Phylogeny and the Tree of Life

1. Objectives
understand & appreciate the major goal of systematics describe the lines of evidence used to reconstruct phylogeny to compare advantages & disadvantages of the lines of evidence explain the importance of distinguishing between homology & analogy

2. Overview: Investigating the Tree of Life

Evolutionary Biology processes & history
-Processes natural selection & others change in genetic composition -History phylogeny evolutionary history of a spp. or group of related spp.

Systematics - classify organisms & determine their evolutionary relationships (phylogenies) Major Goal reconstruct the history of life on Earth -evolutionary relationships living & extinct spp.

2.1. Evidence used to reconstruct phylogenies

Inferences a) Fossil record b) Homologies - morphological / anatomical / phenotypic / biochemical & molecular similarities c) Molecular data AAs sequences - nucleotide sequences in DNA & RNA

2.1.1. Fossil Record

Preserved remnants or impressions organisms that lived in the past Fossils can be dated: a) relatively strata of the same age same fossils b) Absolutely / numerically radioactive isotopes -comparing 14C radioactivity of a fossil modern sample of organic matter -absolute age of the fossil

Fig. 26-17

Front limb Hind limb

Eggs

(a) Fossil remains of Oviraptor and eggs

(b) Artists reconstruction of the dinosaurs posture

2.1.1. Fossil Record

A fraction of existing fossils discovered Species that: a) Existed for a long time b) Abundant & widespread c) Had hard shells or skeletons Fossils can be used to construct phylogenies only determine their ages

 Similarities due to shared ancestry

-anatomical, morphological, physiological, behavioural, molecular traits

2.1.2. Homology

Comparative anatomy
e.g. Forelimbs of vertebrates homologous structures -same bones organized - same way - common ancestor -they have a common decent may differ - structure & function

Similarities in comparative embryology

Analogy
Analogy similarities due to convergent evolution
-not due to shared ancestry -2 spp. from different lineages morphological similarities similar env. pressures -e.g. bat (wings) & bird (wings) analogous structures flight -bats wings are homologous to other mammalian forelimbs

Distinguishing homology from analogy critical for the construction of phylogenies

Long snouts adapted for eating ant in two unrelated species-an example of analogy or convergent evolution

2.1.3. Molecular Data

Chromosomes carry the hereditary information (genes) Sequences of nucleotides in DNA DNA RNA Proteins

2.1.3. Molecular Data

Nucleotides (DNA & RNA) & AAs (proteins) Speciation mutation changes in the base pair sequences of DNA
-more closely related spp. fewer changes nucleotide sequences of their DNA

DNA codes for AA sequences in proteins

-more closely related spp. fewer differences in their AA sequences of their proteins

 Molecular data straightforward & numerical

-clarify anatomical variations & convergence

2.1.3. Molecular Data

Amenable computer programs mathematical tools

-quick & accurate analyses

Study closely related spp. minor morphological

differences not directly affected by env. factors

Abundant data each AA or nucleotide

-separate independent character for analysis

Comparisons distantly related spp. DNA - heritable

Protein Comparisons
Compare primary structures of protein mols directly AAs number & sequence of AAs in a protein Similar AA sequences same protein genetic similarity evolutionary relationship E.g. cytochrome c a protein found in all aerobic organisms -aligning AA sequences of different spp. evolutionary links can be inferred

Amino acid sequence comparison of the human, mouse and rat atrial essential myosin light chains (ALC-1)

RNA & DNA Comparisons

All cells ribosomes protein synthesis Genes that codes for rRNA (ribosomal RNA) changed very slowly during evolution Comparative rRNA sequencing
reliable indicator of similarity b/t spp.

DNA similarities DNA-DNA hybridization

-DNA double helix of each spp. separated single strands combination -the more closely related the two spp. the better the two strands will stick together

2.1.3. Molecular Data - Limitations

4 nucleotide bases 4 alternative character states 20 AAs 20 different character states 2 spp. same nucleotide base sequence at the same point in their DNA molecule their similarity may be due to chance & not reflecting evolutionary relationship Systematists find it difficult to verify that such molecular similarities were inherited from a common ancestor