I1I\!1 !

11I1
C!CU2C, LaILCLaI!t8,
ICa!!8I OIIO!O,
1!1115I 1I 115L1
Lnlikc i1cst cl his ccntci1crarics, Oclcuzc vas a rcalist hilcsc
hcr. ut his rcalist stancc vas dccl, inncvativc and ccnstitutcd
a shar Lrcak vith thc Lrand cl rcalisi1 that dcminatcd Wcstcrn
thcught lcr z, ,cc ,cars, thc cnc crcatcd L, /ristctlc. /s is vcll
kncvn, thc Crcck hilcschcr's vcrld vas culatcd L, thrcc cat
cgcrics cl cntitics. gcnus, sccics, and individuc. Entitics Lclcnging
tc thc hrst tvc catcgcrics suLsistcd csscntiall,, thcsc Lclcnging tc
thc third cnc suLsistcd cnl, accidcntall,. ` 1hc gcnus cculd Lc, lcr
cxai1lc, /nii1al, thc sccics Human, and thc individual this cr
that articular crscn charactcrizcd L, ccntingcnt rccrtics. Lcing
vhitc, Lcing i1usical, Lcing } ust. / gcnus vas linkcd tc its varicus
sccics , Hcrsc, Hui1an| L, a scrics cl lcgicall, ncccssar, suLdivi
sicns. 1hc gcnus /nimal, lcr cxai1lc, cculd Lc suLdividcd intc
tvclcctcd and i1an,-lcctcd t,cs, thcn suLdividcd intc dillcrcnccs
in cxtrci1itics. hccvcs, as in hcrscs, cr lcct, as in humans. Whcn vc
rcachcd a cint at vhich an, lurthcr distincticns vcrc accidcntal,
likc a lcct i1issing a tcc, vc arrivcd at thc lcvcl cl thc sccics, thc
lcvcst cntclcgical lcvcl at vhich vc cculd scak cl an csscncc cr cl
thc vcr, naturc cl a thing.
Fcsscssicn cl thcsc csscntial traits is vhat guarantccd thc mind
indccndcnt idcntit, cl things in /ristctclian rcalisi1. lt lcllcvs that
an, ncv Lrand cl rcalism, il it is tc Lc trul, ncvcl, i1ust rclacc thc
catcgcrics cl gcnus and sccics vith sci1cthing that dccs nct iml,
an cntclcgical cci:iiniti1cnt tc transccndcnt cntitics , csscnccs| . 1his
task is casicr lcr sccics than lcr gcncra. 1hc transccndcnt naturc
cl sccics can Lc clii1inatcd sii1l, L, translcr1ing thci1 intc his-
tcrical cntitics, likc Oarvin did. ln cvcluticnar, thccr, a Liclcgical
::o
Oclcuzc, n1athci1at ics, and rcalist cntclcg, zz:
sccics is as singular, as uniquc, and as histcricall, ccntingcnt as an
individual crganisn1. a sccics is Lcrn vhcn its gcnc ccl is clcscd
tc thc llcv cl gcnctic i1atcrials lrci1 cthcr rcrcductivc cci1mu
nitics that is, it is Lcrn thrcugh icioductivc isoction and its
dics thrcugh cxtinction. ln cthcr vcrds, sccics likc crganisi1s
arc 'suL} cct tc ccrruticn and dcca,, as /ristctlc vculd sa,.` /nd
thcir dchning rccrtics arc nct lcgicall, ncccssar,. Fcrcductivc
isclaticn is a ccntingcnt achicvci1cnt that varics L, dcgrcc, sc ncth-
ing guarantccs that thc idcntit, cl a Liclcgical sccics vill cndurc
lcrcvcr. Similarl,, driving a sccics tc cxtincticn is likc killing an
individual crganisi1. vc dcstrc, a uniquc histcrical crcaticn that
can ncvcr rcturn again.
1hus, gctting rid cl csscnccs at thc lcvcl cl sccics is sii1l, a
i1attcr cl intrcducing histcr, ,cvcluticnar, histcr, in this casc| intc
a rcalist cntclcg,. ut csscnccs at thc gcnus lcvcl arc an cntircl,
dillcrcnt i1attcr. What vc nccd hcrc is a i1cans tc ccncctual
izc a 'tcclcgical animal, an aLstract animal that can Lccci1c a
hui1an cr a hcrsc thrcugh a scrics cl ci1Lr,clcgical ccraticns. lcld
ings, strctchings, invaginaticns, ccllular i1igraticns. 1his scccnd
rclaccmcnt is thc cnc that invclvcs mathci1atics. Ncrc sccihc
all,, il sccics i1ust Lc ccnccivcd as individuc singuciitics, gcncra
must Lc rclaccd L, a tcclcgical diagram structurcd L, univcisc
singuciitics. 1his can cnl, Lc achicvcd L, gcing Lc,cnd dcduct
ivc lcgic, thc scurcc cl thc ccnccts cl thc gcncral and thc sccihc,
and intc mathci1atics. thc dillcrcntial calculus, grcu thccr,, ncn
i1ctric gcci1ctr,. 1c undcrstand hcv mathci1atics i1ust rclacc
lcgic in a ncn-transccndcnt lcrm cl rcalisi1 vc i1ust hrst givc a
sii1lc dcscriticn cl hcv dillcrcntial cquaticns arc uscd in scicncc,
Lccausc vhat vc vant tc cxlcrc is nct thc cntclcg, cl i1athci1atics
itscll , Flatcnist, Ccnstructivist| Lut thc cntclcgical issucs raiscd L,
thc usc cl i1athci1atics tc i1cdcl thc rcal vcrld.
! 1L1! L1 I1!I11L5
1c crcatc a i1athci1atical i1cdcl cl an actual h,sical s,stci1 cnc
i1ust hrst sccil, thc rclcvant va,s in vhich thc s,stci1 is lrcc tc
changc, that is, vc must disccvcr its 'dcgrccs cl lrccdci1. ccausc
as thc dcgrccs cl lrccdci1 cl a s,stci1 changc its cvcrall statc changcs,
a i1cdcl cl thc s,stci1 i1ust caturc thc dillcrcnt cssiLlc statcs in
zzz :~:ucL icL~:iA
vhich it can cxist. /s thc i1athci1atician Hcnri Fcincarc shcvcd
a ccntur, agc, this sct cl statcs i1a, Lc rcrcscntcd as a sccc oj
ossi|iitics vith as i1an, dii1cnsicns as thc s,stci1 has dcgrccs cl
lrccdoi1. 1his sacc is rclcrrcd tc as 'statc sacc,' thc sacc cl all
cssiLlc statcs in vhich thc s,stci1 Lcing i1cdclcd can cxist. ln this
sacc cach cint rcrcscnts cnc cssiLlc statc lcr a h,sical s,stci1,
thc statc it has at a givcn instant cl tii1c. /s thc statcs cl a h,sical
s,stci1 changc vith timc, that is, as thc s,stcm gccs thrcugh a tcm
cral scqucncc cl statcs, its rcrcscntaticn in statc sacc Lcccmcs
a ccntinucus scqucncc cl cints. a curvc cr a tra} cctcr,. / sct cl
dillcrcnt tra} cctcrics caturcs scvcral cssiLlc histcrics lcr thc s,s
tci1. Each cint in this sacc, cach cssiLlc statc, can havc dillcrcnt
rcLaLilitics cl cxisting. / sacc in vhich all thc cints arc cquall,
rcLaLlc is a sacc vithcut an, structurc, and it rcrcscnts a h,s
ical s,stcm in vhich statcs changc in a coi1:lctcl, randcm va,, thc
tra} cctcrics vandcring arcund statc sacc vithcut scttling dcvn.
, thc cightccnth ccntur,, hcvcvcr, i1athcmaticians likc lccnard
Eulcr kncv that thc sacc cl cssiLlc scluticns lcr dillcrcntial cqua
ticns did havc structurc. ln articular, hc shcvcd that soi1c cl thc
cints that ccnstitutcd this sacc vcrc sccial cr rci1arkaLlc in that
thc statcs thc, rcrcscntcd vcrc i1uch mcrc likcl, tc cccur than
an, cthcr cssiLlc statc. 1his ii1lics that thcsc sccial cr singu
lar cints arc likc thc lcng-tcrm tcndcncics cl a s,stci1, thc statcs
that vculd Lc rcalizcd il vc }ust vaitcd lcng cncugh. lt dccs nct
i1attcr vhcrc thc, Lcgin, all thc cssiLlc histcrics vill tcnd tc cnd
at a singular cint. Ncrccvcr, thcsc singularitics arc univcrsal in
thc scnsc that thc, can Lc sharcd L, cntircl, dillcrcnt h,sical s,s
tci1s. gravitaticnal, i1cchanical, ctical, clcctrcstatic. lndccd, thc
unihcaticn cl all Lranchcs cl Classical Ncchanics in thc ninctccnth
ccntur, vas madc cssiLlc L, this univcrsalit,. 1c rcturn tc cur cri
ginal cxai1lc, thc sacc cl all cssiLlc anii1als i1ust Lc ccnccivcd
as structurcd L, univcrsal singularitics dctcr1ining thc cvcrall
tcndcncics shaing cvcluticnar, histcr,. ut rclacing thc gcnus
/nimal L, such a tcclcgical diagram laccs a i1a} cr cLstaclc. unlikc
thc saccs cl classical h,sics vc dc nct kncv thc structurc cl thc
cssiLilit, saccs asscciatcd vith animals. cvcrthclcss, man, cl
thc ccnccts that vc vculd nccd tc undcrstand thc 'tcclcgical
animal can Lc dcvclccd starting vith thc simlcr cascs, thc cnl,
cncs cxlicitl, discusscd L, Oclcuzc.
Oclcuzc, i1athci1atics, and rcalist cntclcgy zz,
Oclcuzc is nct, in lact, thc cnly ccntcn1crary hilcschcr that
has dislaycd an intcrcst in statc sacc and thc univcrsal singu
laritics that structurc it. ln thc anal,tical arcach tc hilcschy
cl scicncc thcrc has rcccntl, Lccn a i1cvc avay lrci1 lcgic and
tcvards thc i1athci1atics actually uscd L, scicntists, and it vill
rcvc usclul tc rcvicv thcsc rcccnt dcvclci1cnts tc lramc cur dis
cussicn cl Oclcuzc's vicvs in cci1arativc tcrms. cr i1an, analyt
ical hilcschcrs aLandcning thc catcgcrics cl thc gcncral and thc
articular is a dillicult stc Lccausc i1any cl thcm vcrc traincd tc
Lclicvc that c oj tuct|cnctics |cd |ccn icduccd to ogic in thc
latc ninctccnth ccntury. hrst thc dillcrcntial calculus vas rcduccd
tc arithmctic thc ccncct cl inhnitcsimals vas rclaccd Ly thc
ncticn cl lii1it and thc lattcr rcduccd tc that cl numLcr and latcr
cn arithmctic vas rcduccd tc sct thccr,. cr thcsc hilcschcrs
vhc Lclicvcd that this rcducticn vas in lact achicvcd, mathci1atics
disacarcd and dcductivc lcgic Lccamc thc cnl, lcr1al discilinc
that nccdcd tc Lc i1astcrcd. lt is nct surrising, thcrclcrc, that rcal
ist anal,tical hilcschcrs tcnd tc scak likc /ristctlc, dchning
thc idcntit, cl things Ly thc ncccssary and sullicicnt ccnditicns tc
Lclcng tc a gcncral catcgcr,. ln cthcr vcrds, dchning idcntit, L,
thc csscssicn cl an csscncc.
Ncrccvcr, thcsc vhc accct thc rcducticn cl i1athcmatics tc
lcgic takc an cxionctic ciocc| tc scicntihc thccrics. thc ccntcnt
cl a thccry is mcdclcd Ly a sct cl axici1s, cr scll-cvidcnt truths,
and L, all thc thccrcms t hat i1a, Lc dcrivcd lrcm thcsc axicms
using dcductivc lcgic. 1his arcach strcsscs thc rclc cl Lcth
lcgic and languagc. ut thc ncv schccl cl t hcught, thc scncntic
ciocc|, vicvs axici1atics as a lalsc mcdcl . 1hcsc cthcr hilcsc
hcrs arguc that it is thrcugh thc usc cl tccls likc thc dillcrcntial
calculus that scicntists crcatc i1cdcls cl hysical hcnci1cna, and
it is thcsc mcdcls, nct any lcgical rcccnstructicn cl thcm, that
shculd Lc thc suL} cct cl hilcsch, cl scicncc. /mcng thc lcadcrs
cl this i1cvcmcnt is as Van raasscn, vhc has statcd his csiticn
this va,.
1Lc scnautic vicv cl tLcciics nakcs lauguagc laigcl, iiiclcvaut tc tLc
suL} cct. Ol ccuisc, tc icscut a tLcci,, vc nust icscut it iu aud L, lau-
guagc. 1Lat i s a tiivial ciut . . . lu additicu, LctL Lccausc cl cui cvu
Listci, tLc Listci, cl LilcscL, cl scicucc vLicL Lccanc iutcuscl,
lauguagc ciicutcd duiiug tLc hist Lall cl tLc last| ccutui, aud Lccausc
zz| :~:ucL icL~:i~
cl its iutiiusic incitaucc, vc cauuct igucic tLc lauguagc cl scicucc. But
iu a discussicu cl tLc stiuctuic cl tLcciics it cau laigcl, Lc igucicd.
1hc rcascn lcr lcaving languagc and lcgic Lchind and Lringing
Lack thc dillcrcntial calculus and thc gcci1:ctric arcach tc its
stud,, that is, statc sacc diagrai1:s is that it is cnl, L, anal,z
ing actual mcdcls that vc can cxlcrc thc rclaticn Lctvccn thccr-
ics and thc laLcratcr, hcnci1:cna thc, arc dcsigncd tc cxlain. ln
cthcr vcrds, vc vant tc kncv vh, thcsc i1:cdcls actuall, vcrk,
vh, thc, i1:anagc tc caturc thc rcgularitics in thc Lchavicr cl
rcal s,stci1:s, and thc ansvcr tc thcsc qucsticns is nct givcn L,
thc lcgical structurc cl an axicmatic. Sincc it is thcir succcss in
racticc that makcs i1:athci1:atical mcdcls intcrcsting lcr a rcalist
cntclcg, lct's givc a sii1:lc dcscriticn cl hcv mcdcls arc i1:atchcd
tc hcnci1:cna. lct's assumc that vc havc a laLcratcr, vhcrc vc
can i1:aniulatc rcal h,sical hcnci1cna, that is, vhcrc vc can
rcstrict thcir dcgrccs cl lrccdci1: , L, scrccning cut cthcr lactcrs|
and vhcrc vc can lacc thcm in a givcn initial statc and thcn lct
thci1: run scntanccusl, thrcugh a scqucncc cl statcs. lct's alsc
assumc that vc can i1:casurc vith scmc rccisicn thc valucs cl
thc dcgrccs cl lrccdci1 ,sa,, tci1craturc, rcssurc, and vclui1:c| at
cach cl thcsc statcs. /ltcr scvcral trials vc gcncratc data aLcut thc
hcncmcncn starting it at dillcrcnt initial statcs. 1hc data vill
ccnsist, Lasicall,, cl scqucnccs cl nui1:Lcrs giving thc valucs cl
tci1:craturc, rcssurc, and vclumc that thc hcnci1:cncn takcs as
it cvclvcs lrci1: dillcrcnt initial ccnditicns. Wc can thcn lct thcsc
numLcr scrics cn a iccc cl acr, turning thci1 intc a curvc cr
tra} cctcr,.
Wc thcn run cur i1:athcmatical mcdcl, giving it thc sai1:c valucs
lcr initial ccnditicns as cur laLcratcr, runs, and gcncratc a sct cl
statc sacc tra}cctcrics. inall,, vc ccmarc thc tvc scts cl curvcs .
l l thc i1:athci1:atical and cxcrii1:cntal tra} cctcrics disla, gccmct
rical sii1ilarit, this vill Lc cvidcncc that thc mcdcl actuall, vcrks.
/s cnc anal,tical hilcschcr uts it.
W[ c cau sa, tLat a d,uanical tLcci, is aicxinatcl, tiuc } ust il tLc ncd-
cliug gccnctiic stiuctuic aicxinatcs ,iu suitaLlc icsccts| tc tLc stiuc-
tuic tc Lc ncdclcd. a Lasic casc is vLcic tia} cctciics iu tLc ncdcl clcscl,
|rac! |raicc|orcs cuccdiug L,sicall, ical LcLavicis ,ci, at lcast, tiack
tLcn lci lcug cucugL| .
Oclcuzc, n1athcn1atics, and rcalist cntclcg, zz,
lt is cnl, vhcn i1iathci1atical i1cdcls havc thc caacit, tc track thc
rcsults cl laLcratcr, cxcrin1cnts that thcrc is a hilcschical } usti
hcaticn tc crlcr1i an cntclcgical anal,sis cl statc sacc. 1his ana
l,sis is nccdcd Lccausc thc tracking aLilit, cl i1cdcls i1ust Lc givcn
an cxlanaticn, unlcss vc arc rcarcd tc accct it as a Lrutc lact, cr
vcrsc ,ct, as an uncxlainaLlc i1iraclc.
I1!I11L11 IL!15 1I LIL1L\1L11
LLII1I!I5
Starting vith dillcrcnt cntclcgical cci1i1itn1cnts, hcvcvcr, vc
i1a, arrivc at vcr, dillcrcnt cxlanaticns cl thc succcss cl i1cdcls.
Sc1c hilcschcrs, lcr cxai1lc, Lclicvc in thc autcnci1cus cxist-
cncc cl cL}ccts cl dircct cxcricncc ,cts, autci1cLilcs, Luildings|
Lut assun1c that cntitics likc cx,gcn, clcctrcns, cr causal rclaticns
arc i1crc thccrctical ccnstructs. Ontclcgical cci1i1iti1cnts cl this
scrt arc asscciatcd vith csitivisi1i and ci1iricisi1i, thcugh dillcr-
cnt hilcschcrs drav thc linc Lctvccn vhat is dircctl, cLscrv
aLlc and vhat is nct at dillcrcnt laccs. Van raasscn, lcr instancc,
sccms tc Lclicvc that cL} ccts crccivcd thrcugh tclcscccs, Lut nct
n1icrcscccs, ccunt as dircctl, cxcricnccd. Fcalist hilcschcrs,
cn thc cthcr hand, rc} cct thc distincticn Lctvccn thc cLscrvaLlc
and thc uncLscrvaLlc, Lut thc, tcc dillcr cn vhat thc, Lclicvc arc
thc ccntcnts cl thc vcrld. Oclcuzc is a rcalist hilcschcr, Lut cnc
dctcr1incd tc culatc an autcnci1cus rcalit, cxclusivcl, vith
ii1i1ancnt cntitics, and tc cxcrcisc lrci1 it an, transccndcnt cncs,
likc /ristctclian csscnccs. lct's ncv discuss hcv thcsc dillcrcnt
cntclcgical cci1mitn1cnts lcad tc dillcrcnt asscssi1icnts cl thc cci1i-
cncnts cl statc sacc. 1hc hrst candidatcs lcr cntclcgical cvalu-
aticn arc thc tra} cctcrics thcmsclvcs. 1hcsc, as l said, rcrcscnt
cssiLlc histcrics ,cssiLlc tci1cral scqucnccs cl statcs| . /s is vcll
kncvn, cmiricists arc skctical aLcut cssiLlc cntitics. Quinc, in
articular, is lcnd cl ridiculing thci1i.
1akc, lci iustaucc, tLc cssiLlc lat nau iu tLc dcciva,, aud agaiu, tLc
cssiLlc Lald nau iu tLc dcciva,. ^ic tLc, tLc sanc cssiLlc nau, ci tvc
cssiLlc ncu` Hcv dc vc dccidc` Hcv nau, cssiLlc ncu tLcic aic i u tLat
dcciva,` ^ic tLcic ncic cssiLlc tLiu cucs tLau lat cucs` Hcv nau, cl
tLcn aic alikc` Oi vculd tLcii Lciug alikc nakc tLcn cuc`
zz6 :~:ucL icL~:i~
What Quinc is arguing hcrc is that vc dc nct csscss thc i1cans
tc individuctc cssiLlc cntitics, that is, tc idcntil, thci1 in thc
i1idst cl all thc cssiLlc variaticns. 1hc traditicnal arcach tc
cssiLlc vcrlds, and thc targct cl Quinc's sarcasiii, is nodc ogic.
1his Lranch cl lcgic is ccnccrncd vith thc anal,sis cl ccuntcrlac-
tual scntcnccs likc ''ll I. . K. had nct Lccn assassinatcd thc Victnam
War vculd havc cndcd sccncr. ln thc casc cl ccuntcrlactuals vc
i1a, agrcc vith Quinc that thcrc is nct cncugh structurc in a in
guisticc, sccihcd cssiLlc vcrld tc kncv vhcthcr vc arc dcaling
vith cnc cr scvcral cntitics as vc i1cdily thc dctails. ut as rcalist
hilcschcrs likc Fcnald Cicrc havc argucd, vhilc Quinc's skc
tical rci1arks arc valid lcr i:icdal lcgic, thc cxtra structurc that statc
sacc csscsscs can cvcrcci1c thcsc lin1itaticns.
^s Quiuc dcligLts iu ciutiug cut, it i s cltcu dillicult tc iudividuatc cs-
siLilitics . . But| nau, ncdcls iu vLicL tLc s,stcn lavs aic cxicsscd as
dillcicutial cquaticus icvidc au uuanLigucus ciitciicu tc iudividuatc tLc
cssiLlc Listciics cl tLc ncdcl. 1Lc, aic tLc tia} cctciics iu statc sacc cci-
icscudiug tc all cssiLlc i uitial ccuditicus. 1Licatcucd anLiguitics iu tLc
sct cl cssiLlc iuitial ccuditicus cau Lc cliniuatcd L, cxlicitl, icstiictiug
tLc sct iu tLc dchuiticu cl tLc tLccictical ncdcl .
1hc cxtra structurc that statc sacc Lrings tc thc dctcrminaticn cl
cssiLlc histcrics, hcvcvcr, is nct cncugh tc satisl, an ci1iricist.
Van raasscn, lcr cxamlc, can still dcny thc nccd tc Lc cntclcgic
all, cci1ii1ittcd tc cssiLlc histcrics givcn that lcr hii1 thc gcal cl
scicncc is nct tc caturc uncLscrvaLlc traits cl rcalit, Lut i1crcl,
tc achicvc cniiicc cdcucc, that is, tc incrcasc cur aLilit, tc
makc rcdicticns and tc ccntrcl cutcciiics in thc laLcratcr,. cr this
lii1itcd urcsc all that mattcrs is that vc gcncratc a singlc tra} cc
tcr, lcr a givcn initial ccnditicn and match it tc a scrics cl i1cas-
urci1cnts cl cctuc stctcs cLtaincd in thc laLcratcr,. 1hc rcst cl
thc culaticn cl tra} cctcrics is i1crcI, a usclul hcticn. Cicrc rclcrs
tc this cntclcgical stancc tcvards mcdalitics as 'actualisi1. ' ut
actualism i1isscs thc lact that thc culaticn cl cssiLlc tra}cctcr-
ics dislays rcgularitics that la, a rclc in shaing an, cnc articu-
lar actual histcr,. ln thc tcrms uscd aLcvc thc sacc cl cssiLilitics
has structurc, and this structurc is nct disla,cd L, an, cnc singlc
tra} cctcr,. Lndcrstanding a s,stci1, argucs Cicrc, is nct } ust kncv
ing hcv it actuall, Lchavcs in this cr that sccihc situaticn, Lut
Oclcuzc, n1athcn1atics, and rcalist cntclcgy zz
kncving |ov it vou|d |c|cvc in ccnditicns that n1ay nct in lact
cccur. 1hus, an cntclcgical asscssn1cnt cl thc structurc cl cssiLil
ity saccs is vhat is nccdcd.
1hc signihcancc cl Oclcuzc's rcalist arcach is rcciscly that it
sulics us vith such an asscssn1cnt . Oclcuzc is nct an actualist Lut
hc is nct a rcalist aLcut traditicnal n1odalitics, cithcr. Hc vculd nct
agrcc, lcr cxai1lc, that thc cssiLilitics that ccnstitutc thc cints cl
statc sacc cxist indccndcntl, cl cur n1inds. lt is cnly thc structurc
cl cssiLility saccs that dci1ands a rcalist cci1i1iti1cnt. Wc n1ust
thcrclcrc intrcducc a ncv lcr1 cl hysical n1odality, viituc|it, tc
acccunt lcr Lcth thc rcgularitics in thc n1odcls and thc ii1n1ancnt
attcrns cl Lccci1ing in naturc. Scn1cthing virtual is sonct|ing
t|ct is icc| |ut not cctuc!. ' ' 1hus Oclcuzc vculd disagrcc vith Van
raasscn in Lcing cci1i1ittcd cnly tc actual cntitics Lut alsc vith
Cicrc's cci1i1iti1cnts tc cssiLlc cncs. Onl, thc virtual structurc
cl statc sacc nccds tc Lc ccnsidcrcd n1ind-indccndcnt. / rigcrcus
lcr1al analysis cl this structurc invclvcs ccnsidcring a dillcrcnt
cci1cncnt cl statc sacc. t|c vc|ocit, vcctoi jc|d.
Whcn thc study cl thc Lchavicr cl dillcrcntial cquaticns vas
givcn a gcci1ctric lcr1, thc aLstract saccs uscd vcrc dillcrcntial
i1anilclds, nct i1ctric Euclidcan saccs. Whilc a i1ctric sacc is a
sct cl cints dchncd L, glcLal cccrdinatcs, in a dillcrcntial n1anilcld
thc ccmcncnt cints arc dchncd using cnly lccal inlcr1aticn. thc
instantanccus ratc cl changc cl curvaturc at a cint. 1c ut this dil-
lcrcntly, vhilc thc cints in a n1ctric sacc arc dchncd Ly a sct `, `,
and Z valucs, rcsucsing a sct cl Cartcsian cccrdinatcs and a tran-
sccndcnt glcLal sacc in vhich thc sacc Lcing studicd is inscriLcd,
a dillcrcntial i1anilcld is c jc|d oj iciditics cnd s|ovncsscs, thc
raidity cr slcvncss vith vhich curvaturc changcs at cach cint. ln
a dillcrcntial i1anilcld, in lact, cvcry cint is nct cnl, a sccd Lut a
vclccity, sincc a dirccticn n1ay Lc assigncd tc it . ccausc a vclccit,
can Lc rcrcscntcd Ly a vcctcr, statc saccs csscss in additicn tc
cints ,rcrcscnting cssiLlc statcs| a hcld cl vclccit, vcctcrs. 1hc
ii1crtancc cl this is that thc distriLuticn cl univcrsal singularitics
that ccnstitutcs thc structurc cl statc sacc is nct givcn Ly thc tra-
} cctcrics cr intcgral curvcs| Lut L, thc vcctcr hcld itscll. Ncrc rc-
ciscly, vhilc thc naturc cl a singularit, i1ust Lc cstaLlishcd thrcugh
thc usc cl ncarLy tra} cctcrics vhcthcr a cint singularity is a lccus
cr a ncdc, lcr cxai1lc, i1ust Lc dctcrn1incd Ly cLscrving hcv thc
zz3 :~:ucL icL~:i~
intcgral curvcs in its vicinit, arcach it, sirall, cr cn a straight
linc thc cxistcncc cnd dist:i|ution cl thc singularitics dccs nct
nccd an, tra} cctcrics tc Lc cstaLlishcd. /s Oclcuzc vritcs.
^licad, LciLuiz Lad sLcvu tLat tLc calculus . . . cxicsscd icLlcns vLicL
cculd uct LitLcitc Lc sclvcd ci, iudccd, cvcu cscd . . . Ouc tLiuks iu ai
ticulai cl tLc iclc cl tLc icgulai aud tLc siugulai ciuts vLicL cutci iutc
tLc ccnlctc dctciniuaticu cl tLc sccics cl a cuivc. c dcuLt tLc sccih
caticu cl tLc siugulai ciuts ,lci cxanlc, dis, ucdcs, lccal ciuts, ccutcis|
is uudcitakcu L, ncaus cl tLc lcin cl iutcgial cuivcs, vLicL iclcis Lack
tc tLc scluticus cl tLc dillcicutial cquaticus. 1Lcic is ucvcitLclcss a ccn
lctc dctciniuaticu vitL icscct tc tLc cxistcucc aud distiiLuticu cl tLcsc
ciuts vLicL dccuds ucu a ccnlctcl, dillcicut iustaucc, uancl,, tLc
hcld cl vcctcis dchucd L, tLc cquaticu itscll . . . Nciccvci, il tLc sccihca
ticu cl tLc ciuts alicad, sLcvs tLc ucccssai, innaucucc cl tLc icLlcn
iu tLc scluticu, its iuvclvcncut iu tLc scluticu vLicL ccvcis it, alcug vitL
tLc cxis tcucc aud distiiLuticu cl ciuts, tcstihcs tc tLc tiausccudcucc cl
tLc icLlcn aud its diicctivc iclc iu iclaticu tc t Lc cigauizaticu cl tLc sclu
ticus tLcnsclvcs. , DI ://|
i1Li!D5 1I ! 51\L!1! L
iL551i111X 5i1L!5
cr Oclcuzc thc i1athci1atical distincticn Lctvccn a vcctcr hcld and
its singularitics, cn thc cnc hand, and thc tra} cctcrics cr curvcs, cn
thc cthcr, Lccci1cs thc hilcschical distincticn Lctvccn t|c dcjn-
ing conditions oj c io||cn and its ncn, ossi||c so|utions. 1his
i1ust Lc undcrstccd Lcth cistcmclcgically and cntclcgicall,. ln thc
hrst scnsc an cistci1clcgical rcLlci1 is cscd L, giving c distii|u-
tion oj t|c signijccnt cnd t|c insignijccnt, that is, L, disccvcring
thc ii1crtant va,s in vhich a hcnci1cncn is lrcc tc changc and
climinating all thc trivial va,s. 1hc rcLlcm can thcn Lc givcn a
satial lcr1 , L, turning thc dcgrccs cl lrccdci1 intc thc dii1cnsicns
cl a ncn-mctric sacc| and its structurc dctcrmincd via thc vcctcr
hcld. inall,, vc can hnd nui1crical scluticns tc thc cquaticns and
gcncratc tra} cctcrics, cach rcrcscnting a scrics cl statcs that vc can
cci1arc vith a scrics cl actual statcs cl a laLcratcr, hcncmcncn.
Clcarl,, thc crucial i1cmcnt in this cistci1clcgical scqucncc is thc
hrst stc. disccvcring vhat i1akcs a dillcrcncc and vhat dccs nct
i1akc a dillcrcncc in thc Lchavicr cl a hcncn1cncn. 1hc scluticns
Oclcuzc, n1athci1atics, and rcalist cntclcg, ::,
vc cLtain at thc cnd arc cnly as gccd as thc rcLlci1 thc, arc su
cscd tc sclvc il vc includcd trivial dcgrccs cl lrccdci1 in thc cri
ginal sccihcaticn cl thc rcLlci1 its scluticns i1a, alsc Lc trivial
cr i1islcading. Ncrccvcr, thc ccncrctc distriLuticn cl thc signihcant
and thc insignihcant that dchncs thc rcLlci1 rctains its virtual
cxistcncc cvcn as vc sclvc it, sincc it guidcs thc gcncraticn cl all
individual scluticns.
/nd sii1ilarl, lcr thc laLcratcry hcnci1cna that arc thc targct
cl thc i1athci1atical i1cdcl. / statc sacc structurcd Ly a singlc
singularit, dchning an ctii1um valuc ,a i1inii1ui1 cl cncrgy, lcr
cxai1lc| caturcs a rcal o:ini.c:ion io||cn tc vhich a vhclc
varicty cl actual cntitics , sca LuLLlcs, cr,stals, light ra,s| arc ccn
crctc scluticns. But thc cti1izaticn rcLlci1 suLsists cncc it is
givcn a hysical scluticn, rcad, tc Lc cscd again thc ncxt tii1c a
llat iccc cl sca hli1 must vra itscll intc a shcrc, cr a sct cl
i1clcculcs i1ust ccnlcrm itscll tc thc gccmctrical shac cl a crys
tal. 1c rcturn tc cur criginal cxamlc, thc structurcd sacc cl all
cssiLlc animals vith vhich vc i1ust rclacc thc gcnus /ni1al
must Lc thcught as an cL} cctivc cntclcgical rcLlci1, a rcLlci1 tc
vhich cvcr, sccics and crganisi1 arc ccncrctc adativc scluticns.
/s Oclcuzc vritcs. '/n crganisi1 is ncthing Lut thc scluticn tc a
rcLlci1, as arc cach cl its dillcrcntiatcd crgans, such as thc c,c
vhich sclvcs a light rcLlci1 ,DP z : : .
1his imlics that rcLlci1s arc nct cnl, indccndcnt cl thcir
scluticns, thc, havc a gcnctic rclaticnshi vith thci1 c io||cn
cngcndcis i:s ovn so|u:ions cs i:s condi:ions |ccc:nc iogicssivc|,
|c::ci sccijcd. Oclcuzc's discussicn cl this cint uscs a dillcrcnt
Lranch cl i1athci1atics, grcu thccr,, and its alicaticn tc thc sclu-
ticns cl algcLraic, nct dillcrcntial, cquaticns, sc vc hrst nccd tc givc
thc histcrical Lackgrcund cl this cthcr hcld. 1hcrc arc tvc kinds
cl scluticns tc cquaticns, nui1crical and analytical. / nui1crical
scluticn is givcn L, nui1Lcrs that, vhcn uscd tc rclacc an cqua
ticn's unkncvns, i1akc thc cquaticn ccmc cut truc. cr cxai1lc, an
algcLraic cquaticn likc x

- zx 3 c has as its numcrical scluticn
:. /n anal,tical cr cxact scluticn, cn thc cthcr hand, dccs nct
,icld any sccihc valuc cr sct cl valucs Lut rathcr thc glcLal attcrn
cl all valucs, a attcrn cxrcsscd Ly ancthcr cquaticn cr lcr1ula.
Or in thc tcrms uscd Lclcrc, an anal,tical scluticn givcs us thc
z,c t~:ucL icL~:i~
structurc cl thc sacc cl all cssiLlc scluticns. 1hc aLcvc cxan1lc,
vhich n1a, Lc rcvrittcn vithcut nui1crical ccnstants as.
ax` - |x - c c
has thc anal,tic scluticn.
-|

| 4cc
.
2c
, thc sixtccnth ccntur, i1athci1aticians kncv thc cxact scluticns
tc algcLraic cquaticns vhcrc thc unkncvn variaLlc vas raiscd u
tc thc lcurth cvcr ,that is, thcsc including x`, .

and x . ut thcn
a crisis cnsucd. Equaticns raiscd tc thc hlth cvcr rcluscd tc ,icld
tc thc rcvicusl, succcsslul i1cthcd. 1hc Lrcakthrcugh camc tvc
ccnturics latcr vhcn it vas ncticcd that thcrc vas a attcrn tc thc
scluticns cl thc hrst lcur cascs, a attcrn that i1ight hcld thc kc, tc
undcrstanding thc rccalcitrancc cl thc hlth, kncvn as :|c u:n::c.
1hc n1athcmaticians icls /Lcl and

varistc Calcis lcund a va, tc

arcach thc stud, cl this attcrn using rcscurccs that tcda, vc rcc-
cgnizc as Lclcnging tc grcu thccr,. ' ` 1hc tcr1 'grcu rclcrs tc a
sct cl i1athcmatical cntitics ,numLcrs, ccraticns cn rumLcrs| and a
rulc cl ccmLinaticn lcr thcsc cntitics. 1hc sct i1ust csscss clcsurc,
vhich i1cans that vhcn vc usc thc rulc tc cci1Linc ar, tvc cntitics
in thc sct, thc rcsult is alsc an cntit, in thc sct. cr cur urcscs hcrc
thc mcst imcrtant t,c cl cntitics arc :icnsjoinc::ons, and thc rulc
a ccnsccutivc alicaticn cl thcsc translcrmaticns. cr cxamlc, thc
sct ccnsisting cl rctaticns L, ,c dcgrccs ,that is a sct ccntaining rcta-
ticns L, ,c, r3c, z/c, and ,6c dcgrccs| lcr1s a grcu, sincc an, tvc
ccnsccutivc rctaticns rcducc a rctaticn alsc in thc grcu. / grcu, in
turn, can Lc uscd tc dctcrminc thc rccrtics cl a mathci1atical cntit,
that rci1ain :nvci:cn: undcr translcrmaticns and that arc thcrclcrc its
mcst signihcant rccrtics. / cuLc, lcr cxai1lc, rcmains unaltcrcd
, as lar as its ctical Lchavicr is ccnccrncd| undcr thc aLcvc grcu cl
rctaticns, sc thc grcu caturcs an ii1crtant ascct cl its idcntit,.
1c undcrstand hcv a grcu cl translcr1aticns can Lc uscd tc
cstaLlish thc ccnditicns cl a rcLlci1, that is, tc gcncratc a distri-
Luticn cl thc signihcant and thc insignihcant, lct's givc a ccncrctc
cxamlc. thc usc cl grcus cl translcr1aticns tc stud, thc invari
ants cl h,sical lavs. cr thc lavs cl classical h,sics, thc grcu
includcs dislacci1cnts in sacc and tii1c, as vcll as rctaticns and
Oclcuzc, i1athcn1atics, and rcalist cntclcg,
cthcr translcrn1aticns. lct's ii1aginc a h,sical hcnci1cncn that
can Lc rcliaLl, rcduccd in a laLcratcr,. ll vc dislacc it in sacc
L, rcrcducing thc hcnci1cncn in ancthcr, lar avay laLcratcry
vc vill lcavc all its rccrtics invariant . Sii1ilarl,, il vc sii1ly
changc thc tii1c at vhich vc Lcgin an cxcrii1cnt, vc can cxcct
this tii1c dislaccn1cnt tc Lc irrclcvant as lar as thc rcgularit, cl thc
hcnci1cncn is ccnccrncd. lt is cnly thc dillcrcncc in tii1c Lctvccn
thc hrst and hnal statcs cl thc cxcrii1cnt that i1attcrs, nct thc
aLsclutc tii1c at vhich thc hrst statc cccurs. 1hus, via translcr1
aticns alicd tc thc cquaticns cxrcssing lavs vc can disccvcr
thcsc t,cs cl changc tc vhich t|c |cv is indijcicnt, that is, thc
t,c cl changcs that dc nct i1akc a dillcrcncc tc it, allcving us tc
ccrrcctl, ccncludc that using aLsclutc timc cr aLsclutc csiticn as
inuts tc thc cquaticn cxrcssing a lav is irrclcvant.
ln a sii1ilar va,, Calcis uscd ccrtain translcr1aticns , su|stitu
tions cr cinutctions cl an cquaticn's scluticns| that, as a grcu,
rcvcalcd thc invarianccs in thc rclaticns Lctvccn scluticns. Ncrc
sccihcally, vhcn a cr1utaticn cl cnc scluticn L, ancthcr lclt thc
cquaticn valid, thc tvc scluticns Lccai1c indistinguis|c||c as lar as
thcir validity vas ccnccrncd. 1hc grcu cl an cquaticn is crucial tc
its sclvaLilit,, Lccausc it cxrcsscs thc dcgrcc cl indistinguishaLil-
it, cl thc scluticns. ` Or as Oclcuzc vculd ut it, thc grcu rcvcals
nct vhat vc kncv aLcut thc scluticns, Lut t|c o|icctivit, oj v|ct
vc do not |nov c|out t|cn, that is, thc cL} cctivity cl thc rcL!ci1
itscll , DP I 6:| . /nd hc gccs cn tc arguc that, Lcsidcs dci1cnstrat-
ing thc autcnci1, cl rcL!ci1s lrci1 scluticns, thc grcuthccrctic
arcach shcvs that thc scluticns tc thc cquaticn arc rcduccd as
thc criginal grcu givcs risc tc suLgrcus that succcssivcl, lin1it
thc suLstituticns that lcavc rclaticns invariant . 1hat is, thc rcLlcm
givcs Lirth tc its scluticns as its cvn ccnditicns Lccci1c rcgrcs
sivcly Lcttcr dchncd. /s hc vritcs.
Wc cauuct sucsc tLat, licn a tccLuical ciut cl vicv, dillcicutial cal
culus is tLc cul, natLcnatical cxicssicu cl icLlcns as sucL . . . Ncic
icccutl, ctLci icccduics Lavc lulhllcd tLis iclc Lcttci. Rccall tLc ciiclc iu
vLicL tLc tLcci, cl icLlcns vas caugLt. a icLlcn is sclvaLlc cul, tc tLc
cxtcut tLat it is 'tiuc Lut vc alva,s tcud tc dchuc tLc tiutL cl a icLlcn
L, its sclvaLilit, . . . 1Lc natLcnaticiau ^Lcl vas ciLas tLc hist tc Licak
tLis ciiclc. Lc claLciatcd a vLclc nctLcd acccidiug tc vLicL sclvaLilit,
nust lcllcv licn tLc lcin cl a icLlcn. lustcad cl scckiug tc hud cut L,
zz :~:ucL icL~:i~
tiial aud ciioi vLctLci a givcu cquatiou is solvaLlc iu gcucial vc nust
dctciniuc tLc couditious ol tLc ioLlcn vLicL iogicssivcl, sccil, tLc
hclds ol solvaLilit, iu sucL a va, tLat tLc statcncut coutaius tLc sccd ol
tLc solutiou. 1Lis is a iadical icvcisal ol tLc ioLlcnsolutiou iclatiou, a
noic cousidciaLlc icvolutiou tLau tLc Cociuicau . . . 1Lc sanc } udgcncut
is couhincd iu iclatiou to tLc voik ol Calois. staitiug lion a Lasic 'hcld
,R|, succcssivc ad}uuctious to tLis hcld , R', R', R'' . . . | allov a iogicssivcl,
noic iccisc distiuctiou Lctvccu tLc ioots ol au cquatiou L, tLc iogics
sivc linitatiou ol ossiLlc suLstitutious. 1Lcic is tLus a succcssiou ol 'ai
tial icsolvcuts oi au 'cnLcddiug ol gious, vLicL nakc tLc solutious
lollov lion tLc vci, couditious ol tLc ioLlcn. ,DI i ;,3o|
i1Li1!I5 1I 1L\111Z11LI L1 ! 11\11
1c link this gcnctic ccncct cl rcLlci1s tc a rcalist cntclcgy vc nccd
tc cci1Linc thc rcscurccs cl grcu thccr, vith thcsc cl dyna1ical
systci1s thccry, as thc gcci1ctrical arcach tc thc study cl dillcrcn
tial cquaticns is kncvn. !n statc sacc thc rclcvant translcrmaticns
arc i1athci1atical cvcnts, kncvn as |ijuicctions, that can changc
cnc distriLuticn cl univcrsal singularitics intc ancthcr. 1hcsc
inathci1atical cvcnts rcsult lrci1 ccraticns alicd tc thc vcctcr
hcld cl a statc sacc. a si1all vcctcr hcld is addcd tc thc i1ain cnc tc
crturL it, and vhcn thc crturLaticn rcachcs a critical thrcshcld, a
Lilurcaticn rcsults. ' !n scmc cascs it is cnly thc nui1Lcr cl singu-
laritics that changcs, Lut in cthcr cascs thcir t,c i1ay alsc Lc trans-
lcr1cd. Sc lar vc havc ccnsidcrcd cnly cint singularitics, dchning
thc tcndcncy cl a hysical systci1 tc rcach a stcady- statc. ut thcrc
arc alsc linc singularitics, shacd intc a lcc, that dchnc tcndcncics
tc cscillatc in a staLlc vay. 1hcsc arc callcd 'cricdic attractcrs cr
'lii1it cyclcs. Ncrc rcccntly a third varicty cl univcrsal singular-
ity has Lccn lcund, thc rcsult cl rccatcdly strctching and lclding
a clcscd lcc. 1hcsc arc rclcrrcd tc as chactic cr strangc attractcrs.
1hc translcr1aticns that ccnvcrt cnc cl thcsc t,cs cl singularity
intc ancthcr arc alsc vcll kncvn. thc Hoj |ijuicction changcs a
cint singularit, intc a cricdic cnc, and thc Fcigcn|cun |ijuicc-
tion changcs a cricdic singularity intc a chactic cnc. / scqucncc cl
Lilurcaticns has a sii1ilar grcu thccrctic structurc as thc scrics cl
cr1utaticns uscd Ly Calcis tc gcncratc thc scluticns tc thc quintic
cquaticn. as thc Lilurcaticns translcr1 cnc singularity ,cr sct cl
singularitics| intc ancthcr, all thc scluticns tc thc rcLlci1 cscd
Oclcuzc, n1athcn1atics, and rcalist cntclcg, z,,
L, thc dillcrcntial cquaticns rcgrcssivcl, unlcld. stcad, statc sclu
ticns, cricdic scluticns, chactic scluticns.
1hcsc rcgular scqucnccs can Lc lcund nct cnl, in i1athcmatical
i1cdcls Lut alsc in cL} cctivc hcnci1cna, such as thc hcnci1cna
studicd L, lluid iiicchanics. Ncving lluids arc rcscntcd vith a rcL
lci1 as thcir sccd incrcascs, and thc, sclvc this rcLlcm L, adct
ing a varict, cl rcgii1cs cl llcv adatcd tc cach rangc cl sccds. /t
a slcv sccd thc scluticn tc thc rcLlcn1 is sii1lc. stick tc stcad,
statc cr unilcr1 llcv. ut altcr a critical thrcshcld cl sccd that
scluticn Lccci1cs insullicicnt and thc i1cving lluid i1ust svitch tc
a ccnvcctivc cr vav, llcv. inall,, altcr crcssing ,ct ancthcr critical
thrcshcld, thc lastcr sccds rcscnt thc llcv vith a rcLlcm that it
cannct sclvc L, i1cving rh,thi1icall, and it is lcrccd tc Lcccmc
turLulcnt, distriLuting its cncrg, intc a structurc cl vcrticcs vithin
vcrticcs. ' /s thcsc dillcrcnt i1anncrs cl i1cving unlcld cnc altcr
ancthcr, thc, disla, all thc scluticns tc thc rcL!ci1 cl llcv.
Ncrccvcr, thc isci1crhism Lctvccn thc Lchavicr cl thc mathci1
atical i1cdcl and thc lluid i1cchanical hcnci1cna shcvs that thc,
i1a, Lc ccnsidcrcd as dijc:cnt cctuc soutions to t|c scnc vi:tuc
:o|cn. ln cthcr vcrds, tc cxlain thc succcss cl a iiiathcmatical
mcdcl all vc nccd tc dc is tc ccnsidcr it an actualizaticn cl thc sai1c
virtual rcLlcm that thc hcnci1cncn Lcing mcdclcd sclvcs. 1hcrc
is nc ccrrcscndcncc Lctvccn i1cdcls and rcalit, Lut a rclaticn cl
co-cctucizction.
J6
1hc lact that Oclcuzc ccmarcd thc achicvci1cnts cl /Lcl and
Calcis tc thc rcvcluticnar, ii1act cl astrcnci1,'s svitch tc hclic
ccntrism clcarl, shcvs that hc thcught thcsc idcas rcrcscntcd a
radical dcarturc lrci1 thc ast. ut, as hc adds clscvhcrc, thc gains
lrci1 grcu thccr, can cnl, Lc rcalizcd hilcschicall, il vc Llcnd
its insights vith thcsc cl ncn-mctric gcci1ctrics tc crcatc a thccr,
cl rcLlci1s.
SclvaLilit, i1ust dccud ucu au iutciual cLaiactciistic. it nust Lc dctci
niucd L, tLc ccuditicus cl tLc icLlcn, cugcudcicd iu aud L, tLc icLlcn
alcug vitL tLc ical scluticus . WitLcut tLis icvcisal, tLc lancus Ccciuicau
icvcluticu ancuuts tc uctLiug. Nciccvci, tLcic is uc icvcluticu sc lcug as
vc icnaiu ticd tc Euclidcau gccncti,. vc nust ncvc tc a gccncti, cl
sullicicut icascu, a Ricnauuiaulikc dillcicutial gccncti, whch |cnJs |o
vc rsc |o Jscon|nu|y on |hc |ass o} con|nu|y, ci tc gicuud scluticus
iu tLc ccuditicus cl tLc icLlcn. ,DI I6:|
z,| :~:ucL icL~:i~
Whcn l dcscriLcd thc naturc cl statc sacc aLcvc l rcn1arkcd tIat,
unlikc thc cints that cci+csc a n1ctric sacc, dchncd L, thcir rcla
ticn tc a sct cl glcLal cccrdinatcs, a cint cl statc sacc is indi
viduatcd L, thc instantanccus ratc cl changc cl curvaturc at that
cint. 1his cntircl, ncv va, cl ccncctualizing sacc vas thc
achicvcn1cnt cl tvc grcat ninctccnth-ccntur, n1athcn1at icians,
Carl ricdrich Causs and crnhard Fici+ann. /ncthcr giant cl
ninctccnth- ccntur, n1athcn1atics, clix Klcin, gavc us thc va, tc
link this achicvcn1cnt vith thc rcscurccs cl grcu thccr,. Klcin
rcalizcd that thc dillcrcnt gccn1ctrics kncvn tc hii+ , Euclidcan
gcci+ctr,, allinc gcci+1ctr,, rc} cctivc gccn1ctr,| cculd Lc asscciatcd
vith grcus cl translcrn1aticns that lclt thcir Lasic lcaturcs invari
ant. 1hus, thc sacc cl Euclidcan gccn1ctr, rci+ains invariant L, a
grcu ccntaining all dislaccn1cnts, rctaticns, and n1irrcr-ii+agings,
that is, translcr+aticns that lcavc rigid lcaturcs likc lcngths, arcas,
and vclu+cs unchangcd. ln rc} cctivc gcci+ctr,, cn thc cthcr hand,
lcngths and cthcr rigid lcaturcs dc nct rci+ain unchangcd thc,
arc distcrtcd cr changcd in sizc dccnding cn thc t,c cl rc} ccticn
uscd Lut cthcr n1orc aLstract lcaturcs dc rcn1ain invariant. /s cnc
histcrian cl i+athcn1atics uts it .
l|t vas cvidcut licn tLc vcik cl \cu Staudt tLat ic} cctivc gccncti, is
lcgicall, iici tc Euclidiau gccncti, Lccausc it dcals vitL qualitativc aud
dcsciitivc iccitics tLat cutci iutc tLc vci, lcinaticu cl gccnctiical hg-
uics aud dccs uct usc tLc ncasuics cl liuc scgncuts aud auglcs. 1Lis lact
suggcstcd tLat Euclidiau gccncti, nigLt Lc soirc sccializaticu cl ic} cct-
ivc gccncti,. WitL tLc ucuEuclidcau nctiic| gccnctiics ucv at Laud tLc
cssiLilit, aicsc tLat tLcsc . . . nigLt alsc Lc sccializaticus cl ic} cctivc
gccncti,. '
Whcn dillcrcntial gcci+ctr, and tcclcg, vcrc addcd tc thc grcv
ing list cl ncn-n1ctric gcci+ctrics Klcin's lcllcvcrs sccihcd thcir
translcr+aticn grcus and rcalizcd that thc, vcrc i+crc aLstract
than, and hcncc lcgicall, ricr tc, rc} cctivc gcci+ctr,. / i+athci+
atical cntit, csscssing invariant rccrtics undcr a largcr grcu
cl translcr+aticns is said tc havc i+crc s,i+i+ctr, than cnc vith
a sn1allcr grcu. 1hc achicvci+cnt cl Klcin and his lcllcvcrs vas
tc rcalizc that all thc gcci+ctrics vcrc rclatcd tc cnc ancthcr L,
a sy:n|y- |rccing ccsccdc. starting vith thc lcast ''i+ctric cl
all gcci+ctrics, tcclcg,, vc can Lrcak its s,i+i+ctr, , L, rcducing
Oclcuzc, n1athci1atics, and rcalist cntclcg, z,,
thc nti1Lcr cl translcr1aticns i n its grcu| and gcncratc dillcrcn
tial gcci1ctr,. Sii1ilarl,, dillcrcntial gccmctr, Lccci1cs rc} cctivc
gcci1ctr, as it lcscs s,i1i1ctr,, rc} cctivc Lccci1cs allinc, and allinc
Lcccn1cs Euclidcan. /lthcugh i1athcmaticians dc nct drav cntc
lcgical ccnclusicns lrci1 this lact, it is nct tcc dillicult tc disccrn
in this cascadc thc samc gcnctic rclaticn that Oclcuzc cstaLlishcs
Lctvccn rcLlci1s and scluticns. thrcugh a scrics cl Lrckcn s,m
i1ctrics tcclcg, givcs risc tc Euclidcan gccmctr,, cr tc hrasc it
likc Oclcuzc, continuous scccs givc |iit| to discontinuous oncs.
Ncrccvcr, thc scqucncc cl gccnictrics alsc illustratcs ancthcr
Oclcuzian ccncct. iogicssivc dicicntiction. Whilc in tcclcg,
all clcscd hgurcs , a circlc, an cllisc, a squarc, a trianglc| arc idcn
tical, in rc} cctivc gcci1ctr, cnl, thcsc that arc ccnic sccticns
,circlcs, clliscs, araLclas| arc idcntical. ln allinc gcci1ctr, thcsc
hgurcs Lccci1c dillcrcnt lrcm cach cthcr, Lut thc sai1c hgurc in
dillcrcnt sizcs is still thc sai1c. /nd hnall,, in Euclidcan gcci1
ctr, all hgurcs cl dillcrcnt sizcs arc distinct lrcm cnc ancthcr. ` ln
cthcr vcrds, thc mcrc ccntinucus and llcxiLlc saccs havc thc lcast
dcgrcc cl dillcrcntiaticn , thc si1allcst nui1Lcr cl distinct hgurcs| ,
vhilc thc mcst disccntinucus and rigid havc thc largcst nut1Lcr cl
dillcrcntiatcd hgurcs. lt is this rcgrcssivc dillcrcntiaticn that links
cistcmclcgical and cntclcgical rcLici1s. scluticns in Lcth math
ci1atics and laLcratcr, hcncmcna arc cngcndcrcd as thc rcLlci1
itscll rcgrcssivcl, dillcrcntiatcs.
/lthcugh Oclcuzc ncvcr mcnticns thc vcrk cl clix Klcin, i t scci1s
clcar that Klcin sulics rcciscl, vhat Oclcuzc is asking lcr vhcn
hc sa,s that thcrc is nc rcvcluticn in thc thccr, cl rcLlci1s unlcss
vc link grcu-thccrctic idcas and ncn-i1ctric saccs. Ncrccvcr, thc
rcgrcssivc dillcrcntiaticn cl thc gccmctrics that translcr1s unscg
i1cntcd saccs intc lull, scgi1cntcd cncs sulics us vith a cvcr
lul imagc tc ccntrast thc Oclcuzian and /ristctclian arcachcs tc
rcalist cntclcg,. cr /ristctlc thc vcrld is alrcad, rc scgi1cntcd
L, gcncral and sccihc catcgcrics that arc ctcrnal, that is, nct suL
} cct tc ccrruticn and dcca,. cr Oclcuzc, cn thc cthcr hand, thc
vcrld cl scgi1cntcd cntitics ,rccks, lants, anii1als| cmcrgcs as sclu
ticns tc cntclcgical rcLlci1s that arc dchncd L, ccnditicns that
dc nct rcsucsc scgi1cntaticn cl an, kind. 1hc cntclcgical rcL
lci1s arc dchncd L, tooogicc invciicnts. thc numLcr cl .limcn
sicns cl a sacc cl cssiLilitics, its ccnncctivit,, and its univcrsal
z,6 :~:ucL icL~:i~
singularitics. /s thcsc cntclcgical rcLlci1s undcrgc a rcccss cl
actualizaticn thcy Lccci1c rcgrcssivcly dillcrcntiatcd intc a n1ulti
licit, cl actual scluticns. 1his dillcrcntiaticn rccccds in a lully
histcrical vay, and i1ay cnly rcvcal a crticn cl thc cssiLility sacc
at a tii1c. 1hus, vhcn rctilcs dci1inatcd thc vcrld cl vcrtcLratc
animals, thc, cxhiLitcd a largc dcgrcc cl dillcrcntiaticn intc sccics
that cccuicd mcst availaLlc ccclcgical nichcs. Nai1i1als, cn thc
cthcr hand, vcrc at that timc undillcrcntiatcd nccturnal crcaturcs
ccnstituting a si1all ccmcncnt cl cccsystci1s. ut vith thc i1ass
cxtincticn cl dincsaurs, thc ci1ty ccclcgical nichcs lclt Lchind rc
scntcd i1ammals vith thc ccrtunity tc dillcrcntiatc and cxlcdc
intc thc multilicity cl sccics that vc can cLscrvc tcday. ' `
1c ccncludc this cssay vc i1ay rcturn tc thc vcrld cl mathci1
atics and ask cursclvcs vhcthcr vc havc nct intrcduccd transccnd-
cnt cntitics thrcugh thc Lack dccr vhcn vc scak cl 'invariants,
tcclcgical cr cthcrvisc` ll thc tcr1 'invariant vcrc uscd Ly itscll,
it vculd ccrtainl, carry imlicaticns cl an ctcrnally unchanging
csscncc. ut in its tcchnical i1caning it is alvays uscd icctivc to c
ticnsjoinction. rctaticns, dislacci1cnts, rc} ccticns, strctchings,
lcldings. 1hcsc translcr1aticns invclvc Lcth thc ccccitics to ccct
cl i1athci1atical ccratcrs, as vcll as thc ccccity to |c cjjcctcd cl
thc numLcrs, hgurcs, cr cquaticns that thcsc ccratcrs allcct. 1hc
alicaticn cl an ccratcr tc its targct, thc additicn cl a small vcctcr
hcld tc thc i1ain cnc causing a Lilurcaticn tc cccur, lcr cxai1lc,
is alvays an cvcnt. /nd cvcnts, unlikc csscnccs, arc nct ncccssary
Lut ccntingcnt . Lnlikc vhat hacns in an axicmatic arcach, in
a rcLlcmatic ccnccticn cl gccmctry
hguics aic ccusidcicd cul, licn tLc vicv ciut cl tLc allccticus tLat Lclall
tLcn. sccticus, aLlaticus, ad} uucticus, ic} ccticus. Ouc dccs uct gc L, sc
cihc dillcicuccs licn a gcuus tc its sccics, ci L, dcducticu licn a staLlc
csscucc tc tLc iccitics dciiviug licn it, Lut iatLci licn a icLlcn tc tLc
accidcuts tLat ccuditicu it aud icsclvc it . 1Lis iuvclvcs all kiuds cl dclci
naticus, tiausnutaticus, assagcs tc tLc linit, cciaticus iu vLicL cacL
hguic dcsiguatcs au 'cvcut nucL ncic tLau au csscucc, tLc squaic uc
lcugci cxists iudccudcutl, licn a quadiatuic, tLc cuLc licn a cuLatuic,
tLc stiaigLt liuc licn a icctihcaticu. WLcicas tLc tLccicn Lclcugs tc tLc
iaticual cidci, tLc icLlcn is allcctivc aud is i uscaiaLlc licn tLc ncta
nciLcscs, gcuciaticus, aud cicaticus vitLiu scicucc itscll. A1P , 6:, scc
alsc DI I 3;3,|
Oclcuzc, i1athci1atics, and rcalist cntclcg, z,
rO:ss
: ^iistctlc, Thc Mc|ahyscs , cv Ycik. PicnctLcus Bccks, i,,i|,
. ioo.
: I|J , . i6o.
, 1Lis tciniuclcg, dciivcs licn n, icccustiucticu cl Lclcuziau cutcl
cg,. 1Lc tcins 'iudividual siugulaiit, aud 'uuivcisal siugulaiit,
dc uct acai iu Lclcuzc's vcik. Hc uscs thc tcins 'Laccccit, aud
'siugulaiit, icscctivcl,. Nciccvci, tLcsc tvc tcins aic uct cxli
citl, cllcicd as iclaccncuts lci 'gcuus aud 'sccics iu Lclcuzc's
vcik. 1hc ccnaiiscu is iriuc Lut l Lclicvc it catuics Lclcuzc's cutc
lcgical aicacL.
RalL ^LiaLan aud CLiistcLci Shav, Dynancs Thc Gconc|ry o}
chavo: ,Sauta Ciuz, C^. ^ciial Picss, i,3,| , vcl. i . :o:: .
Bas Vau Iiaasscu, Laws anJ Synnc|ry , Oxlcid. Claicudcu Picss,
i,3,| , . :::.
6 Pctci SnitL, xann Chaos , CanLiidgc Luivcisit, Picss, i,,3| ,
. ;: , n, italics| .
; Bas Vau Iiaascu, Thc Sccn|c Inac , Oxlcid. Claicudcu Picss, i,3o|,
. i6.
3 Willaid \au Oinau Quiuc, quctcd iu icLclas Rcschci, '1hc Outclcg,
cl tLc PcssiLlc, iu NicLacl }. Lcux , cd. | , Thc |oss|c anJ |hc .c|ua
, ltLaca, Y. Cciucll Luivcisit, Picss, i,;,|, . i ;;.
, Rcuald . Cicic, 'Ccustiuctivc Rcalisn, iu Paul N. CLuicLlaud aud
Clillcid ^. Hcckci , cds. | , Inacs o} Sccncc ,Luivcisit, cl CLicagc
Picss, i,3,| , . 3,3.
io I|J , . .
: : Cl. ,6-,;. Lclcuzc takcs tLc ccucct cl viitualit,, aud its distiucticu
licn ctLci ncdalitics likc cssiLilit,, licn Hcuii Bcigscu.
i: lau Stcvait aud Naitiu CcluLitsk,, car}u Synnc|ry , Oxlcid.
Blackvcll, i,,:| , . : , italics iu tLc ciigiual| .
i , Nciiis Kliuc, Ma|hcna|ca Thouh| }ron .nccn| | o MoJcrn Tncs
, cv Ycik. Oxlcid Luivcisit, Picss, i,;:| , vcl. ii . ;,,.
i ^LiaLan aud SLav, Dynancs, vcl. i i i . ,;: .
Stcvait aud CcluLitsk,, ca}u Synnc|ry, . io3io.
i6 1Lis is alsc ait cl n, icccustiucticu cl Lclcuzc. 1Lc tcir 'ccac
tualizaticu dccs uct cccui iu Lis vcik, uci dccs Lc cllci au,vLcic
au cxlauaticu lci tLc succcss cl natLcnatical ncdcls. Ici luitLci
claLciaticu cl tLis ciut scc Nauucl LcLauda, In|cnsvc Sccncc anJ
\r|ua |hosohy , cv Ycik. Ccutiuuun, :oo:|, cLatci .
:
/
Kliuc, Ma|hcna|ca Thouh|, vcl. iii . ,o.
i 3 Lavid ^. Biauuau, NattLcv I. Eslcu, aud }cicn, } . Cia,, Gconc|ry
, CanLiidgc Luivcisit, Picss, i,,,| , . , 6.
z,3 t~:ucL icL~:i~
:, 1hc iclaticu Lctvccu tcclcgical diagians aud thc cvcluticu cl aui-
nals aud lauts is iu lact ncic ccnlcx that this. lu aiticulai, it is
uct cucugh that vcitcLiatcs Lc tcclcgicall, tiauslcinaLlc iutc cuc
aucthci , L, viituc cl shaiiug a Lasic Lcd, lau| , thcsc tiauslcinaticus
nust alsc Lc iuhciitaLlc sc thc, cau Lc ait cl au cvcluticuai, icccss.
lu cthci vcids, vc nust alsc ccusidci thc iclc cl thc sacc cl cs-
siLlc gcucs. l attcnt tc givc au acccuut cl this iu Nauucl LcLauda,
'Natciialist Nctah,sics, iu Dccuzc Hs|ory anJ Sccncc , Licsdcu.
^ticcs, :oIc| , . ,6:o:.