CHAPTERIZATION

INTRODUCTION. FUNDING IN THE NERs. AGRICULTURE.. PHYSICAL INFRASTRUTURE.. BORDER TRADE.. DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF GOVT. OF INDIA. CONCLUSION.. 4 5 8 12 15 20 33

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For this project has involved over one month time of researching and writing. This project has been helpful in enriching my knowledge and clearing my concept about the topic. Many people have been extraordinarily generous with time, information and counsel. So with pleasure, I would like to dedicate a paragraph to them. But I shall hope that each of the individuals and institutions named will appreciate the extent and warmth of my gratitude to them. Institutions The library staff of Chanakya National Law University, Patna who helped me during the entire period, with books and other materials for the accomplishment of this project work. Individuals These are divided into several groups, beginning with those friends, colleagues, and mentors who supported me all through the project work. In no particular order, they are: my honourable faculty DR. SHIWANI MOHAN and librarian RATNESH KUMAR and others. Last but not least I would like to thank Almighty whose blessing helped me to complete this project.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Aims and Objectives: The aim of this research paper is to present a detailed study ECONOMICS DEVELOPMENT IN THE NORTH EAST EAST REGION.

Scope and Limitations: The researcher has used the doctrinal method and has relied on the secondary sources for the content of the research paper. Owing to the large number of topics that could be included in the project, the scope of this research paper is exceedingly vast. However in the interest of brevity, this paper has been limited to the topics which deal with the topic i.e ECONOMICS DEVELOPMENT IN THE NORTH EAST EAST REGION.

Sources of Data: The following secondary sources of data have been used in the project Articles Books Writing

Method of Writing: The method of writing followed in the course of this research paper is primarily descriptive as well as analytical.

Mode of Citation: The researcher has followed a uniform mode of citation throughout the course of this research

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INTRODUCTION
Indias North Eastern Region is a rainbow country extraordinarily diverse and colourful, mysterious when seen through parted clouds. It stretches from the foothills of the Himalayas in the eastern range and is surrounded by Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal and Myanmar. It includes the seven sisters - Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura, along with a small and beautiful cousin in the Himalayan fringes, namely, Sikkim. The region is rich in natural resources, covered with dense forests, has the highest rainfall in the country, with large and small river systems nesting the land and is a treasure house of flora and fauna. Marked by diversity in customs, cultures, traditions and languages, it is home to multifarious social, ethnic and linguistic groups. Troubled by history and geo-politics, the North East has remained one of the most backward regions of the country.1 The trauma of partition in 1947 not only took the region backwards by at least a quarter of a century, but also placed hurdles on future economic progress. It isolated the region, sealed both land and sea routes for commerce and trade, and severed access to traditional markets and the gateway to the East and South-East Asia the Chittagong port in East Bengal (now Bangladesh). It distanced the approach to the rest of India by confining connectivity to a narrow 27-km-wide Siliguri corridor, making it a remote land and constraining access for movement of goods and people. The uneasy relationship with most of the neighbouring countries has not helped the cause of development of the region either: with 96 per cent of the boundary of the region forming international borders, private investment has shied away from the region. Poor infrastructure and governance is combined with low productivity and market access. Inability of governments to control floods and river bank erosion causes unmitigated damage to properties and lives of millions of people every year in the region. If the quest for ethnic and cultural identities has sowed the seeds, frustration and dissatisfaction from seclusion, backwardness, remoteness and problems of governance have provided fertile ground for breeding armed insurgencies. here is overwhelming dependence for resources on the Central Government, public investment in he region has sub-optimal productivity due to weak of forward and backward linkages.

Indian Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), www.ibef.com

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FUNDING IN THE NORTH EAST REGION

The strife-riven States of Indias Northeast are a case in point. It is commonplace to say that this region has remained an area of neglect for more than five decades since independence. From the point of view of national political consciousness, this is, perhaps, a correct evaluation. In the context of developmental allocations and a wide range of economic and social indices, however, this is far from the truth. The States of the Northeast are ascribed a "special category" status by the Government of India, and the National Development Council (NDC), the apex body for the approval of Plan funding, earmarks 30 per cent of total Plan allocations for special category States as central assistance for State Plans. Significantly, these States receive 90 per cent of Plan assistance as a grant, and just 10 per cent as a loan, as against the norm of 30 per cent grant and 70 per cent loan for other States. Favoured treatment is also given by the Finance Commission with respect to the sharing of Central tax revenues. Clearly, therefore, these States have not been made to suffer as a result of their resource endowments. The financial flow of funds to the Northeast, and the persistence of underdevelopment against a backdrop of financial support from the Centre, consequently demand an examination of the decision making processes and patterns of resource allocation within these States.2 In the first place (as Table 1 indicates) the financial support to these States from the Central devolution (Planning & Finance Commissions), accounts for over 80 per cent of the per capita revenue receipts in this region. Secondly, developmental expenditure as a percentage of revenue expenditure ranges between a high of over 72 per cent (Arunachal Pradesh) and 60 per cent (Nagaland). Thirdly, capital expenditure as a proportion of total expenditure was, on an average, at least 10 percentage points higher than the national average. This is also the case if another avenue of capital/asset creation in the region, the per capita plan outlay, is considered. Simply put, these States, on the average, fare much better than the national average on each of these parameters. This is also the case for a variety of socio-economic indices. Specifically, literacy rates in the region tend to be significantly higher than the national average, while population densities are
2

http://www.ncap.res.in/upload_files/workshop/wsp10/html/chapter3.htm

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significantly lower (Table 2). Morbidity rates in the region are also well below the national average, at 94 per thousand, as against the national average of 122, for short duration morbidity, and 3,076 per hundred thousand as against the national average of 4,578 for major morbidity.5 Per capita incomes, at Rs. 5,070 per annum, are higher than the national average of Rs. 4,485, and the population below the poverty line, at 33 per cent, is less than the national figure of 39 per cent.6 Even access to electricity, at 44 per cent of households, is marginally above the national average of 43 per cent;7 as is access to a health sub-centre / hospital within five kilometres of the village, which stands at 47 per cent of villages in the Northeast, in comparison to the All India average of 41.2 per cent.3 Table 2 : Select Socio- economic Indicators in the Northeast State Population Density Literacy Rate Total 41.59 Male 51.45 Female 29.69

Arunachal Pradesh Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Tripura All States

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286 82 79 33 73 263 274

52.89 59.89 49.10 82.27 61.65 60.44 52.21

61.87 71.60 53.12 85.61 67.62 70.58 64.13

43.03 47.6 44.85 78.6 54.75 49.65 39.29

Source: Economic Survey 2010-11, Govt. of India, Table 9.2: S-115 Note: 1. Density is expressed as population per square Kilometres.
3

http://www.ncap.res.in/upload_files/workshop/wsp10/html/chapter3.htm

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2. Literacy rate refers to population aged seven years and above There are, of course, a number of other parameters, the network of roads, industrial development, etc., on which these States lag far behind national averages. But the image of grinding poverty that is often projected is inaccurate, and the social backwardness that we ascribe to the tribes of this region is a heavily concept-dependent value judgement. Indeed, the character and equity of local institutions for village and self-governance in tribal societies tend to be far superior to the caste riven, feudal panchayatsin much of rural India, the status of women is certainly higher, and crimes against women dramatically lower than they are elsewhere in the country. Our impression of backward or primitive tribal societies in the Northeast is cast, at least in some measure, in the mould of the market economy and its indices, and in the patterns of our cultural prejudices. To return, however, to the state of health of public finance in the region, it is notable that the ratio of development to non-development expenditure is declining despite increasing Central devolution, and the non-development expenditure as a percentage of total revenue expenditure has risen sharply. An analysis of budget papers for the period 1991-92 to 199899 for the seven states of the Northeast indicates that although the development to nondevelopment expenditure ratio remains above unity, the gap is diminishing rapidly (Table 3). This trend is confirmed by the estimates of non-development expenditure (NDE) as a percentage of total revenue expenditure. For example, in Nagaland and Tripura, NDE was consuming close to half of total revenue expenditure by 1998-99, up from a third in 1991-92. While increases in other States are smaller, the only exception to this rising trend is Arunachal Pradesh. Table 3: Revenue Account Derivatives State Dev/NDE NDE as % TR Exp. 199192 Arunachal Pradesh 2.92 2.53 29.25 28.31 1998-99 1991-92 1998-99

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Assam Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Tripura

3.00 2.00 2.56 3.13 1.76 2.51

1.78 1.86 2.11 1.91 1.21 1.19

25.00 33.33 28.11 24.19 36.27 28.45

35.92 34.91 32.19 34.42 45.16 45.67

Table 4: Disaggregated View of NDE in 1998-99 (in percent of total NDE of Revenue Account) State Arunachal Pradesh Assam Manipur 37.65 28.69 37.98 45.00 56.25 48.51 56.52 63.22 16.67 18.35 6.28 7.25 9.27 9.86 Interest Admn.Services Pension 27.82 57.05 7.37

Meghalaya 27.44 Mizoram Nagaland Tripura 33.04 28.15 22.54

The two main components of rising NDE are administrative services and interest payments, with the former consuming between 38 and 63 per cent of the total by 1998-99 (Table 4). Of this administrative expenditure, policing consumes between 50 to 70 per cent of the total this would appear to be reasonable in States characterised by high levels of civil strife. However, the role of the State police in counter-insurgency operations is severely limited in the Northeast, with the Army and the Central para-military forces carrying the brunt of the responsibilities for fighting terror. K.P.S. Gills inference that there exists an extremely
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unfavourable ratio of operational to static and non-productive force in the State police would thus appear to be valid for this region as well.4

AGRICULTURE
A closer analysis of expenses within the Development Expenditure (DE) category also raises interesting questions, especially with regard to "general economic services" and including the sub-head "secretariat economic services." Secretariat economic services accounted for a mere 40 per cent of the total general economic services during 1991-92. By 1998-99, this proportion had increased to 80 per cent. Evidently, the maximum "development" taking place in this region is confined to the State secretariats themselves. If administrative expenses in both the NDE and DE categories are totalled, it is seen that they account for as much as 70 paise in every rupee of "development expenditure" in some of the seven States of the Northeast. In addition to the substantial amounts of money that the States of the Northeast receive from the Centre are the large overdrafts from the Treasury that have become a routine practice in this region. The total amounts available for development, over the years have, consequently, been very significant. In Assam alone, for instance, the Planning and Rural Development Departments had expended a total of Rs. 11.65 billion over the period April 1992 to February 1998, on Rural Development, with no visible impact on the ground, and no system of accountability for the funds so expended.5

The region is endowed with a varied topography and agro-climactic conditions which offer vast potential for agriculture, horticulture and forestry. However, the region is lagging in agricultural development contrary to the national ethos. Reasons include a lack of appropriate

Dr. Acharyya N.N. North East India on Historical Perspective, Omsons Publication, New Delhi,2006.

Agriculture and Rural Development in North-Eastern India: The Role of NABARD,K.G Karmakar, ASCI Journal of Management 37(2): 89108

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strategies for the development of natural resources, inadequate infrastructure facilities and low adoption of improved technology. The region, which is heavily dependent on the agriculture sector, needs a green revolution to eradicate poverty and boost its economy. Such a green revolution must be adequately backed by financial institutions, marketing functionaries and R&D.

Current scenario Agriculture provides livelihood to 70% of the regions population. In Mizoram, around 51% of the population lives in rural areas and is dependent on agriculture. The figure in Sikkim is high at 89%. However, the pattern of agricultural growth has remained uneven across regions. The states continue to be net importers of food grains even for their own consumption.

This is due to the limited land available for agriculture. The region has a forest cover of more than 66.1% (ranging from 35.3% in Assam to 90.7% in Mizoram) against the national average of 21.1%. Even though, it accounts for about 8% of the total geographical area of the country, it has only 3.4% of land for agricultural purposes (CMIE, 2007). It contributes only 2.8% to the total agricultural production, underscoring the low productivity of the region (RBI, 2005).6

OPPURTUNITY OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Rubber and bamboo are among the important agricultural produces which can attract a lot of investment opportunities. Tripura is the chief production hub and has been declared as the second rubber capital of India right after Kerala by the Indian Rubber B oard. The state has the potential to produce 10,000 hectares of rubber (the available plantation area is 35,760
6

Agriculture and Rural Development in North-Eastern India: The Role of NABARD,K.G Karmakar, ASCI Journal of Management 37(2): 89108

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hectares). Other rubber producing states in the region are Mizoram and Assam. Coupled with the fact that globally India ranks third in the production and fourth in the consumption of rubber creates a huge market for investors. The NE states also produce a substantial percentage of bamboo, accounting for 65% of Indias production value and 20% of the global production value. Mizoram alone contributes to around 40% of the countrys bamboo production. While Indias bamboo market is expected to grow to 5.5 billion USD by 2015, the UNs Industrial Development Organisation estimates the NEs bamboo production to grow up to 1.25 billion USD in the same period. The regions comparative advantages in producing fruits, vegetables and other horticulture products can be tapped by setting up small-scale processing units for the local market which will also boost rural employment. This set-up is economically viable as well as doable as a small processing unit requires little capital. The region produces a large amount of spices such as chillies, gingers, mustard seeds, fruits and vegetables which can be processed and marketed locally. Arunachal Pradesh has taken up the cultivation of horticulture produce especially of subtropical fruits on a large scale with assistance from the government. In Mizoram, which accounts for 12% of the total fruits produced in the north east, a special purpose vehicle (SPV) has been formed with private sector companies to set up a plant for the processing of turmeric, ginger, chilly, fruits and other horticulture products. In Manipur, organic farming is the most sought-after practice in the hill areas. The state government has given special impetus to farming for pineapple, passion fruit, mushroom, etc.7

on a massive scale. With proper processing, many of the agri-horticultural crops of the state look promising for export. Another focus area for the agro based industry is the processing for extracts of spices, medicinal and herbal plants. The state government has established a food park at Nilakuthi with a project cost of 6.6 million USD. This park will provide common facilities like cold storage, warehouse, quality control laboratories, packaging, tool room, power and water supply, sewerage treatment, etc. The Nagaland Food Private Limited (NFPL) established in the Dimapur Industrial Estate specializes in bamboo shoot processing, pineapple, passion fruit and orange juice processing. The food and meat processing sector also provides immense potential for investment in the state. The Nagaland Industrial
7

http://agricoop.nic.in/SIA111213312.pdf ( Department of agriculture and cooperation, INM division)

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Development Corporation has received approval for developing an agro and food processing SEZ in Dimapur.8 There is also scope for dairy processing and poultry, fishery processing in the region. There is huge demand for dried fish in the region, processing of which is not capital intensive. The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), which has extensive experience in mobilising producers in milk, vegetables as well as other areas, could play a key enabling role in this process. Increase in milk production will encourage the milk, butter and cheese processing industry in the region. Private entrepreneurs need to be encouraged to set up storage, distribution and marketing infrastructure such as a cold storage chain along major arterial highways. This will help exploit the horticulture potential of the region and bring perishables speedily to marketing hubs. For cold chain operations, a public-private partnership (PPP) or lease could also be explored. Similar initiatives can already be seen in Meghalaya and Mizoram where flowers are being distributed outside the region by a private distributor, Zopar, which also supplies seed varieties to farmers. Constraints In spite of the efforts of the MOFPi and regional development organizations such as the NeDFI, challenges remain in realizing the full potential of the regions agricultural resources. Fragmented land holdings by small and marginal farmers which dominate the landholding pattern in the north east is uneconomical. The region has low proportion of irrigated area and investment in building irrigation capacity has been insufficient and ineffective. The use of agricultural inputs in the north east is also low compared to the rest of the country. Fertilisers used per hectare during 2010-11 were negligible in the region, especially in Nagaland (2.35 kg), Arunachal Pradesh (3.01 kg); and ranged between 13 kg in Meghalaya and 63 kg in Assam compared to the national average of 135.27 kg per hectare. Also the share of agriculture in total electricity used is just under 1% in all the north-eastern states, except Tripura (7.41%), as against the national average of 20.43%.9

Annual Report 2010-11, CEA Annual Report 2010-11, CEA

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PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Roads and railways Road is an important mode of travel in the hilly areas as other mode of travel is either too expensive or difficult. The road infrastructure is relatively deficient in the NER although the regions road density per capita is significantly higher as compared to the rest of the country. Given the low density of population and the hilly terrain of the region this is an expected outcome. The road length per unit area is higher only in Nagaland, Assam, and Tripura.

To address this The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (Morth) has been paying special attention to the development of national highways in the region. The ministry has earmarked 10% of the total allocation for the NE region. The total length of NHs in the region is 8,480 km and these are being developed and maintained by three agencies-the state Public Works Departments, Border Road Organization (BRO) and National Highway authority of India (NHAI). Of the total length of 8,480 km, about 2,118 km is with the BRO and 5,409 km is with the respective state PWDs. The remaining length of 953 km is with the NHAI. There has also been a special thrust in building the road infrastructure. Sufficient funds have also been allocated in building the road infrastructure in the NE states. The states have 2,473 km of NHs, 5,711 km of state highways, and 15,154 km of major district roads. The states have funds (from various agencies such as Asian Development Bank, etc.) to upgrade the worn out state roads. In most NE states, village and district roads are dominant. These roads are particularly important for facilitating intra-state movement of people and freight.10

The major road programmes that are being undertaken in the region are as follows: 1. National Highway Development Programme (NHDP)-II proposes to link the east-west corridor beginning at Porbandar, Gujarat to the NE through a 678 km four-lane highway connecting Silchar to Srirampur via Lumding-Daboka-Nagaon-Guwahati in Assam. This has been entrusted to the NHAI under the NHDP phase-II. 2. NHDP-III proposes to widen 1,051 km stretches of various NHs to improve connectivity of state capital towns.
10

Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE). 2000. Economic Intelligence Service: Profile of Districts. Mumbai: CMIE.2007. Economic Intelligence Service: Agriculture. Mumbai: CMIE

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3.The Arunachal package envisages improving the connectivity to the Arunachal dramatically. The package incorporates the following: Construction of public roads to link the hydel power project Four-lane connectivity to Itanagar Two-lane connectivity of district headquarters Trans-Arunachal highway Special Accelerated Road Development Programme for North East (SARDP-NE) Phases A and B will cover construction and improvement of 8,737 km of road length. Major objectives of this programme includes providing a two-lane NH connectivity to all state capitals with East-west corridor, providing connectivity to all district headquarter of NER by at least a two-lane road and providing inter-connectivity to all the state capitals by at least a two-lane NH. Besides, there is a proposal to connect India and Myanmar through a single road running on either side of the borders. Earlier, the stretch of road in Myanmar was to start from Kaletwa, which will now start from Paletwa. The DPR for this new stretch is being prepared. In India, the road is to start from Lawngtlai in Mizoram. The technical specification of the road has been revised and consequently revised cost estimates are being worked out. Railways are the best mode of mass transportation in the country. However, in the hilly terrains of the NER it is difficult and expensive to setup rail networks. This accounts for the absence or nominal presence of railway lines in hilly states like Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya and Mizoram.11

Airways and waterways Inland water transport can be a viable, cost-effective alternative in the plain areas of NER given the high cost of expanding other mode of transportation. It will also create employment opportunities, promote tourism and open up inter-country routes for trade and commerce. However, the following needs to be done: There is a need to improve facilities for night navigation and mechanical handling. Cargo vessels and terminals should be increased to meet the rising demands.

11

Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE). 2000. Economic Intelligence Service: Profile of Districts. Mumbai: CMIE.2007. Economic Intelligence Service: Agriculture. Mumbai: CMIE

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Emphasis should be on PPPs for the development of fairways and infrastructure in Major river routes in the NER are the Brahmaputra and the Barak in Assam which has a combined navigable length of around 1,000 km. In all the NER has about 3,839* km of navigable river routes. There are seven operational port locations in the state for import and export to the Kolkata and Haldia ports. There is an inland container depot (ICD) at Amingaon, 10 km from Guwahati, operated by the Container Corporation of India Ltd (CONCOR). Waterway connectivity between Mizoram and the port of Akyab Sittwe is under construction and this could lead to enhanced trade opportunities within the country. The NE region has one international airport in Guwahati, Assam-the Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International (LGBI) Airport. The Airport Authority of India (AAI) plans to make it one of the major international airports, connecting Southeast Asia with India. Besides, Assam has six domestic airports at Guwahati, Tezpur, Jorhat, Dibrugarh, Silchar and North Lakhimpur. During 2011-12, the Guwahati airport received 2.2 million passengers. Mizoram has one operational airport at Lengpui where daily air connectivity is available through multiple air carriers. In 2009-10, Lengpui airport handled 1,790 aircrafts with 120,000 passengers. The Shillong airport (Umroi Airport) is fully-operational, while the Baljek Airport is under construction and upgradation. In Sikkim, the airport construction is underway in Pakyong. A greenfield airport has been proposed near Itanagar, for which environmental clearance has been received in April 2010. The Ministry of Civil Aviation has also planned to operationalise airports at Daporijo and Tezu in Arunachal. Nagaland has one operational airport at Dimapur. A second airport is being planned for Kohima. Under the Look-East Policy, improved links with international neighbours is a priority. Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar and TAR should be connected to Guwahati in addition to Bangkok. Another international airport for the southern part of NER in Agartala can be prioritized.12

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Ministry of Communications and Information Technology

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BORDER TRADE

With the emergence of globalisation, economic integration among nations has become a necessity. Cross-border trade is the most important medium of the current wave of globalisation. In this process, knowingly or unknowingly the north east economy has emerged in to a new dimension of cross-border trade (informal trade) with neighbouring nations and that increases social welfare of the poor masses of the region. Under the Look East policy, India seeks economic cooperation with ASEAN and other neighbouring countries through the gateway of the region. The North East is located at a crossroads between three major economies East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. This geopolitical advantage, has however, not really translated into the regions economic development. Despite the high growth in Indias trade ties with Southeast Asia and China in the recent past, the Northeasts role has been marginal in terms of its contribution to trade and as a trade route. The Northeast has not been able to integrate and benefit from the various regional and sub-regional initiatives that neighbouring countries have created .Out of Indias export volume of about $254.4 billion, the Northeasts share is only about $0.01 billion. The Planning Commissions report on North easts border trade with the neighbouring countries shows that the region mainly exports primary products like boulder stone, limestone, fruits, tea, coal etc. Nearly 94 per cent of exports from the region consist of tea and coal. On the other hand, manufactured goods have a negligible presence in the export basket. Even the manufactured goods produced in areas other than North East are not very significant in official border trade.13 In order to benefit from the cross border trade initiatives industries in the region need to develop goods to be exported to the neighbouring countries. Processing industries have to be set up to manufacture quality goods, which can be offered in international markets at acceptable prices. Infrastructure and connectivity improvements in terms of strategic roads to border areas as well as Integrated Check Posts and border trade points need to be developed. This will also lead to reduced informal trade between NE and the neighbouring regions.

13

Bhattacharjee Pravas Ranjan, Ecnomic Transition in Tripura, Vikas Publishing, New Delhi, 2009

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Trade with Bangladesh

The World Bank statistics on Indias trade status with Bangladesh points out the following interesting facts: Over 15% of Bangladeshi imports come from India. Bangladesh has a large trade deficit with India; this is offset by surpluses with other countries. Bangladeshi exports to India receive tariff concessions (under SAFTA). They account for less than 1% of total Indias imports. Illegal trade between the two countries amounts to 3/4 of regular trade.

Against this backdrop, popular argument in support of strengthening economic ties with Bangladesh has been that closer ties will be mutually beneficial. Four north-eastern states Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Assam - share a 1,880-km border with Bangladesh, and a large number of people reside just along the border.Bangladesh needs the north east market to sell its products, while the latter needs investments. The NE states can capitalise on this and bargain for investments in lieu of opening its markets to Bangladesh. The country has been maintaining around 6% growth consecutively for the past couple of years. It is likely to emerge as a middle income country by 2020. Again, geographical proximity also makes the region lucrative for Bangladesh to invest in areas such as hydelpower, an area in which the country has already expressed its interest since it will have to invest very less in transportation.14 Another argument is that importing goods from Bangladesh will be cheaper than products which are brought in to the region from other parts of the country as the cost of transportation will be minimal. This will implicitly impact the lives of the people of the region as the cost of living will come down subsequently. Bangladesh and India have agreed to set up a number of Border Haats (border markets) along the boundaries, which, if opened, are expected to witness bilateral trade worth $20 million every year.

14

Bhattacharjee Pravas Ranjan, Ecnomic Transition in Tripura, Vikas Publishing, New Delhi, 2009

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India and Bangladesh set up the first such Border Haat at Kalaichar in West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya last year. The border haats or bazaars are to be set up within five km on either side of the international border. The border haats would be allowed to sell local agricultural and horticultural products, small agriculture and household goods, e.g. spices, minor forest products (excluding timber), fresh and dry fish, dairy and poultry products, cottage industry items, wooden furniture, handloom and handicraft items, etc. No local tax would be imposed on the trading, and both Indian as well as Bangladeshi currencies will be accepted.

Trade with Myanmar

The Indian government has long identified stronger ties with neighbouring countries, and especially Myanmar has been identified as the key to break the regions geo-political isolation. To that end, in its 2008 blueprint for socio-economic development in the region, promoting trade and investing in infrastructure on both sides of the India-Myanmar border was a top priority for the government. Recently, several agreements have been signed between both the countries to meet these goals. During Prime Minister Manmohan Singhs visit to Myanmar (May 2012), memoranda of understanding (MoUs) were signed not only to enhance border development, but also to increase connectivity between the two countries and through Myanmar with Thailand and the Indo-Chinese states. Also, building infrastructure is on the top of the list. India has agreed to upgrade an extensive network of roads and bridges in Myanmar that will effectively connect the region (and the rest of India) to Thailand as soon as 2016. Both sides are also exploring the possibility of setting up train routes through both the countries.15 The efficacy of various projects related to the trilateral highway as a component of the Asian highway cannot be overlooked. It aims at connecting Indias north east with Thailand via Myanmar. There has been an agreement between India and Myanmar on the construction and upgradation of the Kalewa-Yargyi stretch of the trilateral highway during recent meetings. In its larger and more ambitious frame, the project is an example of triangular road diplomacy between India, Myanmar and Thailand, with a vision of inter-linking the Indian Ocean with
15

Bhattacharjee Pravas Ranjan, Ecnomic Transition in Tripura, Vikas Publishing, New Delhi,2009

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the South China Sea. It is a component of the Asian highway, which is scheduled for completion by 2016. Proposed and implemented by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (UNESCAP), the Asian Highway project includes the highway 1 and 2 that would pass through the region, connecting India with its eastern neighbours.

The highway needs to be interlinked with other critical projects that are envisaged to be completed as part of the Look East policy such as the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Proj ect and Trans-Asian Railways. There is also a concern regarding illegal migration, which will also increase. Thus, there appears to be some incompatibility between the various development initiatives and approaches adopted in the region and the needs of the local people. Many of the movements, agitations and local protests being witnessed in the region are directly linked to such incompatible approaches.

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DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

1. NON-LAPSABLE RESERVE

CENTRAL

POOL

A proposal was mooted by the Planning Commission to the Cabinet for constitution of such a Central Pool of Resources. The Cabinet approved the approach, in principle, on 15th December,1997, observing that the creation of the Central Resources Pool would require Parliamentary approval and would have to await constitution of the Twelfth Lok Sabha. The Central Pool therefore, could not be constituted in 1997-98. Following the Lok Sabha elections earlier in the year 1998, the matter relating to creation of the Central Pool of Resources was pursued in consultation with the Ministry of Finance. The Prime Minister convened a Meeting of the Chief Ministers of the North Eastern States on 8th May 1998 when, inter alia, it was indicated that a Non-lapsable Central Pool of Resources for the funding of specific projects in these States would be created. The relevant paragraph from the Prime Minister's speech reads as under: "We are examining the feasibility of creating a Central Pool of Resources (CPR) which, in turn, will give critical additional support for an accelerated implementation of projects in the entire region. This pool, created from the unspent balance of the allocated expenditure of 10% of the budgets of the concerned Central Ministries, could well amount t o around Rs.1500 crore annually." 16 This commitment of the Government was also reflected in the Speech of the Finance Minister while presenting the Union Budget for the year, 1998 -99. The relevant paragraphs from the Budget Speech are reproduced below:
16

http://db.nedfi.com/

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"Furthermore, it has been decided that a non -lapsable Central Resources Pool will be created for deposit of funds from all Ministries where the plan expenditure on the North Eastern Region is less than 10 per cent of the total plan allocation of the Minist ry. The difference between 10 per cent of the allocation and the actual expenditure incurred on the North Eastern Region will be transferred to the Central Pool, which will be used for funding specific programmes for economic and social upliftment of the N orth Eastern States." Further, as part of the budget proposals 1998 -99, it was announced that: "It has been decided that all Central Ministries/Departments should earmark at least 10% of their budget for specific programme of development in the North Easte rn Region. To the extent of shortfall in the utilization of this provision by any Ministry/Department (except some exempted ones) according to this norm, the amount would be transferred to a new Reserve Fund in the Public Account titled 'Central Resource Pool for development of North Eastern Region'. Presently, a token provision of Rs.1 crore is being made for transfer to the fund. In Budget 1997-98, such short provision was assessed to be about Rs.1,600 crore. A similar exercise for analyzing the provisions in Central Plan specific to the North Eastern Region in Budget 1998-99 would be carried out and the Resources Pool would be enhanced at Revised Estimates stage to the extent of shortfall from the 10% norm."The Union Budget 1998 -99 was voted and passed by Parliament. With that, the Non-lapsable Central Pool of Resources was constituted with approval of Parliament. 17

Objectives:
In the conference of Governors and Chief Ministers of the North Eastern States and Sikkim held in January 2000 at Shillong the Pr ime Minister stated the objectives of the Non-lapsable Central Pool of Resources. The relevant paragraph from Prime Minister's Speech is:
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"My Government has also created a pool of non -lapsable funds for the NorthEast and Sikkim. This pool, meant for funding development projects in these States, will fill the resource gap in creation of new infrastructure, which is a top priority concern of the Union Government." The broad objective of the Non -lapsable Central Pool of Resources scheme is to ensure speedy development of infrastructure in the North Eastern Region by increasing the flow of budgetary financing for new infrastructure

projects/schemes in the Region. Both physical and social infrastructure sectors such as Irrigation and Flood Control, Power, Roads and Bridges, Education, Health, Water Supply and Sanitation - are considered for providing support under the Central Pool, with projects in physical infrastructure sector receiving priority. Funds from the Central Pool can be released for State sect or as well as Central sector projects/schemes. However the funds available under the Central Pool are not meant to supplement the normal Plan programmes either of the State Governments or Union Ministries/ Departments/ Agencies.

Institutional arrangement to Administer the NLCPR Funds.

During the year, the institutional arrangements for administering the Non lapsable Central Pool has been streamlined. The guidelines to administer the Pool have been revised. The Committee to administer the Non -Lapsable Central Pool of Resources has been reconstituted. The reconstituted Committee is headed by Secretary, Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region and has representation from Ministries of Finance, Home Affairs and Planning

Commission. Financial Advisor to the Ministry of Development of N orth Eastern Region has been included as a member. Representatives of Union

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Ministry/Departments, whose proposals are to be considered in a particular sitting for funding under NLCPR, are also invited. For identification of projects under Non -Lapsable Central Pool of Resources, States are asked to submit, before the beginning of the financial year, a prioritized list of projects with a short write up on each project. The earlier practice of receiving projects throughout the year directly from the various st ate departments concerned has been stopped. Now the Planning and Development Department of the state concerned is the nodal department for NLCPR and that department is DoNER's interface with all other departments of the state. The priority accorded by the state to the projects in the 'priority list' is only a suggestive and the Committee scrutinizes the projects in the lists in order to identify and finally retain the suitable projects for detailed examination. In examining the priority, the committee is, i nter-alia, guided by considerations such as:

Projects of economic infrastructure is given priority; In the social sector, priority to drinking water supply and other health and sanitation projects;

Projects in Autonomous district Council (VIth Schedule of the Constitution) is given priority;

Past performance of a state in implementing projects in the particular sectors to which the projects belong is also considered;

The overall utilisation and absorption of funds by a particular state in the past years also guide the overall quantum of projects to be undertaken for that state in a year. Detailed Project Report(s) for such retained projects are then prepared by the state concerned. These project proposals are thereafter examined in consultation with the concerned Central Ministry/Department. The recommendations/views, thus received are place before the Committee to administer the Non -Lapsable Central Pool, which considers the proposal and accords approval.
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After approval of the Committee, funds are sanct ioned and released by the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region on submission of an implementation schedule. Subsequent releases are made only after receipt of Utilisation Certificate of earlier releases.

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Vision 2020
The challenge of accelerating development in the North Eastern Region to realise the Vision is formidable, and the road to peace and prosperity is long and arduous. The peoples vision requires a participatory development strategy. The High-Level Commission appointed by the Prime Minister in its report submitted in 1997 (India, 1997) has stated that there are four basic deficits confronting the North East and these are: _ A basic needs deficit; _ An infrastructure deficit; _ A resource deficit; and _ A two-way deficit of understanding with the rest of the country. _ To this should be added the governance deficit. Overcoming these deficits will call for a paradigm shift in development strategy, supplemented by reforms in policies and institutions, including capacity building and strengthening governance.18

Components of the Development Strategy

Inclusive development in the region requires participatory governance and planning, which calls for maximisation of self-governance. This requires the creation and activation of governance institutions right from the village level upward. There is a need for a complete shift in the development strategy and the planning process towards designing and implementing people-centric programmes based on harnessing the natural resources of the region. Only such a strategy can ensure inclusive development, help alleviate poverty and ensure a reasonable standard of living for every family in the region. Participatory development requires capacity development of people as well as institutions, and here, education and skill development will be a cornerstone of the vision. Another important element of the strategy will be the creation of an enabling environment for market-based development, the most important component of which will be the establishment of peace, law and order and an institutional framework for ensuring property rights. Equally important is the need to provide state-of-the-art infrastructure, especially connectivity both within the region and with the rest of the world, to open up markets and increase mobility. The fortunes
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North Eastern Region Vision 2020, Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region, North East Council

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of the people of the region are inextricably intertwined with those of the people of Bangladesh, and there is much to be gained by removing trade barriers to enable access to seaports and inland waterways. Many of the problems of the region stem from weak governance, which has contributed to the rent-seeking, easy-money culture, and created a law and order situation which has deterred investment. The six components of the strategy are:19

I. Empowerment of people by maximising self-governance and participatory development through grass-roots planning. Decentralized governance from the village level onward, built with maximum participation of the people should ensure peoples role in decision making and help create a responsive system. Grassroot plans, prepared and implemented from the village and ward levels and consolidated at the district level should help in the provision of public services according to the needs of people and the building of infrastructure to harness the resources of the region for peoples benefit. Providing a secure and responsive environment is necessary for creating an economic climate for the development of the region which, apart from peoples participation in planning, involves creating a secure climate for investment including protecting investors property rights and ensuring a corruption-free administration. This would call for making the Panchayats effective governance institutions. However, the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution apply to significant portions of hilly areas and here it is important to activate village development councils and undertake district planning exercises beginning from the villages. The State of Nagaland comes within the purview of Article 371-A of the Constitution and here planning should take cognisance of the prevailing system of communitization.

II. Creation of development opportunities for a majority of the people living in villages through rural development initiatives. This calls for a rise in agricultural productivity through an expansion in the area under cultivation and increase in crop intensity. In hilly areas, it is important to expand horticulture, floriculture, plantation crops and organic farming. An expansion in agricultural extension and the creation of cold storages and market infrastructure are necessary to link markets to agricultural producing areas in the region. Even with improvements in agriculture, it would be difficult to provide productive employment to over
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North Eastern Region Vision 2020, Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region, North East Council

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80 per cent of the population residing in rural areas of the region and therefore, expansion of non-farm economic activities in the rural areas is extremely important.

III. Developing sectors with comparative advantage so as to utilise the resources of the region productively for the benefit and welfare of the people. In particular, the focus on agroprocessing industries and industries based on resources of the region are extremely important. Similarly, in the services sector, there is considerable potential for expanding tourism including high-value tourism such as hill and adventure tourism. Exploitation of the vast power generation potential could, in the short run, help to augment revenues and in the medium and long term could create cost advantages for making investments in manufacturing units.

IV. Capacity development of people and institutions is an extremely important component of the strategy. Human development increases capabilities and with it enhances political and economic freedoms of the people. Creating state-of-the-art hospitals and higher educational institutions in the region could also attract people from neighbouring countries to avail the benefits, besides improving education and health security to the people of the region. It is also important to develop peoples capacities to equip them to participate productively in economic activities. Capacity building of institutions should address both government and market institutions. Responsive governance and planning from below require significant augmentation of capacity. Similarly, large parts of the region are marked by severe market imperfections and non-existence of markets altogether. Considerable efforts are needed to create markets and improve them.

V. Creating a hospitable investment climate is equally important. An enabling environment for private investment in the region would require significant public investment to create state-of-the-art infrastructure, especially connectivity both within the region and with the rest of the country, translation of the Look East Policy to promote economic relationships with East Asian and Southeast Asian economies and beyond, and ensuring proactive governance. Augmentation of the transport and communication networks and ensuring adequate and stable power supply will improve the quality of peoples lives, and attract the private investment needed for development. The fortunes of the people of the region are inextricably intertwined with those of their neighbours, and there is much to be gained by removing trade barriers with the neighbouring countries to enable access to seaports and inland waterways.
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VI. Realising the vision will require significant investment by both public and private sectors. In the initial years, much of the investment required for strengthening physical and social infrastructure will have to come from governmentsboth the Centre and States, though with the passage of time and progress it may be possible to forge public-private partnerships. Ensuring adequate resources for public investment in infrastructure, implementing a framework for private participation in augmenting infrastructure and creating an enabling environment for the flow of private investments to harness the physical resources of the region for the welfare of the people are issues that need to be addressed on a priority basis. It is also important to ensurefor reasons of both efficiency and accountabilitythat States in the region do not depend entirely on outside capital, but also generate resources from their own tax and non-tax sources. Implementation of the six components of the strategy will not be easy or straightforward, nor are these elements independent of each other. Their interdependence implies that they have to be calibrated simultaneously. Given the large number of stakeholders, the variety of groups demanding various concessions, and the international dimension mired in diplomatic tangles, various issues need to be addressed delicately, using both the carrot and the stick. The details of the fivefold strategy are spelt out in Volume II. In what follows, some essential elements of the strategy are laid out.

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LOOK EAST POLICY AND NERs

Even though Look East Policy (LEP) had been part of Indias Foreign Policy since early 1990s, a North East perspective emerged at the official level only in October, 2007 in a meeting of the then Foreign Minister, Shri Pranab Mukherjee and the Chief Ministers of the North Eastern States on the initiative of the Ministry of DONER. The Look East Policy is an integral part of North Eastern Region Vision 2020 a roadmap for development of the Region dedicated by the Honble Prime Minister to the people of the North East in July, 2008. Over the years, three aspects of LEP-NE have emerged: (i) Connectivity and Physical infrastructure to facilitate trade (ii) Trade and investment protocols (iii) Shortfalls in operationalisation of existing assets and facilities (iv) Soft aspects of bi-lateral / multi-lteral relationships such as in tourism and enhanced people to people interaction through sports, culture, academic and medical research etc. These issues are dealt country-wise Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and South East Asia and China (Nathu La, Sikkim). Indias North Eastern Region (NER) is unique in terms of growth opportunities it offers by inter-locking the region with the countrys neighbours in the South and South East Asia. The region has the potential to develop into Indias economic powerhouse, being a vibrant source of energy, oil, natural gas, coal, and limestone, besides being endowed with Indias largest perennial water system in the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries. NER is also rich in horticultural products, plantation crops, vegetables, spices, rare herbs, and medicinal plants. The region offers unlimited tourism opportunities, rare flora and fauna, natural scenic beauty, unique performing arts, and varied cuisine and handicrafts. NERs locational advantage and rich resource endowment provides the ideal setting for its development as a hub for dealing with Indias eastern neighbours. Perhaps more importantly, NER can emerge as a strategic base for foreign/domestic investors to tap into the South Asian region, which is getting integrated through the operationalisation of the South Asian Free Trade Agreement and the Agreement on Trade in Services. These positives can be harnessed by making appropriate policy interventions aimed at addressing the critical constraints that the region faces at the present juncture. The best outcomes can be achieved in our view, by evolving a regional approach, as opposed to policy measures taken for individual states,
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while drawing trade policy for the NER. Some specific recommendations for consideration and possible inclusion in the Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) are as follows: 20 (i) (a) identification of projects that can be delivered at an early date; (b) setting up of more laboratories for testing maximum residue limits (MRL) for pesticides and other chemicals, for example, and (c) improving border trade related infrastructure that is critical for the encouraging production in the NER and distribution of the products produced in the region. (ii) As indicated above, NER needs to be developed as an export-hub that can link up with Indias neighbourhood in South and South East Asia. Among the specific initiatives that the Central government should take in this regard is setting up Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Till now, NER has only a nominal presence in the approved list of SEZs. Of the 579 SEZs that have been approved, only one is in NER in Dimapur, Nagaland (Agro-Food Processing SEZ in Dimapur by the Nagaland Industrial Development Corporation Ltd). By end 2009, 101 SEZs were operational, none of which were in the NER. In order to provide a fillip to the process of setting up of SEZs in the NER, the FTP needs to reorient the ASIDE scheme to reflect the specific requirements of the NER. In this regard, efforts should be made to involve every state in the NER. (iii) A scheme similar to the existing Towns of Export Excellence (TEE) wherein towns having export potential have received support from the central government needs to be designed for the NER. This scheme for the NER could be along the lines of the One Tambon (village) One Product (OTOP) project that has been developed by the Government of Thailand to encourage village communities to produce and market unique products and handicrafts hand-made from locally available materials utilising local wisdom and skills handed down from generation to generation. NER is a living museum of heritage products, very few of which have been show-cased to the rest of the world. Support provided to the local artisans would therefore go a long way in promoting the products from the region that have large export potential. (iv) Re-visit the contents of current border trade agreement between the two countries, in particular the list of commodities in which barter trade can take place, with a view to contemporize this list. In other words, the FTP should help NER to move from restricted trade at border to MFN trade at border.
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Bhattacharjee Pravas Ranjan, Ecnomic Transition in NERs, Vikas Publishing, New Delhi,2009

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(v) The present exchange rate environment for Indo-Myanmar trade is not supportive at all for trade from NER. Exchange rate has to be market determined so that it helps promote the trade at border. The methods of financing of India-Myanmar border trade demands attention as most of the trade is still conducted under barter arrangements. This is because the Asian Clearing Union (ACU) mechanism still relies on the use of US dollar for final settlement. However, the application of US sanctions on trade with Myanmar is a hurdle. Government should explore the feasibility of using the Indian rupee as a currency of trade settlement, through commercial banks being set up at the border the same way the Thai and Chinese currencies are being used in Myanmars border trade with Thailand and China respectively. (vi) NER needs capacity building programmes that are needed for promoting trade and investment. To enhance employability of educated unemployed youth of the NER, skill development should be undertaken through reputed institutes in field of trade. NER needs institutions that can hone the skills of the local population, especially the youth. It also needs quality training for development of entrepreneurship. The Indian Institute of

Entreprenuership in Guwahati, under the Ministry of MSME should develop itself into a quality centre entrepreneurship development. North East Development Finance Corporation (NEDFi)s lending is still around Rs.215 crore. It should be increased to at least Rs.2000 crore annually so as to display a real impact. (vii) To facilitate trade from NER, it is essential to modernize and optimize existing trade infrastructure land-customs stations (LCS). These are discussed below: a. Border trading posts or Land Custom Stations in the North Eastern Region are notified for 42 locations.All Land Custom Stations are not functional due to various reasons. Detailed position of the important Land Custom Stations is included in appropriate places in the note. Five Land Custom Stations in the North Eastern Region are being upgraded to Integrated Check Post (ICP) by the Department of Border Management. These ICPs will have high quality infrastructure. These are: i. Agartala ii. Moreh iii. Dawki (Meghalaya) iv. Sutarkandi (Assam)

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v. Khwarpuchiah (Mizoram) . People to people cultural and other contacts There are close cultural affinities between NER States and neighbouring countries and those of South East Asia. At present there is hardly any cultural interaction for example between Mizoram and Myanmar or amongst Bangladesh, Tripura and Barak Valley of Assam. Similar comparisons can be found in other States also. Ministry of DONER has been in touch with Ministry of Culture and Indian Council of Cultural Relations to promote cultural exchanges between North Eastern States and the neighbouring countries. ICCR has empanelled several performers and troupes from the NER. However, actual cultural, sport or literary interaction between the NER and neighbouring countries is almost nil. With Ministry of DONERs effort, a cultural troupe from Myanmar performed in the Hornbill Festival in Nagaland and also Imphal and Guwahati in 2009. There has to be concerted efforts towards this direction. Teaching of languages of South East Asia and neighbouring countries to youth and business persons of NER - At present, there are no facilities to learn languages such as Thai, Burmese, Chinese, Vietnamese in the NER. There are Central Universities in every State which can be assisted in teaching one or two selected languages especially to business persons. Short term courses will improve linguistic skills for at least business communication in NER. Tourism At present, there is hardly any tourism exchanges between NER and South East Asia and neighbouring countries. A Buddhist Tourism Circuit in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim can be promoted. Cruises on the Brahmaputra and exchange of tourist between Bangladesh, Tripura and Meghalaya could be explored.

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CONCLUSION:
Institutional change supporting economic enhancement and growth at a social level requires economic incentives, supported by political will. With India moving into a new era of economic liberation, the region should not be left out. The framework for development of the region can be broadly based upon four vital components. The first component of this development plan should be social empowerment. It needs to empower rural communities, create sustainable institutions so that they manage common activities around microfinance, livelihoods and natural resource management. The second component needs to be economic empowerment. The objective of this component should ideally be to develop the capacity of rural communities to plan and manage funds for various economic initiatives and common activities for the public. The third component will be partnership development. The objective of this component should be to partner with various service providers, resource institutions and public and private sector organisations to bring resources such as finance, technology, and marketing into the project so that the community groups are able to improve their livelihoods. The fourth and final component will be project management. This will facilitate various governance, implementation, co-ordination, learning and quality enhancement efforts in the project. Thus, with some of the changes that this paper attempts to deliberate upon, a process could be set in motion that could support the north east in its endeavor to contribute to the economic resurgence of the home region as well as to the development of the rest of the country. It is vital that this process includes mechanisms for equitably sharing the benefits to be derived from development and focusses not only on the big-ticket items that support broad-based, long-term growth, but also on those complementary activities that have immediate impact on poverty reduction at the community level.

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Bibliography
BOOKS: Ganguly J.B., An Economic History of North East India 1826 to 1947,Akansha Publishing House, New Delhi,2006. Acharyya N.N. North East India on Historical Perspective, Omsons Publication, New Delhi,2006. Bhattacharjee Pravas Ranjan, Ecnomic Transition in NERs, Vikas Publishing, New Delhi,2009 Deloche Jean, The adventures of Jean-Baptiste Chevalier in Eastern India, LBS publication, Guwahati, 2008

INTERNET SOURCES http://db.nedfi.com Indian Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), www.ibef.com http://www.ncap.res.in/upload_files/workshop/wsp10/html/chapter3.htm Reserve Bank of India (RBI). 2005. Handbook of Statistics on the Indian Economy, 200405,Mumbai: RBI.

JOURNALS & GOVERNMENT REPORTS Agriculture and Rural Development in North-Eastern India: The Role o NABARD,K.G Karmakar, ASCI Journal of Management 37(2): 89108 North Eastern Region Vision 2020, Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region, North East Council 3rd North East and East Power Summit 2010, PwC-ICC Load Generation Balance Report 2012-13, CEA Annual Report 2010-11, CEA Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, Department of Telecommunications, Annual Report 2011-12,
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 Ministry of Communications and Information Technology Annual report 2011-12, MoRTH Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE). 2000. Economic Intelligence Service: Profile of Districts. Mumbai: CMIE.2007. Economic Intelligence Service: Agriculture. Mumbai: CMIE. Reserve Bank of India (RBI). 2005. Handbook of Statistics on the Indian Economy, 200405, Mumbai: RBI.

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