international symposium. on&erence proceedings, Vol 2, LauncestonB *entre or =esearch and Learnin!, pp.17;-16;.

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1errin!, S. 1664. <ender di erences in co"puter-"ediated co""unicationB @rin!in! a"iliar -a!!a!e to the ne& rontier, Ieynote tal., /"erican Li-rary /ssociation /nnual *on#ention, 5ia"i, June 29. 1u"phries, @. 1664. E"po&er"ent and social researchB Ele"ents or an analytic ra"e&or.. In @. 1u"phries and *. Tru"an (eds+. Re"thinking social research. Anti" discriminatory approaches in research methodology. /ldershotB /#e-ury, pp.175L204. 1u"phries, @. 166;. *ontradictions in the culture o e"po&er"ent. )n @. 1u"phries (ed+. ritical perspectives on empowerment. @ir"in!ha"B Venture ,ress, pp.1L1;. Lather, ,. 1661. 1etting smart. $eminist research and pedagogy with'in the postmodern. Ne& Jor.B =outled!e. Spender, 8. 1665. 2attering on the net. Women, power and cyberspace. North 5el-ourneB Spini e0. Lennie, J. 2000. Voice and silence in an e"ail con#ersation !roup in#ol#in! rural and ur-an &o"en in /ustralia. )n the electronic con erence 43o"en's or!anisations and the -uildin! o ci#il society in the t&enty- irst centuryB an international perspecti#e', conducted -y the <lo-al Net&or. on 3o"en's /d#ocacy and *i#il Society, 4-15 8ece"-er, 2000. httpBPP&&&.philanthropy.or!P<NPIENP!nte0tP (/ccessed 4 8ece"-er 2000+ Lennie, J. 2001. !roubling empowerment% an evaluation and criti3ue o& a &eminist action research pro-ect involving rural women and interactive communication technologies. Anpu-lished ,h8 thesis, @ris-aneB ?aculty o @usiness, %ueensland Ani#ersity o Technolo!y. 5ansell =. and 3ehn, A. (eds+. 1667. nowledge societies: Information technology for sustainable de!elopment0 .ew 1or": C0 ord Ani#ersity ,ress. 5ilio, N. 166;. Engines o& empowerment% 4sing in&ormation technology to create healthy communities and challenge public policy. *hica!oB 1ealth /d"inistration ,ress. ,eters, 5. and 5arshall, J. 1661. Education and e"po&er"entB ,ost"odernis" and the criti2ue o hu"anis". Education and #ociety. 6 (2+, 123L134. Schuler, 8. 166;. 2ew community networks. Wired &or change. Ne& Jor.B /ddison3esley. Scott, 5., 8ia"ond, /., and S"ith, @. 1669. 5pportunities &or communities% Public access to networked in&ormation technology. *an-erraB 8epart"ent o Social Security. Shapiro, J. 1677. ,articipatory e#aluationB To&ards a trans or"ation o assess"ent or &o"en's studies pro!ra"s and pro$ects. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 10 (3+, 161L166. Si"pson, L., 3ood, L., 8a&s, L and Seinen, /. 2001. reating rural connections% 6ook (% Pro-ect overview. @ris-aneB The *o""unication *entre, %ueensland Ani#ersity o Technolo!y.
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The =ural 3o"en and )*Ts =esearch Tea". 1666. !he new pioneers% Women in rural .ueensland collaboratively e7ploring the potential o& communication and in&ormation technologies &or personal, business and community development. @ris-aneB The *o""unication *entre, %ueensland Ani#ersity o Technolo!y. Truon!, 1. &ith 3illia"s, <., *lar., J. and *ouey, /. 1663. <ender issues in online co""unications. httpBPP&&&.cpsr.or!PcpsrP!enderP-a&it.c p63 (/ccessed 31 July 1669+ #an >oonen, L. 2001. ?e"inist )nternet studies. $eminist 8edia #tudies 1 (1+, ;9-92. 3ads&orth, J. 1669. Everyday evaluation on the run. (2nd ed+, /llen and An&inB St Leonards, NS3. 3a$c"an, J. 1661. $eminism con&ronts technology. *a"-rid!eB ,olity ,ress. 3el-ourn, /. 1661. ==/ and the analysis o di erence. RRA 2otes. 14, 14L23.

June Lennie holds a postdoctoral ello&ship &ith the Ser#ice Leadership and )nno#ation =esearch ,ro!ra", %ueensland Ani#ersity o Technolo!y, @ris-ane. 1er si!ni icant research and consultin! e0perience enco"passes #arious ields, includin! rural &o"en's use o co""unication technolo!ies, !ender and co""unity participation processes, and the social i"pacts o technolo!ies. 8urin! 166;-1669 she &as a researcher &ith an a&ard-&innin! e"inist action research pro$ect in#ol#in! %ueensland rural &o"en and ne& co""unication technolo!ies. 1er doctoral research critically e#aluated the "ethods used in this pro$ect. June's current research ai"s to -uild the capacities o rural people (particularly &o"en+ in participatory plannin! and e#aluation related to co""unication technolo!y initiati#es. /ddress or correspondenceB 8r June Lennie Ser#ice Leadership and )nno#ation =esearch ,ro!ra" School o /d#ertisin!, 5ar.etin! and ,u-lic =elations ?aculty o @usiness %ueensland Ani#ersity o Technolo!y <,C @o0 2434 @ris-ane, %. 4001 ,honeB ?a0B E"ailB 09 37;4 4157 09 37;4 2252 $.lennieU2ut.edu.au

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