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T HE HISTOR Y OT. T HE ENGL ISH LA N GU A GE

century The time: from about5000BC to the twenty-first and beyond.The place: a distant corner of southern the Caribbcan the railwaysof the Unitcd States, Russia, farms where sugar is grown' an airport in Japan, the chat rooms of the Internet-'and almost everyplacein the printing press,TV' the world today.The machines; the mobile phone, the computer. The people: Celtic travellers, Viking invaders, French landowners, kings, people,writers, singers, and millions of people business like you or me. Bring them all together,and you havethe history of the with its changinggrammar,spelling, English language, It's a story without an pronunciation,and vocabulary. end, that involvesmillions of people.Somehelped to of the past, and others are making shapethe language the English of the future. And one of those people is vou. . .

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Larrguagc of thc English Thc Histr)ry

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Factfiles Series Editor: Christine Lindoo

B R IGIT VI NEY

The History of the EnglishLanguage

O X F O R D U N I VER SITY PR ESS

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Il r,' l i ,rru,l i sl l ,rrrqtr,rt,.' r i s sP ol ie'r t rot l: r y in l) iu'( s( ) l I i. r n'o1't t ', tl r, r\trt' t' i c:ts, A si rt, A l ri c' :r, Ar r st r r r lr r rNt , 'w Zt 'r r lr r r r r l, r ur t l ur \()nl (' ol tl tt' i sl :rrrrl sol tl rc At lr r r r t ic, lr r r lir r r r r . r r r . l I ', r t ilir ' ( )t r' rl tl s.It i s sP oke rt ,ts,t fi t' stl r u) uur lsc by i70 t o - l( X)r r r illior r pr' ,pl r' . l t i s rrl so uscrl l rs:r s ccor r r lllr r r g, u, r gc by: t sir r r illr r rrrrnrl rt' r' olpcopl c, rrnclrrs rr l ir r cigr r l: r r r gr r , r gt 'l'tlr y ur r r lr ct ls ,,1 rrri l l i ol tsrrrorc. l l rrgl i sh i s p r obr r hly r r sct lir r sonr c wr r y lr y .rl r,rrt rt (l r.rrl rtcf of rrl l tl rc 1' rc oplc in t hc wor lcl. I lccr r r r sc so ( ) r usc lr nglr sh, it is rrr.rny1.rcopl c, i n so rrrrrnypl rrccs,spcel< , rr ' w ()rl cll engLreg c'. ' l tt' tr c:rl l ccl W l ro uscs l rngl i sh, rrncl w l r y is it such e wiclcly spokcr r

l ,rrrurragc? l n cor,rrrrri cs l i kc l l ri tein r r ncl t hc LlS,F- r r glislr is t hc f ir st l .rrrsrreuc i n othcr wr lr cls, it is t hc f ir st lr r r r gur r gc of trrost1-rcopl c: l crtrn rts cl ri l ci rcn etrcl tl rcy cor . r ur . r r r nicrin rtc l, . nglish all 1tt' o;rl c tl rt' ti rnc. l n othcr courrtri cs, l i kc I nclr e,l( cnyr r , Sinur r l'r or c, r r nr l (i ui ncrr, l );l l rr11 \gw l rrrgcrrurlbcr s of pcol, lc r r sclt r r slish r t s ,r scc<lrrcl langu:rge.They have thcir riwn first lrrrrguegc, but l't'crrusc English is oue of thc official lancurrgcs,tl'rcyr-rsc it ir.r govenrmelrt,radio, :rncltclevisi<lrr. r'ilrrcrrtion, business, Firrally, irr rrrrrnycoLlntriesErrglish is teught in schools rrs rl f<rreign
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l ;rrruurrge, but i t i s not an offi ci al language. lrrrglishis also usedfor many differentkinds of intcrnrrtional r' orrmuni cati on. P eopl e i n science,m edicine, ar r clbusir r css ,l .tcrr comrnuni cate i n E ngl i sh. English is t he lr r r r gur . r gc of rrrtrch of the w orl d' s pop nrusi c and f ilnr s.Thc'langr - r r r gcs'of i rrtcnrati or-ral seaand ai r traffi c cont r ol, lcnowr rr r s'Ser r speak' ,rrrd A i rspeak' , use E ngl i sh. Thcy usc r r snr r r ll r r unr ber of

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ott l l rrglis lrwor t ls r t t t r ls c tttc n c c s to ttt:rl < r' c o ttttttttni crtti cl crtt' cr i ttrtl s it t t pler ' .( lir r c x ru l rl )l c , i tr Sc l ts p c rrl < i n s tcrrtl o1' srryi rrg 'So r r y . whllt wr ls t l rrrt? ' o r' W h rrt rl i tl y o tr s l ry ? ' yorrsl ry' S rry M r r c h of tl tc w o rk l ' s rrc w s i s rc p o rtc rl i n l l ngl i sl r orr rl l .l llin' . ) tcl cv is i< lr rt,lr c r r r c l i o ,tl rc l rrtc rn c t, o r i n l rc w s p r l l )cl s. 'l'ltc sprcrtrlof ['lrrglishrrrourrcltlrc worlcl bcgrrrrwith thc Austrrrlirr, llritish scttlcnrcntof North Arrrcricrr, thc (lrrrilrbcrrn, rrncl Asil in tlre scvcntccntl'rancl cightccrrth ccrrturics. lt continucclirr thc rrinetcenth ccrltury when thc llritish corrtrollccl pnrts of Atrica itttcl thc South Pacific. Ihglish rrlso bcc:rtle irlprlrtrrrrt interrrationrrllylreciruscirr thc ninetecnth ccntury Britaiu was tlrc most in.lportxnt incillstrirl r.rati<lrr in the world. Many ncw machinescanrcfrom Britain, so pcoplc had to learrr Errglishirr rlrder to lcirrn how to use drcm. Irr the twentieth century, the use of English spread with the growth in international business. Air travel developed, ma k ing m or e int ern a ti o n a l b u s i n e s sp o s s i b l c .Fastcrw ays of i n ter nat ional c omm u n i c a ti o n , l i k e th c tc l c p h one and more recently the computer, became morc wiclcly usccl. Many people wanted to do busir-ress with Aurcricrrrr cornpanies because the US was rich, and in <>rclcrto clo this they 'When had to speak English. international companies and organizations developed, English was often chosen as the working language. For example, English is the working language of the European Central Bank, although the bank is in Germany. In Asia and the Pacific, r.rineout of ten international organizations work only in English. English is important not because it has rrrore firstlanguage speakersthan other languages (Chinese has more) but because it is used extremely widely. \il/ill this situation continue? This is an interesting question, but first let us look at how English began.

Theb e g in n in g s t is h of Eng

( )rrr urrcl crstrrncl i rrg of tl rc hi st or y of Fir r glishbegiut r r t t lr c ccl rtury whcn Sir Willianr . f ot r cs,r t crtcl of thc ei gl -rtccnth Itrrti sh j rrcl gcw ho l i vccl i n l nclia, bcgat r t o st ucly Sanskr it . l ' hi s i s rl very ol d l angui rge of hr dir r , iur cl r t t t hc t it t r c wr r s rrscclirr Irrclian law. Likc othcrs bcfore hitrr, .fones rroticccl betw eerrS auskr it , Lat it . t ,( ir eek, at t clot l. r er nrrrnysi n-ri l ari ti es l anguagcs.For exam ple: l l rrropear.r
S A N S K R IT LA TIN GR E E K E N GLIS H

pitr matar asti trayah sapta

parer mater est tres septem

parer m at r est i treis hepta

father m ot her is three seven

l)cople had thought that Latin, Greek, and all European f rrnguages came from Sanskrit, but Jones disagreed.In 1786 lrc wrote that Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin all came from a 'common source',which had perhaps disappeared.There was rr lot of interest in his idea and other people began to study these three languages. Their work proved that Jones was right. We now know that Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, English, and nrany other languagesall belong to one enormous 'family' of languagescalled the Indo-European family. Jones's 'common source' from which all these languages cleveloped is now known as Proto-Indo-European. It is

Theheginnings of b)nglish

Morc thirn 2 billiorr peoplc speirk nrr lrrcftr-liuropcirrr lilrfiuirge ns their first languargc. The speaker of Hirrdi in Itrtliir, thc speaker of Portuguese in Braziln arrcl the spcaker nl lrrrglishin Australia all expressthcmselves in Indo; | rrro1'rclr rr languages. l'lrc(lclts werethe first group of Indo-Europeau speakers t(| nloveilcross Europe.Towardsthe end of the fifth century ll( i thcy lreganto leavetheir homelandnorth of rhe Alps nr ecntral Europe. They went ro rhe Black Sea, Turkey, Fr)utlr-west Spain and central ltaly, rhe whole of Britain, nrrrl lreland. As they travelled,differenr dialects of their thought that a group of peoplecalledthe Kurgansspokethis of it, and livedin what is now southern language, or dialects Russiafrom sometime after 5000BC. In about 3500 BC the Kurgans probably began to spreadwest acrossEurope and eastacrossAsia. As groups of Kurganstravelledfurther and further awayfrom eachother, they beganto developstronger 'With in their dialects. the passingof time, these differences dialects became different languages.When some of them (the Greek, Anatolian, and Indo-Iranian languages) appear in written form in about 2000 to 1000 BC they are clearly languages. sbparate Similarities between some languagesas they are spoken today suggestthat they probably come from Proto-IndoEuropean.For example,there are similar words in European for peoplein the family (mother, and Indo-Iranian languages fatber), animals (dog, sheep,horse),parts of thebody (eye, ear), the weather (rain, snou), and for weapons. These similarities allow us to imagine somethingof the life of the Kurgans: they worked on the land some of the time, made clothesfrom wool. and usedwheels. Inttgunge developed. The Celtswho settledin Turkey spoke ( iirlrrtian,those in Spain spoke Celtiberian, and those in l;rirrlcc,Italg and norrhern Europe spoke Gaulish. The ( icltswho went to Irelandand later ScotlandspokeGoidelic (( lrrclic) and thosewho went ro southernEnglandand Wales rpokc Brythonic (or British). Unfortunatelyfor the Celtsin Britain, other peoplewanted to tirke advantageof the island's good farming land and vrtluirt'rle metals.In AD 43 the RomansinvadedBritain. They rcrnrrinedthere for almost four hundred years, and almost rrll of what is now England came under rheir control. (They frcvcrwent very f.arinto Walesor Scotland.)They introduced ir ncw way of life and a new language- Latin. British Celts in thc upper classes and the towns becameused to life with lrtws and police, roads, baths, and theatres.Some learnt to spcnk and write Latin. However, a new language did not dcvclop from Latin in Britain as French did in Gaul and Spirrrish did in Spain. From the middle of the third century AD, the Romansgrew wcrtker and weaker as the Germanic peoples of northern llrrrope invaded more and more Roman lands. In AD 410

' l' lx ' I li s tttrl ,o l l l tc l ;try l i s l t I rtttN tt ttl t'

i l l ' l l l y l () f ir r ir l l yl e l ' t l } ri trri rr.Wi tl ro ttt th c l { o ttrrtrr tl rc l{ or r r ir ns g rrl t r r lit , t lt e c ot t t t try w rts i tt c l ,tttg c rfrrl ttt o tl rcr i ttv:ttl crs. l )etttl ti trk* tl te i rt ttto c l c rtt l n A l) 449, pc op l e fro ttt.ftttl rtrrtl .ftttcs r t r r iv c c lit t s o tttl tc rtt l l ri trri n rtttd th c Arrgl cs :tl s< t s c ttl c c li tt c l ts tc rtl l l ri trri rl . l n 477 l 'rot t t l) c t t nr ar k - c rttttcrtttc l , r onr w h rtt i s tr< l w(i c rn ra n y , c rrttrci ttl clscttl ccli tr tl tc S r t x ot r s f rtr l l ri ta i n . ' l ' h c s c tl rrcc (i crtrtl trri c anc l s ou th -c i l s te s()r. r t hc nl Thc l{orrtatts pcoprlcswcre vcry cliffcrcrrt frottt thc lt<ttttrttts. lracl govcrtrcclthc llritish Oelts' btrt thcy hircl rlot tlkett thcir itt litrgcr trttntbcrs Thc.f utcs, Attglcs, ltttclS:txottscill11c Inrrcls. rtttclthcy scttlccl otl thc lartclslrclotrgirrgto thc l]ritish (lclts. S<lnrc<lf the llritish (lclts lcft ittrcl wctrt ttorth' s()llrc wcl'lt wcst itrt<lWelcs attd (lornwirll, arrd ()thcrs wcllt over tlrc sclr to Brittauy, iu what is trow ltortheru Frittrcc. T he J ut es s t ay e di n K e trt, i n th e s o u th -c a s tof B ri ti ti l t, but wellt south-west. thc Arrglcs m<lved north and the Sirx<tr.rs Thcy slowly organized themselves iuto seven kingdoms in what is now England and south-eastScotland. In the seventh centllry the kingdom of Northumbria, in the north, was very strong and a great centre of learnirrg. Irr the eighth century kingdom, Mercia, in the centre, becatne thc ulost il'!1p()rtant ilt thc stluth aud south-west, and in the ninth century'Wessex, becarnethe strongest kingdont. The invaders called the British Celts wealas meaning foreigners. Later this mealtt both Celrs and serudnts. From wealas comes the Modern English word'Welsh. The British Celts called all the invaders 'saxons' at first, bttt in the sixth century the word Angli was used to mcall thc whole group of invaders. Later Angli became Engle. Ttrday we call them Anglo-Saxons'. From the various Germatric clialectsused by developed. these people, Er-rglish

O t dEngt is h

t lLl l;rrBlish is the langtrrrgc tlrirtwrrs spokerr frourthc rrrirltlle ,,1 tlrt'liftlr ccrrtury to tlrc rrriclcllc of rhe twclfth ccrrrrrry irr rr'lt,tt is ttow lrrrglrrrrcl southcnrScotlirncl. rrrrcl l)trrirrg, rlris llnr(,lllc litngulrgc changccl rrrrcl irr to<lk worclsfrorrrotlrcr
l r ll l p . l l i lt l c s .

'Wcst rririnclillccts l'ltcrc werc f<rur of OlclFlrrglish: Sirxorr (tn tlrc soutlrancls<luth-wcst), Kcntish(irr thc soutlr-errsr) ,
(i rrthc ccntrc and Al l t' r' i rttt r' ,rrt ), i ul (l N ortl runr[rri arr (trrtl rc rrorth).Thcdi al ects It,ttl sttti tl l di ffcrences of p.t iltlllllllt, VoCabUlary, and l rt nt ttt ttci rtti or.r. t l rrl i ke other i nvaoers, tl rc A rrgl o-S axor-rskept lltt'u' owt'r language and rl trl rrot l carn the l anguage ,,1 tl rc l l ri ti sh C el ts. They rl rrl rrot take rnany C el ti c rr' ,,r' rl s i rrto thei r di al ects rttl rt' r; orrl y about tw enty ( r' l ti c w ords are found i n t )l tl l ' l rrgl i sh. The A ngl o\,r rorrs borrow ed some

'l'ltc I listory ol' tltc I;.nglisbI tutfutlgt,

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(l cl tic wor c ls f or p rrrrs o f th c c o u n try s i (l c w h ich w crc ncw t() tl r c nl: f < r r c x lur tl ' rl e ,tl tc w o rc l s (' r.t.q i l n c l /o r ntcrttti ttg, rt b i g h r ut c k , t ut c l , ' u n tl t f< > rt d a c l t tu l l c y .' l ' l rc rrrttncsof s<rttt cF . r r glis hc it ie s , I ttn d o n rtttd /,c c r/s f< l r c xrtttpl c, rrc (l cl tic , ir nc l t he wo rc l d u b ri s , w h i c l r n l c i l n t u tdl er, bccrrrnc I)o uc r . l) if f c r c nt ( l c l ti c w o rc l s ft> r ri u c ,r< fi tttLt!(rsurvi vc i u Auttn, F.sA,irncl ()use, ltncl'l'bdmcs is lrls<l thc river friu.rlcs (lcftic, rrrclning dark riucr, Howcver, thcrc rrrc very fcw o rd i nar y Cc lt ic wo rc l s i n Ol d l i n g l i s h , i tn c l rto onc i s real l y su rc of t he r c as or rf< rrth i s . Old E nglis h in th e fi fth a n d s i x th c e n tu ri es di d havc some words that werc not Germanic. Thcse were Latin worcis, which the Anglo-Saxor'rs had borrowed fron'r the Romans before invading Britain. But there were not mar]y - only about fifty. Some examples are stret (street), weall

ilttfnrl)tto rrrrrlic tlriswrrstlrc lirst orgrrrrizctl ItFwiI llrititirr, (ilrristiarrs. of llritrrirr Arrgrrstinc rrncl tlrc rrronks tltr grcoplc in Olrrrtcrbrrry in tlrc s()r,ltll-crlst by Kirrg n'rl'('wclc()rrrccl (]trccrr (.lrristirrrr. of Kerrtrrrrcl llcrthrr, wlro wrrs rr Actlrclbcrt Itr tltc' followirrgcentury tlrcsc ntottks itrtclotlrcrs took ( lrristirrnity over the s()utlr()f tlrc courrtry. ln tlrc n()rtlr, rrbout Ohristirrrrity frotttthe lrislttnottkAiclrttt, [t'oplc lcitrrtt lly thc enclof thc scvclrth thcrc irr 6.3.5. ccntrlry wlto rtrrivccl kirrgclorrrs wereClrristiarr. ,rllthc Arrglo-Saxou 'l'hc tnottks built churchesirr.rcl t:rught poctry, (ircck, As a rcsult,a rrunrber of ,trrrlLirtin as wcll as Clrristiarrity. about 450 appcirrin Old l.,ttiuwordscntercdOlcl English: literaturc. Sonrcwereabout thc lifc of the Church: l;rrglish Irrr cxrmple, munuc (monk) and scol (school).Othcrs were wrrrtfsfor things in the house:fenester(wintlow) lrrd cest (rlnst). Some verbs from Latin were spendrn (to spend), rerltian (to dance),and tyrnan (to turn). At first the monks wrote only in Latin, but then they hcgitnto write in Old English.This was unusual:peoplein ollrcr rrorthernEuropeancountriesdid not beginwriting in until much later. Learningspreadand tlrcir own languages amongthe Anglo-Saxons, and by the eighthcentury lkrwcred llnglandwas a centreof learningin westernEurope. ()ld Englishwas usuallywritten with theseletters: a, I, b, c, d, e, f, 3, h, i, l, m, [, o, p, r, s, t, pr6, u, p,y. Most of thesewere Roman, but some were not. 'Thorn'p 'wynn'p wererunes.'Thorn'p and 'eth'6 wereusedfor lrncl thc soundsl0l and /6/. Both were used for both sounds.6 wirsperhaps an Irish letter.'Wynn'p was usedinsteadof ra, 'yogh' 3 insteadof g. The letters k and x were also used rtrrcf occirsionally. There were no capital letters.

(wall), and win (wine1. Most Anglo-Saxonscould not reador write, but thosewho could write used runes. These were letterswhich had beenusedby the Germanicpeoplessinceabout the third century AD. They were cut into stone or weaponsand were had often usedto saythat someone madeor owned something. The arrival of Augustine and about forty monks in 597 brought changesto Anglo-Saxon life in Britain and to Old English.They had come from Rome to teachthe Anglo-Saxons about Christianity. Although Christianity was not

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Writcls trstrlrlly clrosc tlrcir.()wn spr'llirrgs ol' worrls, rtttd tlrcy triccl to show irr tlrc spcllirrg lrow ir word wirs All thc lcttcrsirr lr worrl wcrc pr()n()lrrrcccl. l)r()n()ur'rcc(|. ltrr 'l'lrc exrttttplc tlrc lcttcr /.rirr hring (rln,q) wrrsl)rollouncccl. pr<lnrrncilrtiorr <lf tlrc slrrrrc worclvrrriccl flroln<lrrc dialcctto lln()tlrcrr s<l tlrcrcwcrccliffcrcnt spcllirrgs .f thc slrnrc w<lrcl. ()lcl Thc vocirbulrtry o[ F)nglislr wrrsrrlrrrost conrpletcly (ierr.arric. Muclr <lf it - rrb.ut [1.5 pcr ccrt - lrasclisrrppcarccr frorn Moclcrn trrglish rrnclhrrs bccrr rel.rlircccl with words frorn l-irtirr <lr Frcnch. Howcvcr, rrany of thc w<lrclsirr Moclcrn English that lrc rrr<lst oftcn uscd conrc fr<lnr()ld Errglislr. A fcw cxirmplesarc:the, dnd, cdn, arrdgcl. Othcr wordsirr Moc'lern English whichcomefrorrrOld English arc f<rrvcry basicthingsand ideas.Somccxanrplcs are: mann (.pcrson), cild (child),his (house),etan(aat),skpan (sleep), Other wordswhichsurvive from Old Englisharenames of places. The Anglo-Saxons usedford for a placewherea riuer can be crossed, ham for uillage,ton for farm or uillage, and wic for houseor uillage.Thesewords survivein many names, for example,Oxford, Birmingham,Brighton,.V/arwick. Some Modern English names for the days of the week come from the namesof Anglo-Saxongods and goddesses. Tuesdayis named after Tiw, Wednesday after Woden (both godsof war), Thursdayafter Thunor (god of thunder),and Friday after Frig (goddess of love). Like other Indo-European languages, Old English made new words by putting two other words together.For example: boccrrft, book-skill, meant literature; sunnandrg, srzz,s day, meant Sunday. Poersoften did this to make beautiful descriptions; one expression for body wasbone-houseand one for the sea was the uater\ back. Old Englishalsomadenew wordsby addinglettersbefore

l t ,rl l gI l hc tttl ti rt w rtrtl ' l i rr exlt t t t plc: gan ( t lr t o) lr t 'cr t t lt c ttrrt)' itr), upgin (/o ,go u1t), ttd utgin (to 14rt fttgllt (lo ,tqo lfr,' wrrrrl blOd 1/r/oorl) [rccrttttcblodig (lfuxx,lt'), rrrrtl blind I' r,,,f l nc bl i ndl i ce (l i l i ndl y). in of f cr r r r PPcr r r cd i n ( ) lcl l, ) nglish l ' l rc w rl rcl si rr rr scntcrrcc i rr M <ldcr r r Fllglish. l1 M <lclcr t t ,r ,l tl l t' rcttt ercl cr fr< l trttl r< l sc tbe girl hallrccl the boy ;lrtdthe boy helpcd thc girl I trg,lislr, nrcal i rtgs w hi ch we ut r dcr st t nd f r ot lt t f ie wgr cl Ir,rvr,tl i ffcrcrrt of r r t hc nlcir r r it r g nrrl t' r. l tt ()l d Fl ngl i shpcopl c u ndcr st <>od fr<>mthc cndings of cach word, and thcse endings Er.nt('ncc ,l rarrgcdto show thc i ob that cach wor d did in t hc scnt encc' N otttts al so changcd thci r endir r gs f t r r t hc plur al: f <r r r,\ilflrplc, gama,(man) becamc gumen' sten (srot?c)bccame rtitrsst and giefu (gifi) became giefa. Nout.rs lrad three ltr'n(lcrs,and adiectivesand articles changed with thc gcnder ll tltc troun. However' many of the possible changes to worrls did not happen in practice. 'l'hcrc were more personal pronouns than in Modern i sl r. For exampl e, there was hine ( him ) , I im ( t o him ) , frrrgf ht (hcr) and hire (to ber). Him also meant to it and to iltem. l'lrcrc were also the pronouns wit meaning we two and git you tw o. ntt' rttti rrg Vcrlr endings changed, too. The past tense of most verbs wrrs made by changing a vowel in the present tense' so sing to sang, for example. In Old English there were r'lrrrrrgcd ,rlrout twice as many of these irregular verbs as there are rotlrry.The past tense of regular verbs was made by adding tlre crrdings -de, -ede, or -ode. For example' the past tense rrf' libban (to liue) was liftle, the past tense of cnyssan (/o (to loue) ltttsh) was cnysede, and the past tense of lufian w,rs lufode. ln the eighth century Britain was visited by the Vikings,

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ot ' l),tttt's'its lll( Ar r lilo S; lx or t s t : r llt ' t l t lr r ' t t t . li r o n r l f i -

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I rrrl ' .,r1 \\t' sst' r l totrt fi Tl to S t ) t ) )\ \ '( ) ll: lll illll) ( ) ll. llll lr : t t t lt ' ,,,,l trr,r,l t' ,rrl ,l !l t(' (' ttl ('w tlill l )tl l t'Viliilt t ', slo\ ( 'l) ; ll: ll( 'lr . r l1il; t r r , l i t| ro l \\' ()P ,tt' l s. A l tt' r' tl r;l t, tl l t'll( ) l'llt ( 'lll: lll( l ( 'ilsl( 't 'lll) illl, .trr,l \\' rts(() t t lr . t llt 't l lt t ' t llt Vr lir r r l"s' I rr,' 11 11 ,r\ tl r(' l )rttrt' l :trv, 1 y Kilr g Allr t '. '1. w i l s r' ()tttrr, ll. '.lr rl r, rr' ,,t,,1 l r.rrp,l rrrrtl t lr : r t lr ; r t l Itt,,ttl r' t' to bri rrg brtcl i tl tt' et 't t t t 't 'sol lt 'r t t 't t ir r g , r ot ' r lg, lislr r l ..i rru A l l rt' tl .lt '. i. lt '. 1t o t t lr t l<tl. l ,r r n rl r' sl r' ,,\' t' r.1, I rl rr, tl rr' l rtrtgttl tg.' ol ' t' tl ttcl tliot l; t t t t l lit ( 'l'ilt t lr ( '.So; t t t lr t ' r1,, ,rl l ortl l rt' l crtrrrt l .rl ti l l rll) ( l llcglt lr lr r lllsl: t t ir lg lr ool<s l rrl ( )l tl l i ngl i sl r. Il t' tl cscri l rctl llis plr r r l ilr t lt t 'st 'wor t ls:

(,lnr(' in ttt.tnt snt ; r ll llr ' ( ) lr l) \ lr or r r |) t ' r r r r r ; t r ' li r u r t l N o l r r ': r t ' ()n llr(' ;tnrl sto lt'lioltl rrrr t l s ilv t ' r ' lr onr l( ) \ \ ' ns , r r r , . l . lr r r r '. 1 r r . 's Irorllt to :rsl. llr 7t) . i; t r r t l 7t ) . . 1 t lt t . y t lt . s lr oy t . t l l. lt t l i s l ; r l l r t . r r r r t l lw() \/('t'y inll) ( ) r lilnl .l: u' r'o r,r,, irr t lrt'ttoltlt t'rtst ol ( , lt r is t i; r r r t t . r r t r t ' s o l lt.lrrrrirrt rrrtrry

lr , r r glr r r r r l.ln f i. 50 it lilr ' ll( ' V i l i i r r g

Iooli l.o tttlort rttrtl ( , lut t t ' t ' lr t r ly , lr r r . l s ( ) r l \ \ ' r lr l r t 'u : r r l u v l r i c l r (()ntinu ('(l un til liTS. lht ' r r hir r g Allt ' r ' t l ( t lr c A t r g l o - S ; r x o r r

r!

d-rfurcm{s. -.,

luflpn

('u(ruL('llrtnl *errruchmtrrl iiip.

' l ' l rcrel i l rc i t seems bctter to m c . . . t hat wc should ;rl\r) tmnslirte ccrttin lrooks which arc nlost ncccss'.rry mcn to know int<l thc languagethat wc crn rll l,rr :r11 urxl(rstan(1, and also arrange it . . . so that all the youth rnen now among the English people . . . are able 'l'li'cc l(, rclr(l English writing well. ir lt o ( ) lcl [ lr lglislr . ( ) r r c I rtt' r'l rt' hecl otl rcr books trrrrr slat ccl O cnt is Anglonnr r ( 'l'lt c ,,1 rl rt' st'w rts l Ji sl ori t F.ccl esidst ict l l r,.trtrt,rtf' l hc Fngl i sb C burch ant l I 'coplc) , which hacl bccr r lJeclc. \\ 1tt(' l r i tt rt[r< l ut7.]lby l r l l t()tl k ir t Nt lr t ht lllr br in cr r llccl Il rr., i s (l rc pr< l st i ptp()rtal tt s ot lr ce 9f ir lf <lr llr lt t iclrrl l[ r 9t t t it r ltrt,lc'l , .rrl r l r,rrgl i sh hi story thi l t w c h r r vc.lt r t l. r ct r r r llslr - r t i<lt ,,rl r,' r' w ri ti l tgs, w e begit l t o seet lr e wor cl Englisc F.ngl i sh r' :tt' l y to cl cscri bcthc p eoplc ancl t hc lat lgt t age. ' .t rr1,,l rrsccl i sl .t) N rrrg A l frccl rrl sostartccla h ist or y of Englr r r r dir r English: I /,,' l\rtg/o-SLtxonChronicle. This was writtcll lry nrorrks in whirt haclhap;rcr-red It clescrrbec'l ,lrllr'r't'rrt prlrts ()f the cor-rtrtry. al so what happellcclevcr y yelr l'at , rr tl r(' l )i rsti rt E rrgl artclaucl ir r Et lr t lpc t hat tl r. ti trtc of w ri ti rrg. l t w as the f ir st cl- r r onicle \\,r,,n()[ w ri ttcn i tt Lrrti rr. l\lost of thc Old F,nelish works that have stlrvived were

Ea rl ywr it ingsf r om L i n d i s fa rn e

t4

l'ltt I lisltry ol' tltc linglish Ldrt$ud!1t'

()ld It,nslislt

ls

Orrcof tlrcgrciltcst writtcrrrrftcrKirrgAlfrccl's clcrrth. wrircrs F{c wirs ir tnonk fronr WcsscxcallcclAlfric (9.5.5-1010). wr()tenl:uryChristianworks arrdrr guiclc for youu14 urouks (,'ol/rryuy.'fltis crrlfccl wirswritten irr l,atirrrlsil convcrsrltion bctweerr ir tcacherlncl ir student,and it is importrut for two rcilsor'rs. lt tclls us a lot irb()utthc daily lifc of trrorrks irncl ordinarypcoplc,and it alsotcllsus a lot lbout Old English, in one copy someone lraswritten the Old English because words abovethe Latin words. The greatestpieceof literature in Old English that has survived is a poem of about 3,000linescalledBeowulf.This was probably made in the middle of the eighth century, although it was not actuallywritten down until about two hundred and fifty yearslater. It tells the story of a braveman from Scandinavia calledBeowulf.He fights and kills a terrible mother,who animalcalledGrendel,and then kills Grendel's is just as terrible.It is a poem about life and death,bravery and defeat,war and peace. Here is a short piece from it in which Beowulf describes his fight with Grendel('the devil'): . . . w&s t6 fore-mihtig fEond on fepe. Hwrpere he his folme forlet to lif:wrape list weardian, earm ond eaxle . . . . . . the deuil pulled free with enormous force.But, in order to saue his life, he left behind his hand, his arm and his shoulder . . . In the Danelaw the Vikings and the English were able to quite well, because communicate their two languages, Old Norse and Old English, were both Germanic. One effect

ol rhis wrrsthilt ()kl linglishbccrrrrrc sirnpler. Mrrrryof tlrc d iH'ererrt worcl ettcl i rrgscli sappreir rccl.l)lurrrlcucl irrgsbecir rrrc ritttgrler rrsthc -s crrcling wrls r'n()rc wiclelyusccl, lrrrcl nrirrry vt'rbs wlriclrusccl to chirrrge thcir v<lwcl to rrrirke tlrc p:rsttcrrsc ntrw bcgrtrr to trrkctltc -dc errcling irrstctcl. Attothcr rcsult wlrs tlrnt thous:rrrcls of worclsfronr Olcl (ON) (OE). Ilctwccnfour arrcl Norsc cntcrccl Old Errglish livc hundreclremaiu irr usc today,with hunclrccls rnorc in of n<>rthern tlrc clialects Errgland anclScotland.We ctn see

The first page of Beowulf

l(t

I'lrt, Ilisl0, t t , of

t lt t ' lit r uli. t lt L, t r t gt t , r y t '

tl rrrt t lr c s lr c r r l< t . ol r ' s tl rt,trv o l rrrrl l rrrrl i t.s l i v r,tll o g r .tl rt,r...l osr,l y,, b c'e rr r r s c t lr e ( ) lt l Nr rs t' w ,rtl s rl rrrtr' rrrrrc i rrt, ()l t l l l ngl i sl r rrrt. wo l tls l. r or r rc v c , r ' y rl rry lil'c w o rtl s l i rr tl rt, l ro rrs c(rl l rrri orr,) , ( ) l t lr c bot ly (/r,,{ rrr,,' < , A ),:l l t(l c ()n l n l ()rr v c l . bs(gt' t, trrkt, l )r'rr t s tt,tu t! ) . ' l' hc r t ' r lt ' ( 'il l s () rrrrtrry w o rrl s h c g i rl ti rrg w i tl r .sA -l i l < c s/<i rr ,- s / < ir l, r t t t c l - . 4 ' t,.()tl rc l s ,u ' c : /.,,t.q,l , i c , t' gg, l ttrsl t,rttrl , s(//rt( ' S . ( ) lllc( ) k l Nrl rs c w o rrl s rc p l rrc c rl()l c l l l rrgl i sl rw orrl s; fi rr cx r r r r r plc s y s t er(()N ) rc p l rrc c d s w e o s ro r(()l l ) fi rr sl s/r,r.Irr s()r.r .c rc lls es ,lr ot h t h c ()l c l N o rs c rrrrc Ol l c l l ' .rrg li sl r w orcl s fi rr th c sr r r r r c ic lc r twc r c u s c tl . l -o r c x rrrn p l c ,tl rc rc w rrsrl l s/,r(()F.) ;trrcl tut r nt ( O N) , r r n c ls i c ' A(OE ) a rrd l // (O N ). The Olcl Norsc w()rd ,/ru,rcplaccclthc Olcl Ilnglish sindon ancl tlrc Olcl Norsc verlr errclilrg -s frrr thc tlrircl pcrsorrsinguler i n th c pr c s c nt t c ns c b e g a n to b c u s c c l .T h c O l c l N < l rsc/D c,y, their, .tnclthem sl<>wly rcplaccclthc Olcl English hi, hire , rrncl h e m ir r t he F < r llowi n g c c n ru n c s . The V ik ings als o l e ft th e i r rra rk o n p l a c e n a mes. More d -ra n 1, 500 plac es i n n o rth e n r En g l a n d h a v e Scarrdi navi an names. Over 600 end in -&y, which means farm or town (for exarnple, 'tf{hitby). Otl-rers end in -thorp(e) (smalL uillage), and -toft (piece of land); for cxample, Scunthorpe and Bldcktolt. Moderr-r family names that end in -soru,like Johnson and Dauidson, also corne from the Vikir-rgs. Battles between the Vikings irnd thc English conrinued in the tenth cerlrury. Fror-n1015 to 1041 Englancl had Danish kings, who were therr followed by an English lcirrg,Eclward. \When Edward died in 1066, Harold, tl-re leader of 'Wessex, was chosen to be the next king. However, Willianr, <lne of Eclward's consirrs, said that Edward had prornisecl that he wo r"r ldbec om e k ing o f E n g l a n d . W i l l i a m w a s rh e l eader of Norrnandy in northerr-rFrance. He decided to take an army to England and figl-rrHarold.

f.

TheNormans in E n g la n d

,' \t tl rc l l rrttl c of Il rtsti ngs,otr l 4 ( ) ct olr cl l0( r ( r ,l( ing I lar olr l rr' ,rrl i ,i l l ccl rtrrd l ri s i l nny w rl s clcf cr r t ccl [ r y t lr c Nolr r r r ur s.( ) r r ( l ri stnr:rs l )ey 1066 W i l l i rrrn wr r s r r r r r clc l<ir r gi oi l'. r r gilancl rrr l .orrrl orr,l rrrd ovcr tl rc ncxt f oLr r ycr r r s lr c cor r r plct ct lhis ( ()n(ptcstof F)rrgl rrrcl arrclW alcs. Tlr is cor r r lt r cst lr r t clit vcr y cffcct < l rtthc cl cvcl < 11-rnrof cnt t hc h) nglishllr ngulr gc. 1' ,r' r' rrt W i l l i arrrl rrcl l i rrgc st()ncc:.rst lcs built , f r or r rwlr ich N<lr r r r r ur .,,l tl i erscontrol l cclthc tow ns i r nclcor . r nt r ysiclc. Hc t ook vcr y l .trgcarcasof l arrclfronr ri ch E r r glishf anr ilics r r nclgr . r vc t hcur Io his Nr>rmar.r followcrs. Each clf thcsc ncw lanclowncrs hacl lrrs own group of soldiers, and eacl-r gave lar-rdto his own l ,,l l ow ers, so there w as usual l y one Nor m ar - rf am ily in each l rrrgl i sh vi l l age. N ormans w or ked ir - rt he gover nm ent and l ' trsi ncss and control l ed the C hur ch. Norman French immediately became the language of the

The Battl.e of Hastings

lf l

l'ltt' I li s lor t t ol llt t ' lt t t glis lt Lr t t t ! ur t ft '

I 'l t c N o r t t t , t tts i r t l i ttyl r ttttl

l()

elr t s s c s rttttl re tttrti ttc tl s o l i rr tl tc ttc x t tw o l tuttrl t' ctl !,()v c nr inll yci l r s .lir c nc hr r r r dl. i l l i rr w c r' (' rrs c rl i rr F ,()v c n l n l cnt, thc (l hrrrch, tl re lr r w, r r r r t l lit c r rrtrn ' c .V c l y l i ttl c w rrs w l i ttc n i n l i ngl i sh, lr r r gf r s f rt n o rrk sc ()n ti n u e (lw ri ti rrg ' I' l )( A ny,l o-S dr()n rtfrl r< r r r gh Ol tx t t r it ' launt il I 1 .5 4l.rrrg l i s l r h ow cvcr,i rt i ts w l rs s ti l l s p o l < c tt, cliffcrcrrt rcgiortrtlclirrlccts. T lr c us c of F r c rrc h c ()n ti n u c d i rr F l n g l a n clcl uri ng thc tw cl f t h c c nt ur y , t)rl rtl y b c c rru s c n rrrn y o f t l rc N onrrl rrr l <i rr gslnc l lir nc lo w n c rs :rl s o h :rc l l a rrc l i rr N ornrarrcl y arrcl o th c r plr r t s of F ' r i rn c ca n c l th e y s p c n t i l l o t o f ti rrc tl rcrc. Frcnch wils l.rotspokcn ouly by pcoplc of Norrrirrr ()r Frcrlch b l o o d. I t was als o s p o k c rrb y En g l i s h p e o p l c w ho w l ntcd to b e i rnpor t ant . Slowly, however, English becirme more widely used by the N o rm ans . M any o f th e N o rma n s m a rri e d E n g l i sh w omen, so they ar-rd their children spoke English. In 1 177, one English writer reported that with 'free men' it was impossible to know who was English and who was Norman. ln 1,204 King John of Er-rglandlost Normandy to the king of France, and during the r-rextfifty years all the great landowning families in England had to give away their lands in France. They became lessinvolved with France and began to feel that England was their country. The upper classescontinued to speak French as a second language, and it was still used in government and the law. However, French started to become less important socially in England, partly because the Norman Frer.rch spoken in England was not considered 'good' by speakcrs of Parisian French in France. The upper classesbegan to feel prouder of their English than of their French. Most ordinary people could not speak Frcnch at all. At the end of the thirteenth century, or-lepoct wrote:

l,cwcdc rncn cune F-frcnsch non Arnongan hondryrlvnnepison.

(' .ttttttttott tttatt knott, tto I in, nclt Attrortgt ltrtntlrtd srtrccly ona. ( )t' tl i ttrtt' y pcoP l c cl i d rrot rrcccl t o lclr r r rI ; r cnclr ,: r r r t lPr olr ir l'r ly .l i rl trot w l l nt t(). l t w l rs thc l ir ngur r gc of t hc N<lr nr r r r r s, wh<r It,t.l tl cstroyccl rrrury l l rrgl i slr t owns ir ncl villr r gcs. Flnglish \\,i l sthc l i rngui rgcof thc c()unt r y, : r nclpcol'llcwcr c pr oucl of rl :rnd of thci r hi story. A poct in ar our r cl 1300 wr ot c r n his l rftr()(f ucti ()n t() thc pocm (,' zr sr t rM unt li: pis ilk bok es translate Into Inglis tong to rede l'or the love of lnglis lede, Inglis lede of Ingland, For the commun at understand. This book is translated Into the English language For the loue of tbe Englisb people, English people of England, And for the common people to wnderstand. l'hc continuing bad feeling between England and France rcstrltedin the Hundred YearsWar (1337-1453). During this t ittrc national feeling grew and the English language was seen tttore and more as an important part of being English. lletween 1348 and 1375 England was hit severaltimes by thc illness known as the Black Death and almost a third of lhc people in England died. Many churchmen, monks, and sclrool teachers died and were replaced by less educated tttctr who spoke only English. There were fewer ordinary working people, so they could ask for better conditions

tl

Mi ddt e En g t is h

Itr tlre fonr ccnturicsthirt f<lllowccl thc N<lrrnrrn O<lrrqucst, langu:rgc tlrc Flrrglish chrngcclrlorc thnlr in nny othcr tttttcirr its history. Thuusrucls of w<lrds fr<>nr Frcnchcanre Ittto tlre larrguagc, and mrny Olcl English orreslcft it. At thc same tirnt: tl're langungc changed granrmatically, tttrtittly lry becorning simpler. The Errglish usedin this time Middle English. tr crtllcd ()nc way the grammargrew simplerwas by losingsome ol' tlrc differentendingsfor nouns,adjectives, and pronouus. lrrr cxample,by the fifteenthcenturythe plural noun ending .(t').s was acceptedeverywhere in England, although some lrltrralswith -en survived(cbildrenis one of them). Other from the landowners.Many left the land and went to work for more money in the towns. As ordinary people became more important, their language - English - becamemore important too. It was usedmore and more in government, as fewer and fewer people could understand French. In 1,362,English was used for the first time at the opening of Parliament. When Henry the Fourth became king in 1399,Englandhad its first English-speaking king since 1066.In the following century English took the place of Frenchin the home, in education,and in government. It also became the language of written communication so that after 1450most letters were in English,not Latin. English had survived- but it had changed. tttrtrrr endingswhich havesurvivedare the \ (the boy'sbook) nnrl the s'(the boys'books). Adjectives and nouns also lost f hcir grammatical gender,and the becamethe only form of tlrc clefinite article. 'Ihe main changeto verbswas to the past tense. Someof tlrc Old Englishverbsbeganto end in -ed. For example,rhe st tenseof climb was clomb, but the word climbed also frrf begirnto appear in the thirteenth century.In the fourteenth r'cntury,most of the thousandsof verbs which had entered tlrc language from Frenchalsoformed the past tensewith -ed. Sorrretimes the changewent the other way,so knowed became kttttu, but usually -ed was used. There are srill about 250 'irrcgular'pasttenseverbsin English,but this is only about lrllf the numberthat therewerein Old English. lrr Old English there were rwo main tenses:pasr and

.tl

L, ut 1' . t t , r 1 ; r ' I'1,,'I l i. t t , t t t , t t l t lt t ' li. t t v , li. ' 1,

r A I t,l, l l,' I t tr',1 t.,1

rl

i 'tt' r,l l .1 ti tl r tts.' .1 lr l rl l tt' t' l r' tts r' s .1 ..' r,, ' l ,,l l )r' ( ' s ( ' nt . r t \ , lit lt l l t' l rrrg l i s o l o l rt' rrst' tll o l ,t',1r , 11' 1' . . s 1r , t//,,rrr.l tt' i l l ..\l t,tl l tn ,,l tt' i l l l rt' 1 i : ttt ('\l ) f ' ( ' s s r t' tll i rl tl rt' pt' t' l t' ct t lr t ' lr r t v r r t' I . L tt' t' :tn .l/rr' rttc t' t' l ro (ltts t('n s ( ' s ilt lir s t , lr r rl i n tl tt' t' n tl /t,/tt' w :ts tts .' tll i rl' P t' t' l t' r' l (' trs(' \ (rtsi rr (rrsir r / / r r ' t ,lt , t t , t ' g o rtt' ),rrr..l /rr' w rrsu s c tl l i r tl rr ' prtssi vr' tettst' s(rts il tr,,ts r lot t t ) . lir ' w rts rtl s o tts e tll i rl tl rc c ()rrti rrtr()trs i n lt c is c ot t r ir r g) .l ' l rc s r.' tc n s c w sc rc rl ()t tts c tlv ery ol l etr rtt tl ti s ti rr r c ,llut lr r t c r t lr c y w c l c rrs c rln tu c l r n r()r' c . pcopl c l r,ttl s l i s :t1 ' rp crtl ctl , W lr c n t hc r lif f c rc n t tto rtttc ttrl i ttl 3 c t() l) ut wor ds ir r r t p rtrti c ttl ,tro rrl c r t() c x l )rc s stl l crl tti tl l l .' l ' hc or c l c t' th c y trs c c lw i l s s tl l )i c c t- vcr[) - tl l l i cct. n l ()s t c ( ) nillr < ln 'l 'frc y als o t t s c c lp rc 1 .t< l s i ti < l rts fo r, c x rttrrl ' rl c i tt, tt,i tl t. rtttcl/l y, s () rh c e x p re s s i o ttd rges and ni htes i n s t c lr c of l r r or r r r cn c l i n g s , by dc r yt r n d l ry n i g l tt i n Mi d rl l c F .rrg l ish. l rcc r t t nc A ll t hc s c gr : t tl trrtti c rrl c h :rrrg c sw c rc 1 ' r<l ssi blbccattsc c fro r r r 1066 unt il th c e n c l o f th c tw c l fth c c n tury vcry l i ttl c rs of thc govcrlrtl.tctlt wlrs writtcn in lrnglish. Thc official prrpe (lhurclr wcre writtctr in Latir.ror Frcuch. Tl.ris rlcarrt rrrrcl tlrc thrrt pc()plc were frce to ntake chatrgcs to tlrcir sp<lkcn langur.rgc very crsily. siurplcr by the encl of the If English grrlnlrrlr wrts I.t.tuch fiftecnth ccntury, its vocabtrlary was mr-rchricher. Betwcet.t l rc u c h w o rds w cre taken 1 1 00 ar r d 1500,ab o u t tc n th o u s rrtrcF of which arc still it.ruse. French into English, drrce-clr.rrrrtcrs words came ir-rto every part <lf life. The words blanket, thir-rgs tablc clcscril">cd ceiling, chair, dinner, frwit,lamlt, ttncT i n t he hom e. S c ie n c ca n d th e a rts w c rc e n ri c h eclby thc i deas afrd words dance, grdmmtr) literature, mcdicinc, music, painting, poet, squdre, and many m()re. New worcls arrived to cicscribe the law: crime, judge, prison, .tncl punish, for cxirnrple. And some things it-t nature rccciveclltcw ltames: flower, forest, mowntdin, riuer, and ocedn.

(1 ) l tl L r r l l l i sl r ( t ) l ;) I r , r r , l t ( l i ) r n , o r t l s v t 't y o l l t'n l t'p 1 1 1 1 1 '1 . , ', r r l ', l o t t 'r , t t t t p l r ' l t t 't t l t l t ' ( l l on r tl tt'l i n 'r r tl r p cr r p l c) tr 'p l ,r .r ''l '1 l r u r l r ' ( ( ) 1 . ) . l ', r r r s o t t t t 't i r t t t 's l r o tl r tl r t' l i t'r 'tr tl t :r n tl tl r t ( ) l tl I r r l i l r ', l r r v , , t . . l ss t r v i v t 't l , w i t l r sr r r r r l l tl i l l ct't'r r tcs r r n r ( 'i u l r r l l s: l , , r , r , r r r r l r l t ', r . s f t ( ( ) l l ) : r n t l t l t'u r L n ttl ( l i ) , r t,<,tl ,l i tn ( ( ) l r ) r r n tl ( ( ) l i , ) r r n r l so l cn 'i g tt ( l i ) . So r r r e ti r r cs l i t't'n e l r 'r , n n , t , \ t '( l r ) , A i l , q , r , r r l , . \ v t 'l 't 'r r s c r l l i r r l i l 'c 'i r r t l r c r r l r l ) t'r 'L l ;1 * * L 's, r r tr tl ( ) l tl l .r r g l i sl r . , r r , , l o r 'l i l t 'i n t l t c l o w c r c l r t sscs. l i r t'cxr r n tp l c, th c w o r r l s l i r r '

tlr, .rrrttrr:rls i r r t h c l i c l r l s w c l c ( ) l r l Ir r r g l i sl r ( r - o r r ,.s, s/.,r 'r '7 r ,r r r tl / , r r : , , ) l r r r t t l r c w o r d s f i r r t h c nl cr l t ( ) n tl r c tr r b l c w cr c l i r cr r cl r t 1 , , 'r I', t t tt t I I o l l , l t t t c l l t o r k ) . N t r v l l n g , l i s h w o r c l s w c r c ttt,tr l c l - r o tn so tttc o l - tl tc n cw

:'l

'l'ltr I lis t or t , ol ! lt t ' I it t glis lt I . t ut gt r r t ! t '

Nl i, l, I I t' I rr.q/r.s/,

ls

yi . )r c x i l l l l p l c, Il tc l l rtgl i sl r l trrttrc c l i rttc l l l i l crrc h wot r ls r r lnr()s i -h ,,t " . 1 - / ir / c r r c lin g sw c t' c rtd c l c c to l I;re ttc l tw orcl s t. tttrtkc cc ll t I. !(tt t ht, ltt,t tt t i fi t l, ;tnel1rc,r w < trc l srtl so ctttcrccl A t t lr c s lullc t il l l c s c v c rrl l tl t< l tts l tttrl ' l ' h c y c rttn c fro ttt 1 ' ro o ksrtl rottt l rtw , l i rrglis lr f r or t t [ . r t t i tt. n rcc lic inc ,s c ic t t c c , l i tc r:rtu rc , o r (l h ri s ti rrrri ty . ' l ' hcscl ' ro< tks o ftcr r us c c lwor c lsw h i c h c o u l c l n ()t b c tr,ttts l a tc cilrrto Fl rrgl i sh. Orrc t r ir ns lir t or wr ( )tc : . . . there ys many words in Latyn that we have not proprc English accordynge thereto. ... thcrc are mdny l.atin u,ortls thttt tt,c do not hLtLtc Englisb words for. So translators often took the Latin word atrclmade it into an En glis h one. S om e w o rd s w h i c h c a me i n to Mi ddl e E ngl i sh from Latin at this time were: admit, history, impossible, necessary, and pictwre. One important source of Latin words was the first translation of the Bible from Latin to English which was made by John rVycliffe and his followers between 1380 and 1384. They followed the Latin very closely,using many Latin words. More than a thousand Latin words appear for the first time in English in their translation of the Bible. The changes to the grammar and vocabulary of Middle English did not happen at the same time everywhere. The OId English dialects continued to develop differently from each other. The main dialects in Middle English were similar to those of Old English, but they used different words, word endings, and pronunciations. Understanding people from different places, even those which were quite close, was difficult. There is a famous description by\Jfilliam Caxton' who later brought the printing machine to England, of a conversation in Kent between a farmer's wife and some

r,ti l ot' s l rorrr l .r,rrtl orr(;rl rout eiglr r y l<ilor r r t . t r ( .rs r wir y) . 1'h( ' u,ti l ot' s rtsl < t' tl l i rr s()nl (' cggys lr r r tshc r licl r r ot kr r ow t lr is wor t l (rn l rer rl i :rl cct(,trs w (' r(' eyren) . 1'lr ir r l<ir r tg lr r r rt hcy nlusr l) c rpt' ;rki rrg rr fi rrci grrl i l n!.l ,url !.: , c, slr c t olr l t hcr r rshc'coudc spckc ' (cottl drt' t sl tctk l ;n't r L'lt ) l rro frcnshe Whcrr 1'rco1'rle wr()tcrthcy usccl tlrc worclsrrnrll'rrorrrrrrcirrtions ,,1 tl tci r cl i rtl ects. l ' i rr exarrrpl c , t hc sor r r r d / x/ ir r t hc r niclcllc of rr" rrrcfs w rrsspcl t.gbi rr thc s()ut h r lnclc'/ .in r t lr c n( ) r t h, s<> niglt t (pl onouncccl/ntxt/ l l t tl rrtt ti r r r c) coulcl bc spclt r r s r r i, qhlr lr tti tl tt. ()nc w orcl c< l rl clhavc a nur nbcr of clif f cr cntspcllir r gs. l l tcre w crc nr()rc thi l n rw cnty wr t ys of spcllir r glt aople ( f or cs:rrrrplc, pepylle,puple, peeple),r'n()rc tl'rrurfivc hunclrcclwrrys ol spclling througb, nrorc rl.trur sixty wrys of spclling s/rc, ancl nl rul y more vi rri i rti < l ns. S orrret inr es a spr elling f r or r ror r c clialcct Itrtssurvi ved,togcther w i th th e pr onnnciat ion f r or r an( ) t her . f i rr cxanrpl e, busy i s the spelling f r om one dialect , but t hc on lbvil is from another. lrrorrrrrrciati l)uring this time there were changes to the ways sounds rvcrc spelt. The Old English letter 3 was replaced by.g, and r lry a. Th began to be used instead of p and 6. The Normans irrtr<rduced i and z, used A more often, and used u and u for lroth /cil and lvl. They replaced E with gh (ligbt), cw with tlu (queen), and sc with sE (ship). They used ch instead of , (c'hurch) and ou instead of u (howse).And in many words t frcy replace d the w with an o (loue, son) . This was because tfte letters m, n) u) and u were all written in a similar way, nrilking words with groups of these letters difficult to read. lrrom the thirteenth century, English was used more and rrrorc in official papers, and also in literature. Much more litcrirture has survived from this time than from the earlier tirrrc of Old English. There are songs, long poems, and crplanations of Christianity and the Bible. Here is parr of a

26

I ' lt c I li s l o rt,o l l l tr l t.n y l i s l I t ru tl tttt l t'

Mi ,l ,l l c l: t t ylislt

27

sorrg frorr rrrorrntl 122.5. lt is rrllorrt tlrc crrckoo :r [rirrltlrrrt visitsllritlrirr irr tlrccrlrlvsunlnrcr. Svmeris icumenin Lhude sing cuccu! Growep sed and blowep med And springp pe wde nu. Sing cuccu! Summc'r has crtmcin. Loudly sing,cuckoo! The secdgrows and thc field comcsinkt lkttucr And the wood comesuD now. Sing,cuckoo! The greatest writer in Middle EnglishwasGcoffreyChaucer (1343-1400). Chaucer, who livedin London, was both a poet and an important government official.He wrote in the East Midlands dialect (spokenby people living in the OxfordLondon-Cambridge triangle) and used many words from French.He also usedrhyme, which was usedin Frenchand Italian poetry.His best-knownwork, The CanterbwryTales, written in the 1390s, beginswiih thesefamouswords: Whan that Aprill, with his shouressoote, The droghte of March hath perced to the roote And bathed every veyne in swich licuor, Of which vertu engendredis the flour . . . Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages . . . When April with its sueet showers Has piercedthe drought of March to the root And bathed eueryuein in such liqwid From wbich strength tbe flouer is engendered ... Then people long to go on pilgrimdges. . .

Il rt' pocttt i s l rborrti r gr' oul )ol'or t lir r r t r y pcoplc wlr o jor r r r r cy t u t l rt' l rrrgc chrrrcl rrrt Ol rntcrbt r r yt ( ) gct ller , t cll ir r ger r clr ot hcr .,tot' i cs ()l l tl rc w rry.' l ' hcy rrrc r r vr r r icclgr or r l'rol: clr r r r r r ct cr s, ,rrrtl( l hrrrrccr cl cscri bcstl rcrrrcolor r r f ully.'l'hcr e is t lr c Wilt (rvorrrrrn) of l l ath, thc Oook, th c ( llcr k ( r rst uclcntr r t ( ) xf or cl) , tl rt' Man of l .aw , the S hi pnrar r ,t hc M or r k, r r nclnr r r nyot hcr s. ( lhauccr givcs us plcr r t y l rr tl rci r st()ri csl rrrclconvcrsir t ior r s, ol tl ct:ri l si tbout tl rci r l i vcs.l ' ' <lr cx: r r nplc, hc r r r r r kcs f un oI t hc I' r' t' ncls;l r okcrri n Ii ngl ancl : And Frensh she spak ful faire and fetisly, After the scole of Stratford atte Bowe l'or Frensh of Paris was to hir unknowe. And Frencb sbc spoke extremely heautifully With an dccent from Stratford-at-Bow IJecausetbe Frencb of Paris was unknown to her. (,ltrtucer was very good at describing people and also at writing conversation which sounded very real. He had a great cftcct on writers in the fifteenth century and many of them r' opi edhi m. Another very popular poem in the fourteenth, fifteenth, ;rrrcl sixteenth centuries was Piers Plowman 6y William l,:rngland (1330-1400). In this, Langland wrote about the tlifficulties of the poor in England, the bad customs of the ( )lrurch, and also the perfect Christian life. It was a 'dream' lx)cm, in which the writer describes what he has seen in a .lrcirm. This kind of poem was popular in France and Italy ;tt the time, but Langland wrote it in the way Old English l)ocms were written. He did not use rhyme; instead in each lirre he used severalwords that begin with the same sound. 'l'his short piece from near the beginning of the poem shows how he did this:

lli

' l' lt t ' I l i s l rtrt' rtf l l tt' l i tty l i s l , l .ru trttr tr('

N l i , l ,l lt' li, tul r i sl,

I wlts wery, lirrwlrrrrlrcrl,iuxl wclrt rlc to rcstc Vndcr u lrro<lcllrnkc bi a lrorncs si<le. Anrl rs I lay un<llenc<lun<lkrkcrl in lrc watcrcs, I slornllrc<lilr a slcllyng, it swcyued so mcryc. 'l-hannc gan I rnctcn a lnerucil<lusc swcucne That I was in a wil<lerncssc, wist I ncucr whcrc. I rt,,ts ! in, t t o f' tt,,trttl c ri n !rn td t(,(trl l () r(s! [ ] t r dc r , r lt x t ttl l ttttk 1 4 , tl tc s i d c o f' ,t l tx tok, A r r d r s I lt t y tn td l c n tc d ()tt(t' ttn dl o o k c d i rttttl l tc
Ittllt(r,

tlurt is spokcn in olrc sltyrc Anrl tlrut cornyn cng,lyssltc vrrrycth fi'<xna notlrcr . . . Ccrtaylrly it is harde to pllayse cvcry rnan lly causcof . . . chaungeof hngtgc. A ttrl tl tc.()tnttt()n l ttrgl isltt lt , t t is slt okt 't tit t t t t t t 't 't 'git t t t l )(' t'. . . ( i'r t , r ir t lJ,il is lt t nl ! o 1t l1', 15, q' t,ttri (,s l r()nt (ut()! (' t,(' t' \t nttul l )((drrs('()l . . . ! lt t t lt , t t t gt 'it t ! lt c lr ut gt t Lt gt '. ( ,rxtol r rrrrcl otl rcr pri ttfcrs cl c cir lcrtl o t t sc t lt c Lr t st M ir llr r r r r ls r t l. ot t clot t , t t t t l t t sct l ,l t,tl t' ct,rrrl ri nl y bccrtttsci t w r t s slt ol<ctit l t1' l l ovcnrrrcrrt ()ffi ci l l l s.' l ' hc pr int cr s r lir l n( ) t t nr ll( c t llcit ' wr r y, but slowly st r t t t clr r r r l ,l t' t i si orrsi n rt parti cttl l trl yorgrt r r iz. cd tpt' l l i rrgs cl cvcl opccl .H < l w cvcr ,af t cr t lr is t ir r r c, t lr c sot t r t cls As r t t 'cst t lt ,t lr er c nr nrar)y w orcl s ch:urgcclor rlisr t ppcr r r ct l. of w < > rcls t lr r r t ar c spclt ir t t hc wr t y t hr t t ,u(' rr()w th< l usancl s tl rcy w crc pronoutrcccl rrr (,exti rrr' s ti rne. For r' \i rtl tl )l c, tl tc l cttcr ft i l r A rrcc, the l cttcr w tt.t rhc l ettcr / i rr t(' r(,rtu. i ur(.l t u I d were pror.rounced r r'< ,rt thi s ti me. l l y tl ,e end of the lil tccnth century English \vrls startilli to be read hy thousandsof peopl e. l n the next century i r wrrsread by many more, ,rrrrl used by the great strrrof English literature W i l l i am S hakespeare.

I fi,ll into t slcclt, it soundcd sts ltlctstrnt. 'l'hcn I ltcgrtn to drcttrt ,r trttrt,cllous dretm 'l'bat I tuds in t tt,ildt'rncss,I did not kn<stu tuhcrc. Al l poc nr swer c wr i ttc n t() b c rc l rc lo u t t() o th c r pc< l pl c, so thc s<lurrcls of the worcls wcrc vcry ir.rrportirnt. A c iif f er entk ind o f c l e v e l o p n re nitn th e fo u rt eenth century wirs the growing use <>ffantily nalrles. People began to r-reecl these as they moved away from their villagc or as their village grew larger. Sometimes dre family name had the father's narne (Johnson), as in Arrglo-Saxon times. Other nalnes showed where a person lived (Rizers, HiLl), or his town (Burton, Milton), his country (French,Holland), or his work (Cook, Fisher). A person's farnily narne could change five or si x t im es dur ing h i s l i fe ti me . In the fifteenth cerrtury a machine was brought to Englarrd which had a gre:rt effcct on English. This was the printing ma c hine, whic h W i l l i a m C a x to n b ro u g h t to Lor-rdon i n 1 4 76. S uddenly it w a s p o s s i b l e to p ro d u c e thousands of co pies of book s . B u t w h a t w o rd s a n d s p e l l i ngs shoul d be u sed?Cax t on wr o te :

A pri nti ngpress

t0

i sb I x'gi tts M r ttlrr tt Ii,nyl

tl

6 Modern Engtish begins

Th c s ix t ec nt lr c c n tu ry w l l s i l ti n rc o f c l rrrrrgcs i n F)trropc. Ettrol' r c : ut bc s g: r nt o c x p l o rc th c Arrrc ri c u s ,As i rr,arrclA fri cl r,

1f lcitrrtilg pfittrcc9f ['lrrglis[ ,ts it lrtttgttrtgc Ffirwcvcr,tIc ircce ccllt t lr y' ttrtti l tl rc ct t cl of t lr c scvct t t ccllt h n()t c< l rrrpl cte W ttB exi rnrpl c, i n l 6fi 7 l sni rc Ncwt ot t clt osc l. it t ir l wlr cr r lr e F,err ( ) pt it 'ks w rotc fri s I' ri nci pi a, btrt fi ftcct r yer r r slr r t cr he wr ot c

in lirrglish. writcrs centurics, l)urirrg tlrc sixtcclrthirnclscvcrrtcerrth irbout 30,000worclsfronr nlrout fifty irr linglish l-rorrowccl About anclidc:rs' ncw thitrgs fo clcscribc ntnirrly Irtttguagcs, lrrrlf of these words rrc still usecltodiry.This vcry largc wlrsthe miritrchangcin Englishlt this growth of vocirlrulitry cxanrple, Thc new wordscamemainlyfrom Latin; f<rr titrrc. exltlain,fact. Other important sotlrces leslterate , expensiue, filr new words were French,Italian, Greek, Spanish,and and Itrrtuguese.Arrd as the Europeanstravelledto m<>rc rrroreplaces,so words came into English from America, Africa, and Asia. For examplechocolateand tomato came fr<rmMexic o; banana from Africa , coffeefrom Turke5 and (drAllanfrom Persia. Not everyone liked this borrowing of words. Some and hard thought that the strangewords were unnecessary everythingquite well English could express to understand. without them and the writers wereonly showinghow much l-atin they knew.One man, Sir John Cheke'wrote in 1557: I am of this opinion that our own tung shold be written cleane. . . unmixt. . . with borowing of other tunges' I think we should write our own languagewithout borrowing words from other languagesBut the borrowing continued, and the new words which survivedslowly lost their strangeness. New words were also added to English in other ways' People were adventurous with language: they used verbs

ltrd lcrrnitrg irr nll irrcirsflowcrccl. ln Engllrrcl, thc Englishlirnguirgc grew irt order tr> exprcssir lirrgc nunrt'rer of rrewiclcas. At the beginning of the sixteenth century Latin was the langr.rage of learningin all of Europe,and it was seenas richerthan Englishand the other spokenEuropeanlanguages. However, with the growth of education, the introduction of printing, and the new interest in learning, this began to change. More and more people wanted to read books by Roman and Greek writers, and in England they wanted to read them in English. So these books were translated, and other books about learning were written in English.Using English meant that a writer printer could reachmore people,as one sixteenth-century explainedto a writer who preferredLatin: Though, sir, your book be wise and firll of learning, yet. . . it will not be so saleable.

].1

I ltt' I lts t ot t , t t l t l, t ' l. t t t lt t l,

. t t r 1lt t , r y , '

N l tt r l t 'r r t I i tt g l i sl t I tt'g itt s

tl

,l ttt' i ttg l ri s l i l t' ri tttt' ntt' ;tnt t lr r r t lr is plr r ys lr r r r l r r v( 'r 'y llf r 'ill t' l l t' ct ott l l rrgl i sh. W l rcrr l rl i zrrl rct l r tl rc'l i i l st dic't lir r 160. 1 slr c lcl't r r o clr ilt lr t . r r , sr, l ret' corrsi rr,K i ng.fl rrrrcs t lt c Sixt lr ol'scot lr r r r r l, becrr rr r t . l si ng .frrrrrcstl rc I;i rst ol ' l l nglr r r r r l. I r r l( r 04 t lr c r r ew liir r g .,r' cl eretl rr trrrnsl rrti orr ol :tl rc lliblc int o l, ) r glislr . 'l'hclc wer e tnruty rl i ffcrent l rrrgl i sh trru r slr r t ior r s of t hc lliblc r t r r t l lr r ' w i l ntccl to l rrrvcorrc rrrri rr trt r r r slir t ion.lt wr r s nr r r r lclr y lil't yl i rttr trl utsl atorsw h< l w orl < ccl gr or r ps,r r sir r g t ogct lr cr ir r sr r r r r ll okl cr rrnttsl i rti or.rs rl s tl l ci r gu idc. ' I' hc trrrtrsl rrt< l cl rsi clrrot follow Slr t r l<cspcr r r c's cxlr r r r plc lr nr l tttrtkcttcw w orcl s;i nstcaclthc y r r sccl olcl or r cs,cvcn ( ) ncst llr lt ()ut ()r w crc oF cl rrte w crc bcc<lr nilt gunt r sulll. I . ir r cxar nplc,

as nourls (laugha,ndinuitc), or nourls as vcrbs,or made adjectivcs frorn nouns (shadyfr<>rn shade).Or thcy put two words tollether (chairman), or they added new parts to for example. words; un- to comfortable, The ageof Qr-reen Elizabeththe First (Queenof England 1558-1603) wasone of a greatflowcringof literature.There werethe poetsSpenser and Sidney, aud the writers of plays Marlowe,Jonson, and,of course, William Shakespeare. (1564-1616) Slrakespeare is considered the greatest writer of plays.He expressed his understandir-rg of human nature in extraordinarilyrich language in his playsand poems.He had the largestvocabularyof any Englishwriter and made about two thousand new words, and a large number of expressions which are now part of Modern English. For he wrote: it'searlydays(it'stoo soonto know what example, (unableto speakbecawse will bappen);tongwe-tied you are shy);the long and tbe short of it (all that needsto be said about sometbing); loue is bLind. His sLrccess and fame

ye instcacl of you lrs a sr.rbjcctpr()u()ul'I,rrnclthc tlrey r.rscd "ctb cndingf<rr verbs it.rsteacl of -s. Thcy did rrot r.rse irs nlrlny tliffcrent worcls as Shakespcarceither: he hacl uscd twcnty thousand and they onl y use d eight t housand. They air ned to make the lar-rguage souud likc poetry when it was read orrt and usually they succeeded.Here is a short piece from a tcitchir-rg of Jesusas an example: Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you . . . That ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven: for he maketh the sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on thejust and on the unjust. ' l ' he K i ng James B i bl e appear cclin l6ll r r ncl wr r s r cir cl ir r churcheseverywherein Englancl,Sc<ltlrrncl, arrclWrlcs f<rrthc rrcxt three hundred years. It was als<lrcacl irr 1'rco1'rlc's lronrcs rrrrdtaught at school , and for m auy pcoplc it was t hc <lnly

M rt,lt'r t t I it tgl i sl t I t t 'gi t ts

t5

ol thc'tlrirtlllcrsrlrr witsth('t'rttlirrg sirrgrrlrrl in tlrc l)rcs('nt tcttsc. lly l7(X) the -//.r wrtsrto lottgcrrrscrl lrrrcl ,rll vcrbstor,l< .s;firr exittultle lotrylltwrlsrr<lw /olr,s. l)rorr<lrrrrs lrlsochangccl rr littlc. lrr 1.5(X) tlrc worcls vr,rrrrtl wcrc usccl irr tlrc slurrc wily ils /.rc rrrrcl ltirrt,butby l7(X) l,()r, 'f,r' lrrtcl clisrtppcrtrccl .'l'bou rrrrcl /fcc wcrc ills()rrscrlinstcrrrl ol:you to clrilclrcrr or pc<lplc wh<lwcrc lcssinrgrortrult thrln yottrself, but thcscrtlsoclisrrpl'rcrrrccl irr nr;rrry irr tlrc clirrlccts scvcl'rtccnth ccntury. Also clurirrg tlris tinrc, tlrc worrl i/s rcplrrcccl /.ris to tirll< itbouttlrirrgs without gcrrclcr. Thc lcg of rrchrrirwrrsrr<lw l/s bis lcg. /rg rr<rt C-har-rges it.tprotruttciiltion werccontinually trrkingplrrcc. From the middle of the fifteerrthcentllry the scven lor.rg vowels began to change.For example,in Chaucer'stime tfrc word for life was pronounced/li:f/ and this becarne llefl and then lla:d.l by the eighteenthcentury. Similar clranges happened to howse, which was /hu:s/ in Chaucer's time. After two changes,it finally arrived at its modern pronunciation /haus/. Soundsin some other worclsdisirppearecl; for example the lkl and the lwl at the begirrningctf knee and write were f<rst. The pronunciationof ltl in castleand the lU in would :rlsodisappeared. The big growth in vocabulary and the flowering of literature happened when England was quite peaceful. However,in the middle of the seventeenth century this peace was destroyed,and the changesthat followed had some interestingeffectson the language.

Il ,

,tf/

fi

Th e K ingJ am esB ib te

!l

t,

book that they read again and agair-r. As a result,it had an important effecton the Englishlanguage. Many expressions part of the language; from it became for example,tbe apple of somebody'seye (a person who is loued uery mwch by somebody); by tbe skin of yowr teetb (yowonly just manage to do sometbing); the salt of the earth (a uerybonestperson); the straigbtand narrow (an honestway of liuing).Its poetry had a great effecton many Englishwriters in the centuries that followed. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there grammatical English, weresome changes to althoughnot as many as thosethat had happened to Middle English.People beganto use do with a main verb.For example,you could sayI know not or I do not know. You could sayI know or I do knou. And you could sayknow you?or do yow know? In peoplebeganto useI know,I do not the seventeenfh century, know, and do you know? more often. Another verb change

l6

l l ri ttyi tty ttrt lcr ! t t lt , ngl islt

l/

B ring ingo rder to EngLish

A l l rl rcsc cl t,tttl l cs nrrl (lc l) c( ) l') lcwr slr t ir r or r lcr r t nt l nr ot 'r . ' rcg,rrl rrri ty i rr thci r l i ves,rrrrtlsor r r cpcoplc ir lso wlr r r t ecl 'l'lr c i n thci r' l rrrrgrrrrl l c. gr cr r tgr owt lt it t r t cw wor cls t' r' grrl i tri ty rrrrcl1660 - rhc f ir st cst ir r t lr c hist or y of t lr c l rr.tw ccrr1.5.]0 l .urgrri rgc l ri rcll cft pcopl c u r r ccr f air r .Wlr r r t wr r s hr r ppcr r ir r g l o thc l rrrrguagc? l f s() nl rl rry f r lr cign lr r r cl ncwly- t r r r r clc w<lr cls (' ()nti nr,rccl to c()nl c i rrt< li t, w o ulcl it r cr r r : r irlinglish? r

(lharlcs thc First, thc s<lrr of .farrrcs tlrc l"irst, wrls r'rot:l rrr king, rrrrcl in 1642wrrr bcgrrnlretweerr thosc wh<r 1'r<rprrf wrrltcclhint to l're kirrgirncl rrot. ln 1649 he was thoscwh<> clicl killcd, anclErrglirrrcl, Wrlcs,rrrrcl Scotlarrcl rcrrlirrccl without :r kirrguntil 1660, whcu his sou Charlcs the Scconcl rcturlrccl to Englarrc|. Charlesthc Sccorril dic'din l6U5anclhis lrrothcr king in 16t15. But Jamesthe Second was so Jamesbccarne uu-rpopular that in 1688he left Englandand was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange.

S ottrc pcol ' rl c i n F} rgl arrclwar r t ccl t ( ) cr cr lt c r r r r of f icir r l orgi ttti z.i rti ott lir r t gt r it gc, sir r r ilit rt o t lr c to corttrol thc F) r r glish A eci rcl crl i rr cl cl l a (l ruscn w hiclr hir cl bccr r st ilr t ccl in lt aly ir r wlriclr hircl lrccrrstrrrtcclill l,5ll2,aucl thc Acircl6nricFriruqirisc l i ri urcci n 1635.Orre of tl rcscpcoplc wr ls t lr c wr it cr . for r at lr ir r r Swift, wl-r<rirr 1712 wr<>tc A Proposirl f<rr (iorrecting, I rrrgrr<rvirrg, arrclAsccrtairrirrgthe Euglish Tirngue' (ascartain hcrc rneans 79x). S w i ft di s liked spelling chaugcs, ncwly w<-rrds, the habit of shorterrir.rg words, and 'bad' l'irshi<lnable grrlrnmar. He warrted a group of people to 'fix' the lauguage hy rnaki ng grammar rul es, making list s of wor ds dr at wer e irtcorrect, and deciding on correct spellings. The idea never succeeded, pirrtly becausc othcr preople rcal i zed that change i n a l anguage was unavoiclable. But it rnirde people think about thc rrccclf<rr cvery<lncto use the srrnrespelling and grammar. As a result, diffcrent spelling g,uides, dictionaries, and grammar books began to appear. Although printing had brought some regularity into spclling, many variations had remained in the sixteenth ccntury, even for personal names. For example, there are six known examples of Shakespeare'sname that he wrote hirnself, and in each one he spelt his name differently. People ruscdtheir own spellings, which usually showed their own pronunciation. Other variations were introduced to show that words came from Latin. For example, the letter o was

,rtt

'l'heI Iislory of' tlte l;,ntr1lish Ldn!!,urttt'

put ilrto paopla, thc lcttcr /., irrto doubt, irrrcltlrc lcttcr c' populus, dubitarc, into sc'issors, bccausctlrc l,ntirr w<lrcls ntcl cisorium lrrcl tlrcsclcttcrs.And cliffe rerrt spcllirrgs wcrc givcttt<rworclslike sonnc (rrnralcchild) rrrrcl sunnc (thc strrr that givcslight) which sourrdcdthc slrlc lrut haclcliffcrcrrt trrciurirrgs. ln thc crrcl,tlris frccclclrrr lccl to clrirrrgc spcllirrgs to c<lrrfusiorr. Irr thc scvcntecnth cerltury,pcoplc wantcd t<l cnd this confusiorl, and the appearance of the firstEnglish dictionaries skrwly ['rror"rght about more regularity in spelling.Durir-rg the eighteenthcentury,ways of spellingthat differedfrorn these dictionaries were seen as incorrect and a sign of stupidity or a bad education.Even today,many peopledo not like making spellingmistakes, and often use the spellchecktool on their computers. Dictionaries were not unknown before the seventeenth century, but they were Latin-English ones. The first English-Englishdictionary appearedin1604 and was written by a schoolteachercalled Robert Cawdrey. It was called A Table Alphabeticall and was a list of about 2,500 'hard vsuall English wordes' with explanations of their meaning and sometimes which language they had come from - French (fr) or Greek (gr). Here are some examplesof the words in the Table: (fr) accomplish, finish,or make an end of; barbarian, a rude person; eclipse(gr), a failing of the light of the sunneor moone; obsolete, olde, past date,growneout of vseor custome; A Table Alphabeticall became very popular and similar

dictionariesfollowed. In the eighteenth century dictionary writers began explaining more ordinary words, not just ones. r.lifficult ht 1746 a group of booksellersasked a young writer called SamuelJohnson to prepare an English dictionary. worked on this dictionary for nine years,with the .fohnson hclp of six other people.For threeyears he readthe works of hundreds of Englishwriters and found examples for words irt the dictionary. Then he beganto write the meanings of the words.He chose'hard'wordsbut also many ordinary ones. When Johnson's A Dictionary of tbe English Language in 1755it was an immediatesuccess. irppeared It explained more than 42,000words, and as well as the meaningof each word, it gavethe pronunciation and history of the word, and sometimeshow it was used. A 'cant' word was used only by one group; a 'low' word was informal and not suitable frlr writing. Johnson gaveas many different meaningsof a word as he could (thereare 66 for take).He very often gave rtn examplefrom literature to show how the word was used. ln fact, there are about 114,000 in the dictionary, examples

40

' l' lt c I l i s l o rt, o l tl tt' Ii ,n g l i s hL tu t!u tt!t'

l )ri ngi ng rt nler lt t I t nglislt

4t

rtrr r lt lr c y llr e il v c ly l l rrg ,c p l rrt o f i t. M< l s t o l tl r crrrconrc frorrr l i tc r ilt r r r c wr it t c n b c rw c c tr 1 .5 6 0 rrrrd 1 6 6 0 . Hc r c nr e s ( ) nlce x l l n l l rl c s o f w o rc l si rrrcth l c i r nrcrrrri ngs fronr r ' ic s t ion trtt: .f<rlr r r s < r r l) to brilrblc Tir chclt: 1lcrlr'rtworcl. t o nab lnalt lt d, Sw c c l i s h .l T i r c a tc h u r' l c x p cucdl y;r() sciz,c witlrout wirnrirrg. A worcl sclcl<lrrr usccllrut in low lrrrrgulgc. w6man lwifman, wimmdn, Sirxorr;wlrcnce wc ycr pr ( ) nounc cw ()l ' n c ni n th e p l u rn l , w i m m c n.l The f em ale < > ft h e h u rl l u ri rc e . That man uho bcrthd tonguc is no man, lf with his tonguc hc cannot win d wom(tn, Shakespeare. y6llowboy A gold coin. A very low word.
'.',

lrt'girrrrirrlg. l lowever', it rcrnninecl thc rrrost irnp()rtrlnt llrrglislr tlictiorrrrry in llritrrirr f<rr rnorctlrirrr rrccntury. I lclp with spcllingcrrrrrc frorrr clictionirrics; lrclp with '['lrcrc grrululrar clrrnc frorrr 'grlrrlrrrrars'. hircl bccrr ir fcw griulllnilrboolcs in thc sixtecntlr irrrdscvclrtcclrtlr ccr.rturics. lrrrtirr thc sccorrcl hrrlfof thc cightccnth ccrrtury a vcry lrrrgc rrrrrrrbcr suclclerrly ltr'rpcarecl. M:rny of thcnr t<>ld the rc:rder how to writc arrd speirk'corrcctly',which rcally mclnt lr()w t() use larrguirge irr the sanrewiry as in serionspieces of literature.Tlrey were written for the rich, irnd irimeclt<l sltow the differer-rce betweenthe r.rpper and lower classes. 'l'hcy werewidely usedbecause peoplewantedto show that tlrcy wereeducated. The writers of these grammar books consideredthat thc grammar of much spoken languageand of regional (especially diirlects Scots) waswrong. They believed that the of Englishshouldbe the sameasthat of Latin. For Brirmmar example, they thought that a sentence shouldnot end with a preposition because this did not happenin Latin. So it would lrc correct to sayI lik-etbe town in wbicb I liue,but not I like the town which I liue in. The two most widely usedgrammar books were Robert l-<rwth's Short lntroduction to English Grammar which appearedin 1762,and Lindley Murray's English Grammar of 1795.Thesebooks had a great effecton people'sviews of grammar in the nineteenth and twentieth centuriesand still have some effect today. Some people believethat there is only one 'correct' way of saying things, and argue, for cxample, about whether it is correct to say different to or different from. As a result, many first-languagespeakers of linglish think that the way they speakand write is incorrecr rrnd are ashamedof it. The opposite view - that all ways of

--F--;..---1[ /ixa /,.t:."., ,

DICTION
ENGLI SH
T | l. Wo RDs rllut f nit4 D rF dd r d

AR Y
LANGUAGD:
ftd G . n, O llClNAl' S' t lc ! r t lO ^t r oNl

,I

To bubble and yellowboy have both disappeared from English, but to nab has survived,with this meaning. It is still an informal word. The dictionary wasnot perfect: someof Johnson'sexplanations were harder to understand than the words themse lves, some expressed his personal opinions, and some words were not listed becausehe disliked them. Also he could not fit in all his examples,so words at the er-rdof the dictionary have fewerexamples than thoseat the

i U. D I FFI T! Nt ft of f t H

uxlNtL IS A I I I SToRY

lVllac ll l, ANG uAG q

Ar

IiNGLISH tt T XVIL

G RAM M AXTO I I { 3O S f,B

+4

l' lt r I lis to rt, o f' tl tt Itttg l i s l tIru tl ttrt!,r,

(1907) firr cxittttplc,ltilot wrrsfirstrrscd to nlcillrtltc l)crson (',,ssr//(,(1960) wlto dit'ccts tlrc path of slrips, iln(l rrsc.l frr tllcilr'r rl snlillll)()x. Aborrt.5 pcr ccrrr of rrewworrlshtvc c<lrnc (1964) fr<rttt f<rrcigrr lrrrrgtrirgcs, likc r/isc'o tronr Frcnch, irrrcl t).1.5) fronr ltrrlirrrr. Arrclrr fcw worclslr,rvc corrrcfrorrr ltizzt (l ()r thc ttrttrtes <lf tlrirrgs wc lruy usc:f<lrcxirurplc, ttt l4oogle (lc)99)fronr (ior.,g/(,'l'M, tlrc popular lrrtcrrrctscrrrclr cngirrc, lrtclpotlcut (2ffi4). This worcl,rr)ciuring ir rccorcliug thrrt you crlngct fronr thc lrrtcrnctarrcl play ol'lyortr c()lt.lputcr, coutcs fr<rrrr ll'r;dG), tlrc popul:rrntusicplitycr,ttrrd broaelcast. Bcginningsor cnclingshirvc bccrr ecldedto Inrlkc r.lcw words: disinfttrmation(1955)is false irrforlrr:rtion; touchypcoplc who express their feclingsto<r fcely (1972)describes openly. Sometirnes both a beginning and an endinghavebeen (1.947) added:fnr example unputdownable describes a book , which is so interesting that you cannotstop readingit. Some words havebeen shortened:pboto (1860)for pbotograph, plane (1,908)for aeroplane, and TV (1948) for teleuision. Somewords haveput togethersoundsfrom two other words: for examplemotel (1925),a hotel for car drivers,is made from motor and hotel. Only a very few new words havenot beenmadefrom other words.Two examplesare nylon (1938) to describe a man-made material,andflip-flop (1970),atype of shoethat makesa noiseas you walk. The growth in vocabularyis clear when we look at the making of the Oxford Englisb Dictionary (OED) in the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies. This dictionarycontains all Englishwords since 1150,eventhosethat are no longer used.It shows,with examples, when eachword was first used in writing and how the meaningof a word haschanged over the centuries. Finding all this information was a very big job, although exactlyhowbig. A Scotsman f)o one realized at the beginning calledJamesMurray was appointedas the directorof work ()nthe dictionaryin1.879,and the plan wasto finishthe job in programme: a verylargereading Murray organized tcn years. of how words were hundredsof peoplesent him examples used.After five years,the first part of the dictionary was completed, but it only went from A to ANT Everyone rcalized that the job was going to take a lot longer than ten Murray did years;in fact, it took anotherforty-four. Sadly, not live to seeits completion:he died in 1915,agedseventycight, while he was working on the letter U. However, he knew that he had helpedto makea dictionary which would givea detailedhistory of the Englishlanguage. and explained the The first OED was completed in 1.928 with wordsand expressions, meaningand history of 41.4,800 cxamplesfrom literatureand other writing. The secondOED, words, of 615,100 in1989,explained the meanings completed

M t xl a r tt ltu gl i sh g,'o,{,.s

47

'l'lt cscilt 'ct llc rl rc gi vcttrtsw cll it s lllit islr ot t cs. l rrorrunci i tti t)ns l i rst cl ri rrrgcs to Mrrrrrty' sw or k sit t cct lr c f ir st ( ) lil) r r ppcr r r ccl will i rr l 92tt.' l ' l rc w ork ()n tl ' rc thir cl ( ) lil) , bcgut t ir r 199. 1, probrbl y fi rri shi n 20l tl . 'l'hc ()Ijt) lrirs lrlrcl il grcrlt cffcct ott ottr knowlcdgc rrttcl of Fl ngl i sl r. l t lr nsgivct tus it lot of iuf or t r r it t i<lt t rrrrcl crsti rncl i ng, itbout thc history of worcls ltttcl cxprcssiottsltttcl hrrs hclpccl ovcr titltc. h<lw lirtrguirgcchltttl4cs t,rs turclcrstltncl The wrry clictiottitries itrc tnrrclc hrrs bcett chnrrgccl lry c()rnputcrs.There arc now cxt r ct ncly lar gc collcct iot t s of cxnmpl cs of E rrgl i sh w orks ( ) r "rconTput cr t hir t clict iot r ar y writers cAn use. They can look tlrrouglr drcse tor exanrples of words and see how they are used, lnd thcy can use the Irrternet to search for words. They can also ask readers all over the world to send examples to a website, which mealts that they can get words from a very wide variety of places. J a mesMurrayand the first OED Information about informal words and slang, for example, is now much easier to find becauseof the Internet. And when lr dictionary is written, it can be kept on computer and put <ln a website. For about the past hur-rdred years llew words have been world because able to travel fast around the English-speakir-rg of the telephone, newspapers, radio, television, films, pop music, and the Internet. These ways of communication can reach extremely large numbers of people. Television and radio have also influenced pronunciation. In the 1920sthe British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) chose an accent for all its speakersto use on the radio. This was the accent of the educated: people in government, at the universities, in the army, and the Church. It was known as' R ecei vedP ronunci ati on' or 'RP', or 't he King's English'. The use of RP on radio and later on television meant that

although many of these- perhaps20 per cent - are no longer used.It showshow the words were or are usedand has 2.5 million examples from all kinds of books. It containssome scientific words and words from North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the Caribbean, India, and Pakistan, but not all scientific or regionalwords in English. The second OED went online in 2000, and every three months new material is added to this online dictionary, as part of the writing of the third OED. At the samerime work is continuingon the words and meaningsalreadyin the dictionary,and changes are madeif necessary. For some words there are more details of their history to add, or earlieror later examples. North American and other regional

4ll

I ' lt t 'I I is to rt' o l tl tt' Ittry ,l i s lL t ru t!u trft,

h I t , , l t ' t 't t I '.t t y.li :l t.q ,r ,,r '.(

-le

trro rcpc opll' lr c ; r r t l i t rrrrtltl ro rrl i l rttl rrrt i t w rrstl r r' i l (' e(' rrt tl rrl t so ci r r llyit r r por t r r ntp c o p l c rrs c tl .l t w l l s n ()l l rc c cptrrIrl c' l () us(' str()r t ll r c gionlr lir c c c rrl s o rt tr' l r.' v i s i o ln rrrrlrl rrl i o ,o r i rr tr' rrcl ri ng g ov c r t t t nc nt . ll o w c v c t' , i rr tl re l 9 (r0 ss o c i l rlt l i ffcl cnccs i rr rtttcl l l ri tl rir r bc glr r rt o l' rre rrlc <l o w rr,rrn c lrc g i o rrrtll tc corts bcci urrc l l l ()t' cr lc c el) t r r blc c v ery w h c rc . A rrc l rl s th c rrrrrrrl rcr of rrrcl i < r i tn clt c lc v is it ) r r n l ()r' c l) r ( ) g ri l n u n c s l .r,r' c q l )c ()l )l cw i tl r cl i ffcrcrrt rl ccc r ' r t s lt , t c l t < l bc c tttp l < l y c c l .' l i l c l a yIl l ) i s n o l ongcr,rrr (rrot i n rp ( ) r t ilnt r lc c c nt: t ttc lttr< l sc t c l rrc rrtc c plc o p rl c i rr h)ngl rrrrci Sc<l t lr ur c W l, r lc s , o r N o rtl rc rn Irc l a rrc l ) rro w s l l cal < <lf l r l < i rrcl I{l ) whic h hr r ss or lrco f th c i r rc g i o n a l rrc c c n ti n ir. l c' l cvi si orr h rrsr r ls ot nir c lcs < lr rrc rc g i o n l rl c l i l rl c c ts p o 1 ' ru l l rrF< . l rexarnl ' l l c, y()u c r llr t t ow lt c : t r p rrrtso f th c c l i a l c c tc rtl l c c l i s tuary Ii rrgl i sh, wh i c h is f r or r r Lou c l o n rrrrc l th c s o u th -e i rs t o f E ngl urcl , i rr rrrrny ot lr c r p: r r t s o f E n g l a rrc l .(Sc c C h rrp tc r 10 f< l r rl orc rrl'ror"r t cli irlects.) The biggcst tcchnologicirl developnrelrt ilr reccnt ycars is, of course, thc Internet. People cAn llow cornrnunicate in writing ()n their websites,through e-mail, on message boards, irnd in chat rooms. The Internet has had a nlrmber of effects ou Euglish. Firstly, new words l-rave l-reenmade to describe the Irrterrretitself and its activities; for example, cyberspace (1982), e-mail (1982), website (1993), and blog (1.999).Or luew meanings have been given to <lld words; for example, link (1951), chat (19tt5),uirtual (1987), and surf (1992). people have clevelopeda uew inf<rrmal way of Secorrclly, writing in chat rooms ar.rdor-rnressagebolrds. Marry users sh o rt en a lot of wo rd s , u s i n g j u s t s i n g l e l e tte rs or numbers, and ofterr they clo not Llse capital lettcrs or rruch punctuatiol-r. Many Lrse their owrr spellings,or spcllings tlrat are often used i n ch at r oom s . S om e p e o p l c a l s o u s c s n ri l c y s(l i ttl e pi cturesof taceswith differer-rt expressions)to show how they feel. They

lir t 't 'xlt t llplt ': ol l cttct' sl i rt sot t t t 't 'xpr t 'ssiot t s. i l l so ust' gr()ul )s lt lt 14,1lr , ' 11', 11, ;l /rr/ trc' ;ttts l tttgl ti try rttt! l tttt t l; / , r / t t 't t t c': t t t s y( ) t lcot t l. l scc ilt r t clt r t t r oot t t . t' trtc' tlccs fr'(' f ilf l s l tc l tttk /rtl r' r' S ( )r ( )r'r ['rort rtl lt t'c: ll r)tcsslrF,c r u afryt? (A n' vort tl l ri gl tt / ) i m good thx O (/' rrr goo,l , llt alr ks) duz nel know how 2 make carrot cake? (/)or's dtt\t()tt( knott, l trttu l o rntkc (drr ( ) l cukc?) by t t t cssr t gcs whcr t t lr cy sct t cl l l trtgtt agc l )co1' l lrtl c sousc si rrri l rrr pl rorrc.For cxatttpl c: I lr st t ' thx 4 ur msg. H ow r u? (' l ' bm ks f it r lt sr t r nt cssr r gc. you?) are im fine. c u @ work (l'm fina. Scc yott trl tuork.) A fter l cl rni ng the rul cs < l f wr it t ct t Elt glish r r t school, t lr r t ly breaking d-rc are lrow crrioyirrgplrrying with langr-rage: 1'rcople ol d rul es and maki ng new ones.

50

Itttgl i sltit t t lt r ll, \

5l

Engtish in th eUS

' l ' l re Al- r icr t r t slr r t r l t o livc ir r t t 'r r iblc to A tttcri ert i n l (r 19, s cil v( ) yir llciit t t cl t t t r t r t yt lir l r t ot r' ontl i ti ons cl rrri ttgtl tc l ott13 rrrrvi ve . I' l ri s i rrl rurnxn l )usilr csswr ls ct r cleclit t lu0t t , bt r t pcopl c w crc i l l l ()w cd to owt t sllt vcs ur t t il t lr c cr r r l of t hc A rncri carr(l i vi l W rr i rr l ti 6.5.lly t hat t it t t c t hcr e wcr c nr ( ) r c

'Flrrglarrtl rrrrcl Anrcricrlrlrc tw() cotrntricsscprrrrrtccl ['rythc srtttrc lnngurlgc,' wrotc (icorgc llernrrrcl Shaw in 1942.Is tlris truc toclrry? l)o Arrrcricrrrrs s1'rcrrk rr cliffcrcrrt kirrclof Irnglishfrorrr thc llritish? lf so, wlry? Ancl why ckr thcy spcakFirrglish rt all? Til rrnswcr go l'rirck thc l:rst(luesti()n wc r'r'rust t<lthc yerrr 1607,whcrr rr gr()up of English pcoplc srrilccl ircrossrhe Atllntic irrrcl rcirchecl the eastcoirstof Arrerica. They callecl their scttlcnrent ilfter King Jrmcs the First irncl .Jlurrest<lwr.r, they callccl that part of the country Virgirria.They werenor people the firstEnglish in America: in 1585and 1587 people had tried to settleon the islandof Roanoke,in what is now North Carolina.They werenot the first Europeans to settle in Americaeither:the Spanish had livedin Floridasince1565. But the peopleof Jamestown werethe first successful English settlers, and they werefollowedby other Englishadventurers who alsosettledin Virginia. Then in 1620 more English settlers landed north of Virginia, in what became Massachusetts, New England. These were the people from the ship called the Mayflower, who came because they wanted to follow a different kind of Christianityfrom the kind in England.Others followed, and by 1640 about 25,000 English people were living in New England. At this time, sailors from Englarrdand other European countries were taking Africans to America and selling them as slaves. The first twenty African slaves werebrought

tl rrrn4 nri l l i orr A fri crrns l i vi rrg ir t Anr er icr t . llt t cl l )rrri ng thc scvcrrtccnth l l nclcight ccnt lrcct t t t t r icst t t <lr c 'Ihc scrrt llritish g()vcr'r'rr'rlcrlt rrrorcpc<lplclrrrivcclirt Atttcricrr. pri sorrcrsto A nrcri crr l rs a pr r uislr t t t ct t t , r t t t clot lr cr sct t lcr s ;rrrivcclfrorn Frirncc,(icrurrruy, thc (iariblrcittr, :ttrclthc nortlr of Ircl:rrtcl. Thc pcoplc frorrt the north of Irclrtttclwcrc callccl thcir fanrilies hrrclInovcclto lrclitttcl tlrc Scots-lrish (l'rccirusc (1776), By tlrc yerrrof Atrericrrrrirrclcpcncletrce frorrrSc<rtlirncl). i rl rout orre i n sevensettl ersi n Am er icl was Scot s- lr ish. of people left In the nir.reteenthceutury, lirrge r.mn.rbcrs for lrcland, Germany, Italy, and other European c<-runtries

1612 A map of V i rgi ni a,

I t r , 'l r '. 1 u ' t l l ,, l l \

,\rrrt rr,.r. Nl.rrn rrcr t lt us llor r r ( t nlr . ll . r r r t l l . r s l r . l t I u t ( ) l ) ( . li\ l()(X) tlrt rt n ( l( ' \ lt lllr ' r r |t ' , , I lr ' lr r r nr ' , r lr , \ r r r , . r r , . r . l r r tllr' l.ttt I l).rtl ol lltI lr r t r r ll( lll ( r ' t r lUt \ l) ( ( ) l) lt l| r , t r r , \ s r . r . r r r , l S lt,rrrislr sl)(.lliin l', ( ( ) lu) t r r t s . r ls r , . r r lr r ' , , l, . r r r , l l r t . ) . 0 0 0r l r u t ' \\' (l( n r()r'( lltiln lfi O r r r illr t ) n l) ( ( ) l) l( in, \ lt r t r r . . r . r\tttt'ti.:rrr l.rrLil is lr . l, r ' . ' 1, , 1r . ' . 1 ll. r r r t lr . l, r r r 1i r r . r r l . .u . .r r ', . 1l r r t lrt' st tlillt lt r)l p1 'opl1. l lr t lir s t li, r r glis lrs t l l lt . r 'sr r r r r r r t ', l i , r r t . l r tlistoit't't'<l ilnin l:lls , lr ir t ls , ; r r r r l Pl: r r r t s ll) ir t w( r ' ( n ( '\ \ , 1 ( )l l ) ( 'r ) r , ,urt l u'lr.lr rr.'t'.lt'r l n; lnlr ' s r r r I : r r ulis lr . Sor r r t ' lir r r t 's t l r t 's ( '( t l ( 'r 's usctl li,n glislr u,o lc ls ( lor t ' r r r r r r Plt ' lt l, r , l< lt it t l lir ' : r l r i r t l t l r : r t lo,,littl sitrril:rr to t lr c li, r r qlis lr blr r c k lr inl) . Sor r r t 'li r r r r . s r h t . \ ' l' l' or l ot lr t ' r lt nglis lt r v or ' . 1s , l i , l 'c r r r n r p l t .

1 , . 1 . t t t l r l ( , ( , '1 , . t r r ( l l l t , ' t , . t ttt,'. l i t,,,,kl l tt ( l t.ttt ( ) tt.l sl t,r r .r l l i l r t l ', r r r t t t t t l '. s .

l l l 't'r r kt'l yl r ) '

I l . u l t r r r ( l l : r : r r l t 'r r r ) , . t t t , l l l t t l i t,,tr r ( l l l o r r cl <'s) .l l ( l ( l l l l l l ( l ( l \ , 'l i t s l ) r r l t l r tl l , l r r r '.l r tl r stl l l tt: I l l l '.|t.1 ;1

1 , , , r 'r ', , r v t t lt t , , t , l ,

l , r 'l l t i t r t ', s ( ) t l ) ( ( ) l ) l ( l tttl tt t,l l r tt

l , r t r 1 ', t t , t 1 , . ,fr, , t , r . t t t t 1 , l , ', t t ) ( ) l :tt' l l g ttt l ) ttl tl t,,

t'tt! .ttt\l tl tttt( '

I t , , t t r l 't t 't t t l t , 1 t l , r : , r l t , l t t 5 | '.ttti sl l . l l r .' st tl l t't s .tl so l r t l '. ttl l r t 1 , . i v ts ' o t t r r ' , , 1 . 1l l , , t . l , l t t u t t tt.ttti ttg s: l ,t- t r .ttttPl t /'l // Itt tl ,r r r t {) f l ) ( r l f l , l l t i l '11 ' o f l t , t l t t 't l t t ( ) tt( '\'.:ttttl i t n 'p l :tt ctl ttttl t'S o n t t ' t ', r t 't l s l t - o t t t l l t t ' l i , t r g l i sl r o l l l r t' st'\( 'l l l ( 't l l l l t .t'l tl tttt

s t t t - " 'i v t 'i t t A t t t t 't 'i t r l l r l . r r g l i s l r Itttt,tt- . l l ( ) t l l s( '( l tto w i tt l i ;i ti sl r i !- ttttl Ir tl l tt, ///r /( / l l l ( 'i l l l i l ) 1 1 f i . r r g f i s f r . f i r t ' t 'r r t t t t p l r ', / , t / / r r r t'r r r rtr , n r e t \ t , r t t t t l . q o l l r 'r r r l s t l l c l ) r lst l ) r l r ti e i Pl t o l ''g ,( 't'( :l s i tt Ytttr t' , l i t r r r tr' l t , ts g o t t t ' t r t 'tt l t l ) . S o t t t c o f t l r c p l t t t t t t t t c i : t t i o r r o f tl r c l i r st scttl cr s r l l so sttt'r "tr r t's irr Moclcrn A t r t c l i c r t t t l t r t g l isl r .'l 'l r cy p r o l to tl ttcc.l tl r c,r irr c / . r s i l t / r 1 l / , b c c r t t t s c t hc l o r l g /tt:/ so ttr r cl( ) l tl y l ) cg ,r l l lt( ) . q , . ( / s/-is [ , c t r s c c l i r r s t c r r c l<>fl t c l i r t F - r tg l e l ttl i r r th c ci g h tccl l tl l ccl l tl 'l r y. 'I 'h i s M o st s h o r t / l c / i s p . r r t o f A r t t c r i cr ttl p r ( ) l l tl l l ci r tti o tl to cl r ty'.

tll:l( l('r)('\\'u,o rtls

It,r,l<rlo o,ls (,t lort,s t r t , it lt f i, r t , 1t t ' olt lt ) , ; t n, , l lt lr r t 'u r , r - s .(s ,r Alrr/ ' l' lr r . y ()/ r,i/.s.\rritlt lilttt,- , qr ' ( ' ( ,l( u ' , n' ( ' s ) . r r ls o r r : r nr t . t lt l r o t r s r r r r r l s ol.P lrrccs rrrrtl ril,cr s r r s ir r s wor t ls f lor r t lr c lr ur l i r r : r g c s o l 't l r r .

N rr t ivc A nrcricrrrrs ; li r r c x : r r n plc , Nr l rrssrrch t r s c t t s , M i s s i s s ip p i , l\ rt orttrtc.'l'lrc Sp lr r r is lr r t r r r l lir c r r c h c or r t r ' ollc r l s( ) n r c l ) r l t 't s ( ) f tlrc co urrtrv un fil thc r r it r c r c c nt h c c nt ur ) , r s ( ) s ( ) ulc p l e c c r r l r r r r c s ilre ir()n l Iircn clt (lil< c l) c t r oit , St l. ot r is , r r nc l I llino i s ) r r n c ls o r r r c lrlorr r Sp rrrrislr (lill'c l. os Angc lc s , Sr r n Fr r r nc is c o , r r n c l S r r n t r r lf c). Ncw Vrrl< wrr s f ir s t Nc w Ar r r s t c r c lr r nr , unt i l t h c l r r r g l i s h

A n r c r i c r r t t s r t l s o p r <l t r o t l l t c c th c r i l t th c cr l tl tl f w o r cl s ( f<r r c x r u r p l c c r fl ') e t t c l b c f o r c r l c( ) l l s( ) l tr l l l t ( fo r cr :l r r r p l c /r ,r l r l ) r r s thc crrrly scttlcrs clicl.

A rriving in America: E ngtish settte rs

D u tc he x o to re rs

Af r ic an s l a v e s

i mmi grants German

Ital ianim m igr ant s

Jewish im m iqr ant s

56

I ' lt t I lisl o rt, o l tl tc l i ,ttg l i s l t L tu tl tttt! t'

((nlt't',tolor, lr'ttl!r,lt',,1t,/, lirr cxittttlrlc, Sorrrc ol' lris othcr srtggcstions wcrc n()t tirllowccl: soolt(xtttlt),ltrad (ltn,tl), lttd ttrctlicirt tirl cxrrnrl'rlc. iuc). Wc[rstcr rrlso irrtlrrcncctl Qtradit ()f ir worcl pltrt Antcricrtn by srtyirtg tltrrtclrch llrottttttcirttiott fntfstl)c clcrrrly pr()n()Liltcc(l: f<rrcxrrtttplc, sr,-r'rr,-/tl-t'lt t|<tt sL'-( rc-lry . So wltittarc thc cliffcrcnccs bctwccrr Arrrcricrrrr llritislr lrrrcl pronunciation, lrnglish As wcll rtscliffcrcnccs in toclny? thcrc irrc s()r'r'rc srrrlrll cliffcrenccs irr grilr'r'r.nilr irnclspclling.llut thc tttrriucliffcrcncc is irr vocirbulrrry. Tl-rousrrncls of worc]sirrc rusecl cliffcrcrrtly. Firstly,c'liffcrcnt worclslrrc sor'r.rctirrrcs usccl in Amcricar.r BritishErrglish ancl to trrlkaboutthe same thing. For cxamplc, the strect-level floor of a buildirrg is called the first floor in Arrerican Errglish,and the ground flo<;rin British English.Yru drive on the freewayir-r the US, but on themotorwayin Britairr. There are also different expressions in American and British English.For example,the American expressions /o drop the ball (to make d mistake),to be in the chips (to suddenlybauea lot of money), and to go sowth(to become lessualuable) are not usedin British English.Similarlymany British expressions are not part of AmericanEnglish. SomeBritishpeopledislikethe effectof AmericanEnglish on British English, but this has not stoppedthousandsof American words entering British English and becoming completelyaccepted; for example,OK (1840), supermarket (1933),teenager(1,941), and fast food (1.951). Although therearecleardifferences betweenthe American and British varieties music,films, and of English,television, more recentlythe Internet havehelpedpeople on both sides of the Atlantic to understandeach other's English more easily.

10 A tt k i n d so f E n g L is h
I'nr gitnclr cl<l<ln thc toorrtlrc day.(/'rrtvoirtoittlo!ott'tt t odty. North-errstcrn Flnglir ncl ) (]crrtrrrl l)innir farsh yourscl , (l)on't upsctyourscl[. :rrrcl Southcrrr Scotlancl) They work hard, isn't it? ('l'hcywork hard, don't thcy? Wales) I'm afterseeing him. (1'ue iust sccnhim.lrclancl) ((:ome bcrc eucryoncl Y'alf comel1r-rst, Southcrrr LjS) It's a beaut!(lt's wonder,fzl/ Australia) Shesing real good. (Shesings uery well. Jamaica) I am not knowing.(I don't know.lndia) Make you no min am. (Takeno noticeof himlher. Nigeria) All over the world, people speakingEnglish as a first or second languageuse different vocabulary,grammar, and accents in a largenumberof varieties of English. A varietyof Englishis a type of Englishspokenby one group of people. h-reachEnglish-speaking country one variety of English is usednationally. This is the 'Standard English'of that counrry. It is taught in schoolsand spokenon radio and television. Everyone in the country uses the samegrammar,vocabulary, and spelling when they usetheir country'sStandard English, though they may speakit with different accenrs. Different countrieshave different StandardEnglishes. For example, Standard Australian English is different from Standard BritishEnglish.

5tl

I'ltr I lis t or t , ol llt t ' I it t glis lt I t t t t lt t r t |:, '

r\l l ki tt, lst t l lit r ylisl,

rtt' t' l l rrtrs l r l l rrg l i sl rl l tr" rr" r t s w c l l rts St:tn tl rtt' tl l rr llr r glr t r r t l, o l ' l rrrg l i s l r.' l ' l tc ttto st tto(i ecrtbl r.' rcg i or r r r r l t t t r ls oc ir t ltl i rtl c ' c ts A w el l tl to s eo l l ' rro ttttttci rl ti orr. rl i l 'l ' r ' r ' c r r cbc c st wc c t t tl tc ttt rtt' c l l ttl rc v o w c l ,l i l t w ol cl s l i l < c l <rrowt tr lif f c r c r t c ei s tl tc s o rrttc o i l r thc rtrrcl l l s /t;t' ttl s/, g ,'(/s s lr . t t lr c s ot t t lr .q rr/s s i s l )r()tl ()ttl l c c (l l i l < crtp i s prottottttcccl v o w c l l t i tt w < trc l s n o rtlr r r s/ c ; r ' ir : s / . ' l ' l rc r r rtc/ttp l / i rr th c rrrl rtl r. l tt s tttttcparts of thc /,rp / in t hc s < lr r t lt rtttcl irl tltc rts /hrcpr/ or /ltiu1'rc/, n<>rtltlttltlt} is Prtltt<lttttcecl nigbt is p ro tto ttttc e cllrs /n i l t/. rr<rr t f r - c r t s t l n F . s t ur t r yF . n g l i s l r,w h rc h l tc g a rr i tt tl rc sotttl t-cttst< l f i rt c l th c s r tttc w l l y rrsi l l s ot r t cs otttrc l s l l rc p r()l t()t.trtc c Fl rrg lit nd, T h c /t/ i rr thc rl i cl cl l c Oo ck nc y - t hc c lia l c c to f F h s t [.o ttc l o tt. so thc w<>rclltctter ancl at tlrc cncl of worcls clisapl'rcars; /wn')/./0/ bec<lnles /bc')o/rrncltl.reworcl rubfil'tcc<tn'rcs bec<rnrcs lll arrd i6i bccorncs lvl, s<t tbink /frr1k/lnd mother bcconrcs bccon.rcs /mn v a /. T h i s c l i a l c c t has bccot.uc popular alrlolrgyoulrg people becausc o f ri rd i o a n c lte l e v i s i o n . Ma n y n e w Bri ti s h di al ects arc People from the developing.

w fri r' l rS t;tntl :rrtl l i ,rrp,l i sl r lost : lir l t 'xr r r r r plt , llt r t ; r nt l llt t , r r l r;rs l ot' t,ott si rrg,rrl ;rr. Motl t' rrr tli: r lt . c't s r t lso r r scgr ilnunir r t hr r t is ,.fi l l ' crcrrt l :rorrrS trrrrtl rrrtl l l rrglish: I t lot t '! u'd, t ! , t ( ) , lir t t t r r ( l < l rtrt' ltutttt!(nty (l i nn(' r),l l tcnt lt <t oks( llt ost ' / r oo/ r . s)slt , c t t it t 't , ortrc (sl tc l trsrt' l cotrrr' ). A rr clir r sor r r cclir r lcct s y( ) ung peoplc usc l l uri l i rtt tl rc crrclof rr sc r r t cncc. li<lrcxr r nr plc,Nor l I t 'r ll you sttrt t' tl l i ng l l ttl , i rtni l ? ( ct n't I ?) , We r t e a, l ! o e( ) t t ou) , i nni tl (don' t tua?) A l l cl i al ccts l rl rvcsorttcw rl rcls lr nclcx1'r r cssions, bot h olcl r r ncl rtcw ,tl rrrt rtrc cl i ffercrrtfrorrr St r r r r clr r rl'lt t l r glislr l, . ir r cxlr r r r plc, l utty (a pi ct' t' ofl tratd tnd b ut lcr ) hr r sbccn uscr lir r t lr c r r or t h of L,rrgl l nclsi rrcc fl rc rri rrctccr r t h ccr r t ur y; nr lr g ( . goot / )hr r s cotttc i r.rrcccntl y t< l Oockrrcy ir r [ - onclonf r <lr r r l] cr r gali. Outsi dc E ttgl ancl ,i n S co t lr r ncl, ! f l: r lcs,Nor t hcr n lr clr r ncl, :trrclthe R epLrbl i cof l rcl and, t her e ar e ot hcr var ict ies of lrnglish. Scots is very differcnt from StarrdardBritish English - nore so than any other British variety. There are many clifferences in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.Some

Wullie Managcd

To Mind Tho Baim, Spaifin,.

C a ri b b e a n , In d i a ,

Paki stan, and

But In Mindin' The Rc$ He Wsna

Eastern Europe have settled in the b i g c i ti e s i n B ri ta i u . Y oung peopl c frorn these iroupsuse sorle of their own languageswith the local dialect, copy them, ar-rdin this their frier-rds way they make a new dialect. There g ra mma r are also differences irt b e tw e en the di al ects. An exampte of Scots

Some of the older dialects from thc conntryside use grammatical forms

60

'l' lt c I I i s l rtrt,o l ' l l tr l tttg l i s l tl ,rtn !u rtft'

A l l ki tt,l st t l lt , r t glisl. t

6l

Sto ts v oe: r hr r lr r ly is rrl s orrs c tli tr rro l th c rrrl ,rrg l i sl r (l i rr rl i rrl cets cxrttr r lr f c ,lt , r ir t t lor c l ti l rl tn d /rl .r.s l i rr' ,q i l ), b u t rr vcry l rrr.gr. ) c l i s tc c li rr o rrc [l ro l < ) l rrc rrsccl trrl rr lr c r ' ofwor c ls( 2 0 ,(XX rrl orrl y i rt Scot s . 'l ' lr c I ' . r r glis h s po k c rr i n Wrl c s rrl s o h rrs i ts o w rr chrrrrrctcr. 'l 'h c v oic c r is c s r r nrl frrl l si rr rr w rry w l ri c l r i s s i rn il rrrto W cl sh, l trtclt hc r c r lr c s ( ) nl c w rl rc l si trrc l c x p rc s s i o rrs w h i ch l rrtvcbccrr [r<lrrowccl frorn Wclsh. S<lrrrctirncs w<lrclorclcr is chlrngcclt<r g i vc s < r r r r c t hing lr r o rc i n l p ()rtrl n c c ;f< l r c x rrrn p l c,Orct! l bost' arc! ('l'hosc trc grcat!) In Nortlrcrrr lrcl:rrrcl, Scots hlts lrtcl a grcirr cffcct ()lt En g l is h bc c aus c lr rrg c rru rrrb c rs < l f s c ttl c rs c l u r.l cto l rcl l ncl fr<>rlScotlrrnclirr thc scvcntecuth ccntury. F<>r cxanrplc, l.acc (a Scots worcl rlrcilrring little) is usccl. lrr tl-rc Rcpr-rblicof Ircl i r t r c l, G ac lic ir r rc d l i rl e c ts fro n r th e w c s t o f E ngl anclhavc h a d t he r nos t ef f e c t o rr E rrg l i s h . Ga c l i c i s s til l spoken i u th e wes t of I r c lan d a n d th c d i a l c c ts o f En gl i sh i r-r thi s part of the courrtry show its effect more strongly than o th er s . F or ex am p l e , p e o p l e s a y 1 s i t c o l d y o u are? (A re you cold?) or He's after doingthat (He's just done that).The Irish English spoken on radio ar-rdtelevision is closer to Sta ndar d B r it is h E n g l i s h . From the seventeenthceutury onwards, regional varieties of English were taken to North America, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and Asia, and they can still be heard ir-rthe varieties of English in rhese places. For example, in some dialects of American English there are many similarities to Irish English in pronunciation and some in grammar. Youse which means you plural comes from Irish English, and so doesanymore in positive sentences(for example, They liue here anymore which is Tbey liue here now i rr Br it is h E nglis h) .

' l ' l tc thrt' r' tl l i l i rr t' (' gi ()ttrttli: l t lt 'ct s ol'At t t t 'r it ': t lr l'lllglislr i u' c N ()r' tl rcrrr, Mi tl l rttttl , rtl t t l Sot t t lr cr lt . 'l'lt csc slr ow t hc 0l ' scttl ct' strl tl rt' W cst . Sct t lcr sl'r ot t l Ncw llr lgl: r r r t l nr()vcntcnt t lr osel'r ot t lt lt c i rr tl rc ttortl t-cl tsttttovcdl )i rsrt lt c ( ir cr t t l, r t l<cs; of tl rc crl st corl st l ttovcclt hr <t t t glrt hc lr t iclt llcof t hc nri cl cl l c t ( ) t hc rrncltl tosc i tt tl rc sottt lt wcllt it lollg t hc c<lr t st c()r.urtl yi () l vcrt llc lr t r gcst clialcctis s1'r okct soutl t. []ccrtusc thc Mi cl l artcl t his clir r lect rrrcrt,rtncl l ry pcrl raps tw o-thir cls of t lr c 1'r co1'r lc, i s thc bcst l cttow ttoutsi cl cA ttt cr ica, r t t r t lis s( ) luct illlcsct lllccl ' (i crrcral A trtcri ci tt' t' . A fri catt-A nrcri ci ur Il ngl i sl r, <lr [ ] lack lir lglislr , wr t s bor t r bctwccn tlrc scvctrtccrrth rrlrcl trirrctcctttl.rcctrturics, wllcll Wcst Africa wcrc brottght to Atrrcricir of pcoplc fr<lrrr rrrilli<lrrs rrrrdthe Caribbeirrr to work as slavesott largc farnls gr<lwing cotton and sugirr. Thc slave buyers alrd thc Africltt slaves communi catcd on thc sl aveships ilt pidgin English - a sir nple kind of English tlrat allowcd speakersof differcnt languages to communicirtc with cach other. Wherr the Africans arrived i n A meri ca and thc C i rri hbca r rt hey cont ir r uedt o nse pidgin E ngl i sh both w i th the sl avc () wncr s and wit h each ot hcr , as they often spoke different African languirges. Later, this pidgin English developed into a creole language when the slaves' children and grandchildren started to use it as their first language. African-American English probably developed from this creole. Today African-American English has some grammatical differencesfrom American English; for example, she come (she's coming), lou crazy (you're crazy), twenty cent \twenty cents). crcoles have also French, Dutch, Spanish, and PortugLlese had a big effect on the English of the Caribbean. (Other influences have been local languages and Hirrdi spoken by settlers fr6m India.) In the Caribbean today there are a

6.1

I ' lt t I listo r,t,o f tl tt, l t,tty l i s ll,,tn tg n rt! t,

t\l l ki ttl s t t l l; t r glisl. t

()t

l rt'g . t t nt lr t ' r , l

I lr r g l i s l rr' rr' .l c s , rrsw t' l l rrsl .r' rrl vru' i t.ti cs rl

Strtn rlr t r tlinglis l lr . [ :rc l r r' rc rl r' l rrrsrr rl i fti ' rc n t v ()crrl )ul rl ry, l )ut tl tci r gr r r r lr nilr r ul( l p r,rrrrre i rrri ()ni l rc s i rrri l l rr.l i.r cxrrrrrP l c, tl rc'rcis , lc f t > rt lt t , t i rtg f< > r l l ti n g , rrn drrs fi rr,r.s ft. I l crc i s prtr.t (l rc .l c .f rr 1 ' r , c r rin. f l ry l ,.tri s c l ]c rrrc t t. l t rs cl rl l ccl r r r r r lr i c :rrr 'No l r l. ic k lc ' lwr r ng! ' (' N o r l .i v e rr a t,i ttl c A c c c n r!' ). l rr i t. thc p o ct c or nl' r lr r ins t hr r t l rc l s o rr l ra s c o n rc b rrc l < fro nr A nrcri crr wi tl ro t r t lr r A nr c r ic l u l rl c c c n t:

S cotl rurtl , rtttrl l t' t' l ;ttttl . I' l rc vt , wt 'ls it r At t st lr r lir r r lllr r glislr st,trttl si ttri l l tr to tl tost' i tt ( , ot l<r r cy ( lir r cxr t t t r plc, / or / , lt ' r t essiot t s l t lt t t 'Ar t st t r t lir tcxpr sol l cl s si rl i l l tr to l { l ) /o r/l r,)rr r r t st Allt cr icr t t t l'lr r glish. rl rc I' rrl ttt l l ri ti sh, l t' i sh, rrrrtl At t r cl'iet t t t w .,r.l s rl rc sti l t' ti tl g t9 l ' rcttsct l lll( ) r c lls lt t 'cst t lt1f At r t cl'iclr r l f or pllt t t t slt t t t l Sont c w<t r cls tcl cvi si rtrtl )r()gl ' rl l t lt lt cs. l i l urs trrrcl hlt vccol. llcf r or r t Abt lr igit llt l pl l tC cttl tt t t cs, tttt{ rrrtttty Irni ttti tl s, ' l ' l rcrc ls rl t' c ttl l l tl y vcr y ct llt lr t t 'f t ll cx1'r r cssi<t tilt l l tttgul tgcs. fot' cxrttr t l'r lct <t lt c t s f ull t s t I t t t t t l ( ! t t I' .rrgl i sh; A trstrrtfi atr ( t lr c lir st lt t 't t lt lc t t s dt t l tc t,cr)tdrunk),l i rst i n,l test t lr csst 't l xntcthing, tt,ill hat,c tn nlutntdgc), L'rtuldn't lie stnrigbt in lrcd (to bc ucry disbonast). N ew Zel l ancl E rrgl i sl r tn cl Sot t t h Af r icar r E, nglish havc to Anstrirliau English in their pr()lll.lllciati()11 some sirrrilirrities becauseall three coLltrtrieswere settleclby English speakers Each variety has small prot-tuncii'tti9n tir-ne. irt irbout the san-re and its owll vocabulary.In New Zealancl differences,thor-rgh, English there irre words from Maori, and in South African E ngl i sh there are w ords f r om Af r ikaar ls ir nd Af r icar r languages. Other countries were also governed by the British in the r-rineteenthand twentieth centuries; for example, India, Singapore,Nigeria, Kenya' Papua New Guinea. Others were governed by the US: the Philippines and Puerto Rico. In many of these countries English is an official language, although it is not most people's first language' In these countries' the local languages and their regional dialects have an effect on and use of English, the pronunciation, grammar' vocabr.rlary, and new varieties of English develop' These are sometimes called 'New Englishes'. They have not been studied very deeply, or for very long, so it is difficult to get a clear picture of each variety. However, people are collecting information

Flf you wirnt plctrsc hirn meck hinr tink Yuh bring birck sonrcting ncw Yuh always call him 'Pa'discvcnin' Wcn him come scy 'P<lo'. lf you want to please bim lyour fatberl makc bim tbink You'ue brought back somethingnew. You alwayscall bim'l'a'; this euewng When be comessay 'Poo'. The Englishof Canadais similar to both American and British English. It usessome British words and someAmericanones.For example,Canadians fill their carswith gas (AmericanEnglish)but ask for the bill (British English).They often add eh? to rhe end of a sentence. For example,lt's cold, eb?The pronunciationof CanadianEnglish is very closeto that of AmericanEnglish,but one difference is the pronunciationof laa/, which Canadians pronounceas le<s/ in somewords.So the word about soundslike aboat. Australian English has developed from a number of varietiesof English.Most of the 130,000 prisonerssenrro Australiabetween1788and 1840,and the'free sertlers'who joined them, came from the south and east of England,

()'l

I ltt' I 1 it 1, , ,r , r t l t lt t l; t t y lis lt ! . r t t t r r t r t t " t ,

(r5

i rl )()utt lt t ' s t ' t t c ' w v ilr i (' ti c srrn tls trrtl y i rr!l tl l c n l , s o i rr l ' ul rl ' t.w t. wi l l l < r r ownl( ) r e il[ ) ()u tt l l c n l . Itr t lt e r t c wc s t v r u ' i c ti c so f l l rrg l i s h , w o l tl s l r( )nt rl l l ()tl l cr l i trl l i uilgc ir r c v er y o l ' tc rr trs c rl w i th l i rrg l i s h o rrcs.' l ' l rcsc vi l ri ct ic s lr r c of t c r r l 3 i v c rr:rrrru s i n lrrrrrl -g c s . l i l r cxrrrrrl tl c,i rr tl rc I iS s ont c S pr r r r i s ls r p c rrl < c l s p c rrk ' s p rrrrg l i sh' w hi cl r rrscs l i rrg ,l is hr t t t c lS pr r r ri s h w o rc l s i rr th c s i l l n c s c n tc rrcc.l ,} rgl i sl r wo rcl sr t r c bot ' r owc c lrrrrcg l i v c n Sp l rrri s l s r o u n c l sl r nclspcl l i ng, srrcl rir s pt t r quin ( pt r k i n g ). Otl rc r c x a rrrl ' rl co sf th csc vrl ri cti cs a re 'S inglis lr ' ir r S in g rrp o rc ,' H i n g l i s l r' i rr l rrc l i a (H i ncl i ancl l 'i n g l i s h) , : r r r c l ' - hgl i s h ' i rr th c l )h i l i p p i rrc s (Tagal og ancl F}rg l is h) . All drcsc virrictics<lf Errglish,frorrr courrtricswhcrc Englislr is nscclcithcr as rr first langulgc ()r rs ir scconcllrrrrguirge, rrc usccltr<lrc aucl rnorc by writers arrclfiln.r-nrakers. lrr this wiry, ma n y us c r s o[ E ngl i s h a re a b l e to h c a r a n d rc a d more tharr their own varicty ar.rcl words alld expressionscan cross from o n e v ar iet y t o anot h e r.

rut

J arg o n a n ds la n g

of l: t r glislr t lt ilt ilr c n( ) t l) r lr t ( ) l: .frtrgott rrrrdsl rtrrgrtrc l < i rrc ls S trrrrcl rrrcl H ngl i sh..f rrrgorri s t hc clif f ict r ltor st r r r r r llc lr r r r gr r r r l. r , c rrsccll ry i l gr()ul ) < l f pcopl c t o clcscr ibct hir r gs t lr r r t t hc r cst of tts cl o n()t kn()w rrl ' rotrt. lir r cxr r nr ple,cloct r lr s,lr r wycr s, tttri vcrsi ty tcl rchcrs, arrclbus ir r css nlilnr lgcr slt ll r r scwor clslr r r cl cxprcssi onsthi rt thc rcst of us clo r r ot ur r clcr st r r ncl. In brrsi ncss, sorrrc of tl ris jr r r g<lnc( ) nr csf r or r r t lr e wor lcl < l f thc Il rtcrtrct. F< l r cxi rrl l 'r lc, if you r r r c in a big r r r cct ir r g w i th sor.ncorre arrclthcy sug gcst cliscussir r g sol. nct lr ing wit h yoLt oftline, d.rey ntealt thcy want to talk to y()u privatcly lrrter. Othcr lrlarlagement jargor.ris n<lt fronr tlrc w<lrlci of c()11-rputers. For exarnple, a manager could ask you: 'Wh:rt coul d you bri ng to the tab lc if you got t his job? Cir r r you tl ri nk outsi de the box?' Thi s m eans, ''Whatcould you giue t o owr team? Can yow think in unusual wdys to find answers to ltroblems?' There is also a lot of jargon ir.r sports that is only understood by people who do these sports. For example, if you are not a mountain biker, you will prohably not know what a bwnny hop is. (It is a jump that mounrain bikers make when they come off the ground with both wheels. Bunny is an informal word for rabbit, a small animal that jumps a lot.) People use jargon becausethey need to describe very detailed things or ideas and the rest of us have to rry and understand it. Slang is an extremely informal kind of language - much more informal than jargon. It is usually only spoken; jargon

A si g nin ' S pangt is h'

I r tt l t t tl ,l l l r l

sl r l tty

fl

l9(X)s; irr 1920 il lrre,rrrrt tiRltt(ol'clothcs) rrntlin rlrt,1970s ir lllcrlnt ,t ltil rtrtlt'. 'l'ltc slrrrrp, ttscrl[ry Al'licrrrr-Arrrclicrrrr rrrrrsicirrrrs lrrrs lrlrrl ir lllcrlt cffcctorr llritish slrrrrg sincctlrc Sccorrtl Worlrl Wrr. 'l'lriscffccthirsgrowrrlcccntlyrrsArrre ric'lrrr rlrp rnrrsic with its frrstspol<crr rhyurcs hrrs l'tccorrre populrrr rrrounrl tlrc worlcl. Worcls frorrrthc LIScrrnnow rcrtclr llrirairrirr wcckstlrrorrgh f lrc Itrtcrttct arrdtclcvision. l.or cxltnrplc, Ltttt(s()nt(1 tt,icketl, ',tncl bad (rtrcaning t'xt'cllent) hrrvc bccnwiclclyrrsccl l'ryyoulrll in Ilritrrin lrut tlrcy wcrc first usccl in tlrc tlS. 1-rcoplc Mrrty slrrtrg worcls you likc or clislil<c showdrrrt s()lllcthing. F<rr exrrtnplc, irr Britisl-r slarrg /zsb nlelurs loucly,Ikxtm!nlcilns the uery ltast, trncl minging nrciulsbad. ln Britnirr a stupi.l personis calleda diu,it'rthe US 'adummy, irr Ar-rstralia a dil/ or a boofhead.A pretty bLrtstupid girl is a bimbo in Brit:rin and the US,a boring persollis a dweebin the US,a lazy rnan is a bludgerin Australia. A good-lookingpersonis spunkyin Australiaor bwffin thc US and Britain. The basicthingsiu life rrreoften giveuslangworcls: f<roci is grubin Britain and tl-rc LIS(a worclthat hirsbccrrusecl since the seventeenth century) ancltuckcr in Austrrrlilr; nroncy is uonga or doughin Britain,graenor m<tolab in thc US.Tl-rere arealsomanywordsfor havingno money, beingdrurrk,being sick, crimesand criminals,the police,and differentparts o[ the body. Australiansarevery proud of their slangand often useit. It hasmany shortened words:for example, aruo for afternoon, Aussie for Australian, brekkie for breahfast,and swnnies for sunglasses. The Cockneys of East London are also proud of their 'rhyming slang' which is now widely ursed. In this slang,part of the slangexpression rhymeswith the word in StandardEnglish. For example:gardenplant meansAunt,

is oftcn writterrirswcll as spoken. Slangusually['relongs to a groLlpof peoplewho use it to show thartthey belong to thirt group - anclthat othersdo not. Sometimes they neecl youni lernguage that otherswill not understand. For example, people people, in prison,and peoplein the army all have their own kindsof slar-rg. Slangis colourful,funny,and oftencruel. It givesus rlew words for things we already have words for (for example,rock up for arriue).Jargon,on the other hand, often givesus new words for new things or ideas. quite quickly,because Most slangchanges the peoplewho useit needto makenew words to keepconfusingoutsiders. But some slang lasts longer: pig for policeman has been used since1800.Other words becomepart of the informal language.For example, row, meaning noisy argument, was slang in Britain in the eighteenth century.Some slang joke, words becomepart of Standard English.For example, people meaning somethingtbat someone says to make lawgh, was a slangword at the end of the seventeenth century Other slangwords changetheir meaningovertime. For example,in AnrericanEnglishpreuiousmeant arriuing too soon in the

(rt l

12 Thefut u r eo f E n g t is h
'lt's go<lcl gonc,cxccpttlrcir lirrrguirgc, tlrat cvcrything's which is cvcrytlring.' (l)crck Wrlcott, 'North rrrclSouth', l9ll2) '. . . wc no longcr control Englishin any mcirningfulwiry. It is no longerour ship,but the sc:r.' (Anclrcw Marr, l99fi) poct DcrckWalcottknowsthat Euglish Thc Jamaiciur is still usedin cor.rntries that weregovernecl lry Britairr;the British journalistAndrew Marr recogrrizcs that Englishdoes t.rot jr.rst belong t<> the British or Amcricarrs, but to the whole world. English cor.rtir-rucs to be used l'ry speakers of other languages all over tlre worlcl, rrrrcl to bc changedby drose languages. But how will this siturrtion chrngcin the future?
plates of meat means feet, bread and honey means money . lt can become more difficult to understand when the rhyming word is not used. For exampl e, I need some bread means I need some money. Today most new rhyming slang uses famous names. For example, Britney Spears means beers. Rhyming slang is also used in Australia and the US. New slang words are always appearing and disappearing. Some words are used only by the small groups that made them, others become part of national or international slang, and others cross into ordinary spoken language. lrr this way, slang is an important source of new words in Sta ndar d E nglis h.

Irr Britail.r, the US, Carrrrcla, Anstrrrlirr, rrrrc{ New Zeilancl, Englishwill remainthe first language of most people,but New slar-rg will continueto change. and dialects will develop, often from groups of people who speak other languages, for example,Spanishir-r languages the US and South Asiar-r in Britain. In countrieswhere English is used as a second language, it is possible that new languages will develop which useEnglish ar-rd locallanguages. An example of thisis Sheng, from English, a new Kenyan languagewhich uscs w<>rds Swahili,and other African larrgu:lgcs. One guessis that the numbcr of pcoplc who can use Englishwell will continueto grow - to ()vcrhalf the people

7t l

'l'ltaI Iistoryof' tlta I;,nglish Lttnt!,urtSt'

- irrrcl itr thc worlclby 2050,sorrrc bclicvc thirt lirrglishwill rcrlrlrinrt worlcl llrngu:rgc for rrrirnyycrrrs.In this vicw, tlrc tlS will rculnintlrc riclrcst country irr thc worlcl,Anrcricln populitrntusic filrrrs itttcl will cor.rtilruc to bc firshiona[rlc, nrrcl Flrrglish will still lrctlrc Inngu:rge oFscicrrcc, conttttutricrrtions ucss, tcchnology,i utcrnrtiolrirl lrnsi ccl ncirti<ln :rt un ivcrsi tics, nrrcl tclcvisi<)r'l ncws.linglishwill coutirruc t<lchirngc, but it in drc world. will rrot krscits inrtr'rortrr.rcc Howcver,other people think that the future of English is not so certair"r. ns tr world lernguage Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, arrdArabicmay become other world languirges, as dre numbersclf pe<lple wlro speaktheselarrguages continue to gro% and the countrieswhere they are spokenbecome richer. Although international businessmay groq some of it may be with countriesir-r the sanrepart of the world, and other sharedlanguages may be usedinsteadof English. There are now more usersof the Internet who do not speak Englishas a first language than thosewho do, so businesses and organizations haveto provideinformation and services in differentlanguages for theseInternetusers. In education, internationalstudentsmay go to countriesthat are nearby: for example,more Asian students may go to China. English may alsoloseits importanceand popularity in the world of films and music. If English remainsa world language, somegovernments may try to stop its usein their own countries.They may fear that the use of English will endangertheir own languages and customs.Somecountrieshavealreadytried to stop the laws againstthe use borrowing of Englishwords by passing of foreign words in some situations (for example, France in 1977 and 1.994, and Polandin 1997).In other countries, India, for example,thereis much discussion about teaching Someconsiderit harmful ftrr childrenin Englishin schools. learniug,and alsofor the survivalof their own the children's for the think that it is necessary Others,however, languages. country'sfuture survivalin the world. how will it change? If Englishdoesremainaworld language, asLatin Willit breakup into a numberof differentlanguages, Romanian,and Portuguese, Spanish, into French, developed and only one disappear Italian?Or will the differentvarieties kind of Englishsurvive? probablethat as English is usedinternationally It seems more and more, the need for a standard grammar and vocabulary,standard spelling rules, and some standard a new simpler kind of pronunciationwill remain. Perhaps 'World Standard English' will develop from the regional one which all userscan easilyuseand understand. varieties, If a sound is hard for people to make, and words can be For example without it, then it could disappear. understood have to be not and does speakers, for many rD is difficult pronouncedas l0l or 16l ,so this soundcould change.

72

I ' lt t ' llis l t,r.t'rtf tl tr l i try l i s l tl ,ru te u rter'

()r r t lr t ' ot lr t ' r ' lrrrrrtl i , t s t' t' rrstl rrrl tl rc n u n rl rt' r' ol rt' gi orr;rl v:tt' it ' lir ' s ol' llr t glis h i s p ,r' o w i rrp ,:rrt.l w i l l c ()n l i nu(' l () l l r' ()w . 'l 'l tc ' s c ' v ill' ic t i( 'ln:l s y l x ' c ()n r(' n l ()r' (' ,rn r' rll ro tr' tl i ffcrr' rrtfronr tl re W or lt l S t r ur r lr trrl l < i rrrl o l ' l rrrg l i s h ,rtl th o rrg l rtl rcy rrrrry rrot l rtn l i u rtg c s [rc c rtrts c b cco nt c s el) : r t ' r r t c tl rc y w i l l l tl tvc l t l ot ol c()n t r lc t wit lr s t r t n tl rrrrl k i rrrl s o l ' l ' l rg l i s l r tl rro rr p,h tcl cvi si orr, rl rclio,r r r r ctllr c lr r t c rrre t. As t lr c t t r r t t r bc r o f s c c o rrc l :rn - c ll trl rc i g rr-l rrr rgrrrrgc s1' rcrrl < crs o f I' } r glis h gr ( ) ws l rrrg c r rh rrrrtl rc n rrrrrb c ro f f i rst-l rrrrguegc ()tlrcr lrlnl-lurrgcs s1'lcrtl<crs, will hllvc :t l-lrcilter cffcct on F.rrglish. I'l xtr c r r r c ly llr r gcr r t rn rl rc rs < l f w o rc l sfr< l rno tl rc r l r rrrgrregcs will p ro b alr ly c ( ) nt inuc t() c r()s si rrto h )rrg l i s h tl t g rc t rt s1' rcccl . -fhc r t c x t s t c p it t th c h i s to ry < > f th c B rrg l i s hl a ngurrgc i s hrrrcl ()n n rl l n y th i rrg s:chl rrrgcs to sc e c lc ar ly lr c c a u s ci t c l c p c n c l s i rr \i i /i ll ['l u s it t c s ss , c ic r . r c ctc , c l .rtro l o g y rrn , d n u tl b c rs o f pcopl c. th c s pc ak c r sof t n g l i s h rrt tl .rcc n c l o f th i s c c r rtury spcak a vcry c lif f c r c ut E ng l i s h fro rn th e o n e w e u s c n ow ? W ho w i l l rusc it, rrr.rcl how? Thesc rrrc intc'rc'sting clr.restiorrs for all r-rsers o f E nglis h.

( ; t , o s s A l {Y
t,tl ' l , l tl ttr i r r l i c c t i v c , t w t , r . l t l t r t l t l t 's c l i I r csi l l ) cr s( ttlo t tl ti ttl i t',1 1 r r r t i c l e t fr c w , , t t l s , t , t t , t ,, t t t ( l l l .t( lliblc
c hl r t

r l r e l r o l y l r o o l <o l t l r t '( i l r r i sti r ttt r t'l i p ,i o r r

r 00r r r l t pl ,tc e ( ) l l tl l c l l l tc fl l c t w l l c rc y ()L l (i l l l L ()l l l l l l t l l l i L i l t ('

w i t l t r t t l t t 'r P e o p l c o f .fcsr r s( .l r l i st; O h r i s t i a n i t y t l r c r c l i g i o r r b r r s cr ltttt tl tc tcr tch i r tg s ( l h l i s t i r r n ( r r c \ , r r f ) c ( ) r l r l cctc( w l i tl r th i s r cl i g i o r l c l : r s s ( h c r c ) r r g r o t t p o l t p e o p l c t,I tl tc sr ttttcso ci r tll e vcl i cl cr ts ctc w i tl t so tttco ttc; c o n l r 'n u n i c i t t c t o c x c h : t t t g ci t t f<tr tttl tti o tt, (l) cornnrunicirtion c ( )l l tr ( ) lo f ,t co tttttr y b y fi r r ee c o n q u c s t t h c a c t r l f t r r l <i r r g c o n s o n : r n t , t t t y l c t t c r o f t h c a lp h l b ct cxccp t ,r , t', i , tt, <tt'tr tlrtt is a tttixtttrc of rr littropcrtrr lrlllgttrtgcarrcl creolc a lrtttgrtrrgc a locrrl larrgulrgc,arrclthrrt is spol<cttrts a first litrlgtrrrgc dialect ir virricty of rr lrrngtragcspokcrt itt ottc rrrcirwlricl-t rrttcl lltrgtu'tgc itt grarntrtlr, w<trcls, cliffcrs frorn tl-rcstanclnrcl pronnr-rciation education a pr()ccssof lcarning artcltclching to illtprovc of knowlcclgc; educated (adj) having hacl rr high stanclrrrcl cducatior"r express (u) to show yollr fcclilUis or opitriotrs throttgh worcls flower (r) to clcvclop ancl becomc succcssful gender (irr sot.nclanguagcs) a way of pLltting worcls irrto gr()tlPs - rnasculinc, fcrninit-tc,and ncutcr govern grammar to hirvc lcgrl corrtrol of a cotttrtry; (rl) government tl.rcrulcs in a latrgtt:rgcfor charrging thc fortn of worcls

(arll) granrmatical ancl joining thcm togethcr it.tto sctrtctrccs; t() livc pcrtrtatrctltly ill rl who has c()lt1c immigrant a pcrs()r') colilrtry that is not thcir owr-r industrial of goocls irr frlctorics conrrectedwith thc proclr-rctiotr

itsk thim!ls

influence a pcrson or thing that irffccts thc way thitrgs happcll or dcvclop informal (of langulgc) relaxed, ttot seri()tls ()r c()rrcct

74

( )l tts s try

Olosstry

75

tn tcr nc t t hc ir r t c r r r l tti rl ttl t| l tc tw rl rk tl fc rl ttrp tttc rsthi 1t| ctsy()usci cnce secitrf<rrnrntiorr frorrr:rll <lvcr thc worlcl invade to clttcr rrc()untryby frlrcein ordcr to takecorrtrolof it kingdom n c()untryeontr()llcd lly l kirrgor quccll picccs literature of writing, cspccially plirys,irnclpocl'lls rrovcls, message board a ;llacc <lna wcbsitc wlrcrc y<lr,r crrrrrcircl<lr write mossages monk a ntan who works f<rrthc churcha1d who livcswith gthcr m<lnks irr a spccialbuilding noun a word that rcfcrst<la pcrson,placc,thing, or qualiry (c.g. mother,street,box, bolte) obiect the part <lf a sentencc that showsthc personor thing affected by the verb officiaf (n &. adi) a person irr a positior.r of authority; chosenor agreedby such a person online connectedto the Internet ordinary not unusualor different organization a group of people who work together to do something Parliament the group of peoplechosento make and changethe laws of a country personalpronoun the words l, me, yott, be, him etc. plural the form of a noun or verb that refersto more than one thing poem a pieceof writing wherewords are chosenfor their sound and arrangedin lines,expressing somethingimaginatively; poet a person who writes poems;poetry poems in general print to put words onto paper using a machinein order to make books pronounce to make the sound of a word or letter in a particular way; (n) pronunciation region one part of a country replace to take the place of rhyme the useof words that end with the samesound in a poem with seicrrcc scttlc t() nlilkc il plrrccin it llcw cotltltry yrlttrlronte singular tlrc fornr <lf I rttlutrtlr vcrb thrtt rcfcrst() ollc thillg hrtsto work pcrs()tt ,rrrcl to irtr<lthcr wlro l'rcl<lrrgs slave a pcrs()n f<rrthctn for tro ttt<lt'tcy frottr bcginsor c<lmcs sourcc a placcwhercsonrcthing (y pc<lplc; t() lll()vct() morc spread(u n) to bc uscdby morc and morc and morc places believcd to bc correctarrduscdlry rnost standard (of languagc) pe<lplc to build arrdmakc knowlcdg,c technology the uscof scientific (adj) technological things; tense a verb form that showsthe time of somcthirlghappcnirrg, either in the past, present,or future translate to expressthe meaningof somethingin a different language;(r) translation an action or state (e.g.walk, be) verb a word that expresses vocabulary all the words in a language vowel the lettersd, e, i, o, and u, and the soundsthat they represent website a place on the Internet whereyou can find out information about something

76

77

A(]TIVITIII,S

ACTIVITI

I.]S

BeforeReading
How muchdo you know aboutdre language of English? Fill in theblanks with these items. rrn,b, e, femininc,from, -ful, full stop,gct, i, -ing, masculinc,
question mdrk, s, the, turn, with vowels: cotlsonants: _, prepositionsi -r punctuationi _t a rti c l e s : verbs: endings: _, genders: _,

While Reading
these sentences with the correct ReadChapter1, thencomplete words. simple,sltread, communication, international,quarter,settled, traffic, widely of all the Enelish is sooken verv . About a peoplein the world useEnglish in someway. Airspeak'is a form of Englishusedin international air control. English aroundthe world aboutthree startedto in hundredyearsago,when many British peopleothercountries.
4 In the twentieth century, air travel made more

How much do you know about the history of the language? Choose the best words to complete these sentences. 1 English developedfrom the languagesspoken by invaders from northern Europe I China. 2 The English words for some of the days of the week come from the names of kings and queens I gods and goddesses. 3 A place with a name ending in -ford is usually near a riuer I a mountain. 4 For more than three hundred years after 1066, all the kings of England spoke German I Frencb. 5 Six hundred yearsago, the letter A in knee was pronownced I not pronounced. Can you name some words that have come into your language from English? Who usesthem? How do you feel about the arrival of English words in your language?Why do you feel this?

possible. Telephones and computers also made business possible. fasterReadChapter2,then put theseevents in the correctorder. I The Romansleft Britain. 2 'Wessex the strongest kingdom in England. became Europeand Asia. -) The Kurganpeoplebeganto travelacross 4 Jutes,Angles,and Saxons from northern Europesettledin
a

Britain. SomeBritish peoplelearnt to speakand write Latin. 6 The Celtssettledin Britain. Scotlandorganized 7 The peopleof Englandand south-east themselves into seven kingdoms. invaded Britain. 8 The Romans in centralEurope. 9 The Celtsbeganto leave their homeland

7t1

A(:t tvt t ttt.si l(ItiIr llrulinp,

Ac'll\/rl rt,r,\: Whilt ld',nling

RcaclOhrrptcr.3,tlrcn rcwritc tlrcsc untnrc scntcnces with thc c()rrcct inf<lrrnatiorr. I 'l'he uirnrc l)oycr c()nlcsfnrnt tl'rc(ieltic worcl for mountLltn. 2 'fhc Arrglo-Saxorrs borrowcclthc worclsf<trstraet ;rnclu.,rtll fronr tlre (lclts. .l Thc w<>rcl school canrc frorrr (icruran. which was uscd rr lot by nronks. g<ldclcss of wirr. 4 Friday was nirmcd aftcr thc Atrgkl-Saxorr 5 Ki r r g A lf r c d won a r1i m p o rta n t b a td c a g a i n s tthc R omans. 6 King Alfrcd dccidcd to makc Greek thc languagcof educatiol.r and literature. 7 Most towrrs with names endirrgin -thorpe are in the west o f E ngland. Before you read Chapter 4, can you guessthe answers to these questions? 1 lfhen Villiam and his army come to fight Harold's army in England, who will win the battle - Harold or William? 2 \What effect will there be on the English language? Read Chapters 4 and 5, then answer these questions. 1 \Whatdid the king have built after the Battle of Hastings? 2 Vhich English king lost Normandy to the French? 3 Why did almost a third of the people in England die between 1348 and1375? 4 Vhich languages were used for official government papers for two hundred years after 1066? 5 Vhat did John lVycliffe do between 1380 and 1384? 5 Vhat is Geoffrey Chaucer's best-known work? 7 lWhat did William Caxton bring to England in 1.476?

with tlre llcad Ohrrptcrs(r rurtl7, drclr cttnrpletethc $cl'ltcnces c()rrcct nilnlcs. KinyOlnrles lln l;irst I King/uttrt'stlr Setnd I Stmud .lttltnxrn I .ltmtlhtn ,\tuif'l I Willium Sbakasln'dra I !srt,rt'Natulott | Z -lrncl 3 A ftcr clcvctrycirrs. that hc haclto lcrrvcF)ttgllttcl' so urtl-lo1-rulrrr 4 -wils arrdl ri s daughtcr hcci rm cqt lccn. hc wirtrtcd to fix thc English hnguagc bccirttsc .5 di cl n' t l i kc thc cottti ntl alchanges. 6 wrotc a dictionary which was a grcit stlcccss. w r()te n book i rr Lr t t it t ,bt r t l: t t cr chosel'lnglislr ' of any lirrglish writcr. tlrc litrgcstvocirl'rttlirry wr t swir lr ot t t it kir r g f or w rrski l l ccl,H, r t glancl

Read Chapter 8. When were these words introduced? airport, bronchitis, disco, e-mail, google, nylon, photo' TV

t8l4: 19'19: 1948: 1982:

1850: 1938: t954: 1,999: -

true (T) or false(F)? ReadChapter9. Are thesesentences werethe first 1 The Englishpeoplewho settledin Jamestowl'r to visit America. Europeans in America. thereweremillionsof Irish slaves 2 By 1,865 asa punishment. America people weresentto English 3 Some from Spanish. sippi comes 4 The nameMissls New York wascalledNew Amsterdam. 1564. 5 Before winter. English, 6 In American fall means whichis alsousedin expression 7 Fastfood is an American BritishEnslish.

tJ0

A(ir t vt't't t',si While Redding

8I

Read Chapters 10and 11,thenmatchthese halves of sentences. 1 Theean<l thou arc uscdirr somcBritishdialccts, but . . . 2 Gaclic is an old Celticlanguagc which. . . 3 The English of Canada is similarto . . . 4 'Spanglish' is a variety of English which. . . 5 Jargon is the special language. .. peopleuseslang. . . 6 Some 7 Jokeusedto be a slangword, but . . . 8 Grub andtucker are . . . a slangwords for food. b usesEnglishand Spanish words together. c it's now part of Standard BritishEnglish. d both Americanand BritishEnglish. e is still spokenin the westof lreland. f usedby peoplewho havethe samejob or hobby. g they arenot usedin StandardBritish English. h to showthat they belongto a group. ReadChapter12,then fill in the gapswith thesewords. borrowing,fasbionable, foreign,half, barmful, laws,popular, riche st,suruiue,worried Somepeoplethink that overthe peoplein the world will be ableto speakEnglishby 2050.They think that the US will remainthe country in the world, and American musicand films will continueto be -. But in somecountriespeoplethink that it is _ to teach childrenEnglish,because they are that their own languages might not Somegovernments want to stop the of Englishwords, and they havepassed
against the use of words in some situations.

AETI V ITI F,S

After Reading
to threeof the Who'swho in the book?Match eachperson to makefivcshort notes, and join the informationtogether paragraphs, one abouteachperson. I lamesMurray I King Alfred I GeoffreyChaucer I William the Conqueror Noah Webster official/ livedin London 1 both a poet and a government / workedon the first Oxford English 2 a Scotsman Dictionary English / proud of American teacher 3 an American / became Harold in 1066 4 leader of Normandy/ defeated king of England / an important battle againstthe Vikings 5 a king of Wessex 6 plannedto finish in ten yearsI afterfiveyearshad only the word 'ant' reached by of learning/ destroyed 7 wantedto bring back the centres the Vikings 8 wrote a book on spelling/ extremelysuccessful 9 wrote in the EastMidlands dialect/ usedwords from French 10 took land from rich EnglishfamiliesI gaveitto his followers of government the language / Frenchbecame 11 spokeFrench in England and business t2 died in 1915/ workingon the letterU peopleI manyother writers copiedhim t3 good at describing Americanspellings / now accepted new spellings T4 suggested / learnt of education 15 decidedto makeEnglishthe language importantbooksinto English Latin lcould translate

fi2

/\(:ttv tt tt ,\i Af' l (r l k ' ,td i u g

Al l r r lla't,I itt1t, A(ir tv I t tt,.,\i

It.]

Mrrtch thc worclsorr thc lcft with tlrc tytrres of larrguirgc on tl tc ri g h t , W hat do t hc w o rd s rrrc a n ? I f rccwrry 2 ur r ; lt r t t lowr r:rb l c .1 srtyitgirirr 4 bumy .5 y r u[ - f l? 6 l:rss 7 wcalrrs tl cliv 9 ckrmb l 0 y ous c rt An g l o -Sa x o rr c li rrl cct b Ol c l l .)n g l i s h c tto rtl rc rrrh i n g l i sh cl i rrl ect cl Sc<lts c Mo d c rrr F )rrg l i sh f Iri s h F )n g l i s h g A n rc ri c rrrr E n g li sh h Sc a s p c a k i j B ri ti s h s l a n g tcxt messagc

in the futtrrc? How du you think tlrc rrscof llnglish will ehrrngc Writc rr rc[r()rtrrbout linglish in your c(tuntry in 2(]50.Llse thescqucsti onsto hcl p you, Wlr - W i l l nrorc or fcw cr 1' rc<t 1'r spcr ? y? le r klr , ng, lislr - W i l l l i rrgl i shbc ti trrghti rr sclt ools? - W i l l hl ngl i sh l rc 1' ropul r t wit r h I nt cr r t ctt t scr s? - W i l l othcr l attgurrgcs bc t r r or cit t r por t llt ltt lr xt l lt r r glish? - W hi ch l arrguagcs w i l l pcoplc usc f or l'r t r sit t css? Wlry? Do you agreeor disagreewith thesesentenccs? I Evcryoncshoulcllcarn m<lrethirtr otrc langtritgc. to writc. 2 Lcarrringto speakis morc importlut th:rrrlcrrrtritrg spcltk tlrc s:rttrc 3 Peoplcwho livc in thc samc coulltry sh<ltrlcl l anguage.

Use the words below to complete this paragraph about changes in the English language. borrowed, centuries, complain, continwally, controlled, deueloped,expressions,inuaders,made, putting, quarter, room, settled, technology, uocabulary The English language fifteen from the dialectsspoken by

4 lf a languageis used by very few peoplc, it's iutportant t<-r keep it alive. Working on your own or in a group, make a list of the English words and expressionsthat you hear or read in a typical day. Write notes about each word or expression: 1 Vhat kind of languageis it? Do you think it is slang or standard English? 2 Where has it come from? The US or Britain? The Internet, TV or music? 3 Is there an equivalentword or expressionin your language? Explore these websites. Seeif you can find help with spelling and pronunciation; information about English idioms; and games,tests and quizzes. www.askoxford.com htm www.britishcouncil.orgllcarrrcnglish. www.usingenglish.com

from northern Europe who in Britain ago. Since then, the language has changed

Englishpeoplehavefrom other languages,and have

words (Iikecoffee)
new words (like

old words together. Developments fingerprint) by in have brought new -, too, Iike website and chat and -. . People often about new words But the English languageis used by a

of the world's people. It can't be _!

u4

8.5

OXF ORD BOOK\Ofl OR MS LIB R A R Y ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Brigit Vincy livcs in thc cast of England iu tlrc univcrsitycity of Ca mbr idgc .S hc has l i v c d rn a i rrl yi n B ri ta i n , b u t h as al so spcnr a fcw ycars in thc Middlc East, in Syria and Egypt, which shc thoroughlycnjoycd. Shc has worked in English Language Tcachingfor morc than years,first as a teacher twenty-five in Egypt, and thcrras an editor and writcr, Shehas written grammarpracticematerials, rcaders, a coursebook for children, and teacher'sresourccboclks. Shelovestravellingto differentcountries, exploringnew cities, eating new food and trying to learn a little of the language. Sometimesthe sounds are just too hard to pronounce, however (Czechhas somedifficult ones!). Brigit likes cycling round Cambridge, visiting old housesand other historical places,and walking in the counrry.Shelikes meals out with friends, trips to the cinema, and art exhibitions. She likes many kinds of art, old and modern, and enjoysdrawing and painting, especially landscapes.
(i/rrs.slcs , Orinrc(t Mysttrl . I;dttlilts. lidt,lds!, Ct'Ilrtrntr llumun lnlcrest, l'ltyscripts,'l'hriller tt Adwnlttre 'l'rue Stories , l(orld Storits -l'hcoxtotruu(x)r(w()rrMs proviclcs t,tutr.rtuv rcirdirrg in ll.rrglish, with cnjoyublc plrrys, of nrocle rn fiction, non-fiction, lt ittcluclcs ir wiclcrirrrgc clirssic rncl rrrrrl origirrirllrrd rrcilr1'rtccl lrrrrgurrgc strrgcs, wlriclr tcxts irr scvcrr cnrcfullygrirclccl givcn lc:rrrrcrs l'rcgirrncl lcvcl. An ovcrvicw is on thc trrkc fr<lrrr to irclvancccl ncxt Ptrgcs. All StagcI titlcs arc rrvrrila[rlc irs iruclio rccorclings, irs wcll ls ovcr cighty otlrcr titlcs frour Strrrtcr to Stagc 6. All Strrrtcrs rrrrcl nriurytitlcs rrtStlgcs I for youtrgcrlcirrrrcrs. ll<lokw<lrm is t() 4 rrc spccinlly rccorrrmcnclccl Flvcry illustrated, and Stlrtcrs lrrd Frrctfiles lrrrvc full-colourillustrirtions. Thc oxr.orrn r(x)l(wor{Ms LnnAr{y alsooffcrscxtcrrsivc support.Flaclr b<xrk lbout tlrc rruthor,ir glossary, contairrs an introductiorlto thc story, l'lotcs incluclctcsts ilnd workshccts,and and activities.Additional resources answersfor theseand for the activities irr tl'rc books. Thcrc is advice on runninga class library,usiugaudio recordings, lnd the mirnywaysof using programmes. Resourcc materials are Oxford Bookworms ir-r readir-rg on the website<www.oup.com/bookworms>. available 'fhe Oxford Bookworms Collection is a sericsfor advarrcedlearners.It and consists of volumesof short storiesby well-known authors,hoth classic modern.Texts arenot abridged or adaptcdin ar-ry way, but carefullyselected to be accessible to the advancedstudent.

You can find details and a full list of titles inthe Oxford Bookworms Library Catalogue and Oxford English Language Teaching Catalogues,and on the website<www.ouD.com/bookworms>.

tf6

t17

l'H l,:'o xl,'otrl) t]ooK woRMs t.t tit { A t { y ( ; ltAl) tN ( ; A N l) sA M trl.l,l l.lxTR A CT s
s ' r ' A r t l ' t,:l t o 2 5 0 H l i At)w o l r. l )s - prcscnt sirtrplc - inrPcrlrrivc c()ntinu()us l')rcscnt gcruncls - sinrl'rlc &tnlcdnnol to (futurc) ... , musl- going Hcr phor r c is r ing i n g - b u t w h c rc i s i t? Sa lly gc t s out o f b e d a n d l o o k s i n h c r [ra g . N o phone. She looks undcr the bcd. No phorrc. Then she looks bchind th e door . T her e is h e r p h o n c . Sa l l y p i c k s u p h er phone and answers tt. Sally'sPhone S T A G E Ir{ o o H ts AD \VOR D S ... pastsimplc - coordination withand,but,or subordination with before, after,when,because, so . .. I knew him in Persia. He was a famous builder and I worked with him there. For a time I was his friend, but 'When not for long. he came to Paris, I came after him I wanted to watch him. He was a very clever, very dangerous man, Tbe Pbantom of the Opera s T A cE2 o /o o H EA D W OR D S perfect - will (future) - (don't)haue . .. present to, mustnot, couldcomparison of adiectives simple lf clauses pastcontinuous * * quesrions rag askltell infinitive ... \7hile I was writing these words in my diary, I decided

s' l ' A (; l ,: J . ro oo llliA l) wolt l) s - l)t'cscr'rt pcrfecl pcrlctt contitrrrorrs urt'l l(, prtst .., sltoull,rrr(ry
- rcl i rti vc cl ;rrrs c s - i ntl i l c ' tt s ti tt(' ntc i l l s ,.. - ci rrrsi rti vc

()f coursc,it wirs rrrostirrrportirrrt scc thirt n() ()nc slr0rrlcl (lllirr gitrclctt. O<llirr, Mirry,or l)ick<lrr crrtcrittg thc sccrct S<l girvcorclcrsto thc girrclcncrs thrrt thcy rnust nll kccll nway Garden fr<rnr that prlrt of tlrc glrclcn in futurc. TlteSecret
STAGE 4' l4oo H L ,AD tfYOR D S

(sinrplc - 1'xrssivc ... prst pcrfcctcontirruous f<rrnrs) - inclircctrlrcstiottswould c<lndiuonrrl clrtuscs relativcswith uhcreltuhcz - gcnrrrcls ... aftcr prcpositiotts/plrrascs

I was glad. Now Hyde could not slrow his frcc to the world again.lf he did, every honest man in l,orrclottwould be proud to report him to the police. DrJekyll and Mr Hyde S TA GE 5' t8oo HEADWO RDS pcrfcct - futurc ... future continuous (modals, passive forrls)continuous - moclals * pcrfcct uould baue conditional clauses infirritivc ... If he had spokenEstella'sname, I wor.rldhavchit him. I was so angry with him, and so depressed about my future, that I could not eat the breakfast.Instead I went straight to the old house. Great Expectations S TA GE 6.?-5O O HEADWO RDS
... passive(infinitives,gerunds)- advancedmodal meaningscondition clauses of concession. 'Sflhen I stepped up to the piano, I was confident. It was as if I

what to do. I must try to escape. I shall try to get down the wall outside. The window is high above the ground, but

I have to try. I shall take some of the gold with me - if I escape, perhaps it will be helpful later. Dracula

knew that the prodigy sideof me really did exist.And when I startedto play,I was so caughtup in how lovelyI looked that I didn't worry how I would sound. TheJoy LuckClub

8tt

l t ( ) ( ) K w o ltM s

lr ^ ( ll lr ll.lis

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GreatCrimes
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NelsonMandela
R O \(E N A A KIN YE M I In 1918 in the peaceful province of tanskei, South Africa, the Mandela family gave their new baby son the name Rolihlahla - 'troublemaker'. But the young boy's early years were happy ones, and he grew up to be a good student and an enthusiastic sportsman. Vho could imagine then what was waiting for Nelson Mandela - the tirelessstruggle for human rights, the long years in prison, of family life, and one day the title of the happinessand sadness Presidentof South Africa? This is the story of an extraordinary man, recognizedtoday as one of the world's great leaders,whose long walk to freedom brought new hope to a troubled nation.