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L7 Page 1 of 18


Lecture 7 Control System Characteristics

We will learn the key measures of linear time-invariant control system
characteristics. These measures are direct indicators of a systems
performance and form the essential criteria for the controller design of
the system.

1. What Are the Key Measures of Control
System Characteristics?
2. Stability
3. Sensitivity
4. Disturbance Rejection Capability
5. Steady-State Accuracy

L7 Page 2 of 18


1. What Are the Key Measures of Control System Characteristics?
To measure the performance of a control system, a standard set of performance indexes (indicators) is
developed to distinctively label the dynamics of the system under consideration.
This set of performance indexes universally describes the main characteristics associated with all linear
time-invariant control systems.
Key Measures of Control System Characteristics:
o Stability Stability is the measure of a system characteristic in responding to applied inputs and/or
initial conditions of the system.
+ It is required that a control system be stable when operated in a prescribed manner.
o Sensitivity Sensitivity is the measure of a system characteristic in responding to parameter (or
component) changes in the mathematical model of the physical plant.
+ It is required that a control system be reasonably insensitive to the changes in the parameters (or
components) of the mathematical model of the physical plant.
o Disturbance Rejection Capability Disturbance rejection capability is the measure of a system
characteristic in responding to the external disturbances (unwanted inputs) injected into the system.
+ It is required that a control system respond to the external disturbances to the system in a reasonably
undisturbed manner.
o Steady-State Accuracy Steady-state accuracy is the measure of a system characteristic in responding
to a desired level of the output.
+ It is required that a control system output be accurately follow the desired level of the output within
an allowable error band.
L7 Page 3 of 18


2. Stability
For linear time-invariant systems, the system stability is
defined by bounded-input bounded-output stability, called
the BIBO stability.
Definition A system is BIBO stable if, for every
bounded-input, the output remains bounded when t .
Natural Response vs. Forced Response:
o For a linear time-invariant system, the system response
is composed of two parts: natural response and forced
response:

Response Forced
) (
Response Natural
) ( ) (
t r n
c t c t c + =

+ Natural Response the terms that originate in the
poles of the system transfer function and the
functional forms are independent of the input.
+ Forced Response the terms that originate in the
poles of the input and the functional forms are
dependent of the input.
o The stability of the system requires that both the natural
and forced responses be stable for all time.
o If one of theses responses is unstable, then the system is
unstable.
o c
n
(t) and c
r
(t) are defined differently than c
t
(t) and c
ss
(t).

Example 7-1: (Natural vs. Forced Responses)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Unit-Step Response
c1(t) undamped
c2(t) underdamped
c3(t) overdamped
Band +2
Band -2
r(t) input

) (
) ( ) (
1
3 cos 1 ) (
t c
t c t c
ss
n r
t t c + =

) (
or
) (
) (
or
) (
2
) 55 . 72 828 . 2 sin( 06 . 1 1 ) (
t c
t c
t
t c
t c
t
n
ss
r
t e t c

+ + =

) (
or
) (
146 . 1 854 . 7
) (
or
) (
3
171 . 1 17 . 0 1 ) (
t c
t c
t t
t c
t c
t
n
ss
r
e e t c

+ =

c(t)
0
1
R(s) C(s)
T(s)
r(t)
L7 Page 4 of 18


Analysis of System Stability:
o For a given nth-order system, the closed-loop transfer
function of the system is:
) (
) (
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
) (
s D
s N
s H s G
s G
s R
s C
s T =
+
= =
o Closed-Loop Characteristic Equation (C.L.C.E.): 0 ) ( = s D or 0 ) ( ) ( 1 = + s H s G
o Assume that the system has distinct (simple) n real poles, p
i
(i =1,2,,n), i.e.,
) ( ) )( ( ) (
2 1 0 1
1
1 n n
n
n
n
n
p s p s p s a a s a s a s a s D = + + + + =

o Given an input R(s), the system output C(s) can be expanded into partial fractions:

) ( of Dependent
) ( of t Independen
) (
2
2
1
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
s R
r
s R
s C
n
n
s C
p s
k
p s
k
p s
k
s R s T s C
n
+
+ +
= =

) ( of Dependent
) ( of t Independen
) (
2 1
) ( ) (
2 1
t r
r
t r
t c
t p
n
t p t p
t c e k e k e k t c
n
n
+ + + + =

unbounded is ) ( unbounded is ) ( as then 0, of one If
bounded is ) (
bounded is ) ( as 0 then 0, If
bounded is ) ( bounded is ) ( If
t c t c t e p
t c
t c t e p
t c t r
n
t p
i
n
t p
i
r
i
i
>
<

o Conclusion:
+ A system is stable if and only if all poles of the system lie strictly in the left-half of the s-plane.
+ A system is unstable, if at least one pole of the system lies in the right-half of the s-plane.
+ A system is critically (marginally) stable, if the system has simple poles on the Imaginary-axis
with all other poles in the left-half of the s-plane.
Roots of C.L.C.E
= C.L. Poles
R(s) C(s)
+
G(s)
H(s)
R(s) C(s)
+
G(s)
H(s)
L7 Page 5 of 18


Example 7-2: (Stability)
For standard 2
nd
-order systems:
When >0, the poles of the system
lie in the left-half of the s-plane:
The system is stable.
This covers underdamped,
critically-damped, and
overdamped cases.
When <0, the poles of the system
lie in the right-half of the s-plane:
The system is unstable.
This covers all negatively-
damped cases.
When =0, the poles of the system
lie on the Im-axis of the s-plane:
The system is critically stable.
This covers undamped case.
Exception: A system may become
unstable for certain bounded inputs.
For example, if a system is injected with a sinusoidal input, the frequency of which coincides with the
frequency of the system j-axis poles, then the system will become unstable:
If: System:
1
1
) (
2
+
=
s
s T
. Poles: j p =
2 , 1
where =1. Input: t t r sin ) ( =
1
1
) (
2
+
=
s
s R
where =1.
Then: Output:
2
2 2 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
) ( ) ( ) (
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
+
= =
s s s
s R s T s C
t t t c sin ) ( = Unbounded Unstable

C
C
C C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Im
Re
s
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 -0.5

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
0
5
10
15
Stable
Critically Stable
Unstable
L7 Page 6 of 18

3. Sensitivity
The characteristics of a physical plant often change with time and environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity, and altitude. This may cause component changes of the plant.
In addition, the parameters within a component of the plant may also change with time and environmental
conditions. This may cause parameter changes of the plant.
Once a mathematical model of the physical plant is derived. These changes will be interpreted as corresponding
component or parameter changes of the system model.
Question: How sensitive will the system be with respect to these changes?
In order to measure sensitivity adequately, we must define it mathematically:
o The sensitivity of system T(s) to a component
G(s) within T(s) is defined as:
) ( in change percent
) (
) (
) (
) (
lim
) (
) (
) (
) (
0 s G
s T
s T
s G
s G
s T
S
s G
s G
s T
s T
G
T
G
=
= =

o The sensitivity of system T(s) to a parameter b of a
component G(s) within T(s) is defined as:
b
s T
s T
b
b
s T
S
b
b
s T
s T
b
T
b
in change percent
) (
) (
lim
) (
) (
0
=
= =

Consider a typical feedback control system T(s)
o The sensitivity of T(s) to plant G
p
(s):
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
1
) (
) (
) (
) (
s H s G s G s T
s G
s G
s T
S
p c
p
p
T
G
p
+
=
=

o The sensitivity of T(s) to b within G
p
(s):
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
s T
b
b
s G
s G
s T
s T
b
b
s T
S
p
p
T
b
=

o The sensitivity of T(s) to sensor H(s):
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
) (
s H s G s G
T
H
p c
s T
s H
s H
s T
S
+

=
=

A system is insensitive to component/parameter changes, if functions of |S| min.
For
T
G
p
S
min large gain in G
c
G
p
H. For
T
H
S
min small gain in G
c
G
p
H.
A system cannot be insensitive to both the plant and the sensor variations.

System Closed-Loop Transfer Function:

) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
s H s G s G
s G s G
s T
p c
p c
+
=

Note:
| |
2
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
s H s G s G
s G
s G
s T
p c
c
p +
=

| |
2
2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
) (
s H s G s G
s G s G
s H
s T
p c
p c
+

means
when
H T
L7 Page 7 of 18


Example 7-3: (Sensitivity)
A closed-loop control system is given
The plant gain K has a nominal value of 5.
The sensor gain K
H
has a nominal value of 0.05.
The controller gain K
c
can be tuned.
The gains K and K
H
potentially vary with time.
The goal is to design K
c
such that the system may
become insensitive to both K and K
H
variations.
The system closed-loop transfer function is:
H c
c
H
s
K
c
s
K
c
p c
p c
KK K s
K K
K K
K
s H s G s G
s G s G
s T
+ +
=
+
=
+
=
+
+
1 . 0 1 ) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
1 . 0
1 . 0
Assuming sensor gain K
H
unchanged (0.05), find K
c
such that the sensitivity of T(s) to plant gain K min:
K K s
K K
s T
c
c
K
H
05 . 0 1 . 0
) (
05 . 0
+ +
=
=

( )
( )
1 . 0
05 . 0
05 . 0 1 . 0
2
1
1
05 . 0 1 . 0
1 . 0
05 . 0 1 . 0
1 . 0
) (
) (
+ + +
+
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
= =
s
K K
c
K K s
K K
c
c T
K
c
c
c
K K s
s K
K K s
K s
s T
K
dK
s dT
S

It can be seen that, for
T
K
S
min, we would require K
c
as much as possible.
Assuming plant gain K unchanged (5), find K
c
such that the sensitivity of T(s) to sensor gain K
H
min:
H c
c
K
K K s
K
s T
5 1 . 0
5
) (
5
+ +
=
=

( )
( )
H c
H c
c
H
K K
s
H c
H c
K K s
K
H
H c
c c H
H
T
K
K K s
K K K
K K s
K K
s T
K
dK
s dT
S
5
1 . 0
5 1 . 0
5 2
1
1
5 1 . 0
5
5 1 . 0
5 5
) (
) (
+
+ +
+

=
+ +
=
+ +
= =

It can be seen that, for
T
K
H
S
min, we would require K
c
as much as possible.
Conclusion:
The system cannot be insensitive to both the plant gain K and the sensor gain K
H
variations.
Solution: Choose a high quality sensor so that K
H
is robust. Then select K
c
to make
T
K
S
min.
) (s G
p
1 . 0 + s
K
) (s G
c
c
K
) (s H
H
K
) (s R
) (s C
means
when
KH T(s)
L7 Page 8 of 18


Example 7-4: (Sensitivity)
A very simplified model of a Mars rover vehicle is given as:
) 3 )( 1 (
1
) (
+ +
=
s s
s G
p

The system may be operated without or with feedback:

Controller Loop - Open
2
5 4
) 3 )( 1 (
) (
+ +
+ +
=
s s
s s K
s G
co

Controller Loop - Closed
) ( K s G
cc
=

Assuming T
d
(s) =0, the system transfer functions are:

T.F. System Control Loop - Open
2

5 4
) (
+ +
=
s s
K
s T
o

T.F. System Control Loop - Closed
2
) 3 )( 1 (
) 3 )( 1 (
3 4 1
) (
K s s
K
s T
s s
K
s s
K
c
+ + +
=
+
=
+ +
+ +
At the nominal value of K =2, T
o
(s) =T
c
(s) =2/(s
2
+4s+5).
Compare the sensitivities of the O.L. and C.L. systems to gain K:
1
5 4
1
) (
) (
5 4
2
2
=
+ +
= =
+ + s s
K
o
o T
K
K
s s s T
K
dK
s dT
S
o

K s s
s s K
K s s
s s
s T
K
dK
s dT
S
K s s
K
c
c T
K
c
+ + +
+ +
=
(
+ + +
+ +
= =
+ + +
3 4
3 4
) 3 4 (
3 4
) (
) (
2
2
3 4
2 2
2
2

Examine the effect of the closed-loop system sensitivity at K =2:

4 ) 5 (
4 ) 3 (
3 4
3 4
2
2
2
2
2
2 j
j
K s s
s s
S
K
j s K
j s
T
K
c
+
+
=
+ + +
+ +
=
=
= =
=

2 2 2
2 2 2
16 ) 5 (
16 ) 3 (

+
+
=
c
T
K
S

For K =2, the closed-loop system sensitivity at low frequency
range [ <0.1] is 0.6, 40% less than that of the open-loop system.

C
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

N
A
S
A
Controller gain K may
vary with the unknown
environmental changes.
Open-Loop:
100% sensitive.
Independent of K.
Closed-Loop:
Function of K.
Can when K.
Identical
Systems
L7 Page 9 of 18


4. Disturbance Rejection Capability
Physical systems are often subject to the invasion of unwanted inputs.
These unwanted inputs are called disturbances which have the potential to significantly divert the system
from following its desired trajectories (or working conditions).
If we knew the exact location of a disturbance and we could measure the disturbance accurately, we might
be able to kill it before it starts to affect the physical system.
In reality, however, most of the disturbances come from the
environment they change unpredictably, cant be killed from
their sources, and are hard to be measured accurately.
Question: How can we keep the system behaviour unchanged, when
the system is subject to disturbances?
Consider a system T(s) that is subject to disturbance D(s) injected
into the system via path G
d
(s)
o The original system closed-loop transfer functions and output are:

0 ) ( When
Only ) ( to Due Only ) ( to Due
0 ) (
Only
) (
to Due
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
=
=
+
= =
s D
s R
p c
p c
s R
s D
s R
R
s H s G s G
s G s G
s R
s C
s T

0 ) ( When
0 ) (
Only
) (
to Due
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
) (
=
=
+
= =
s R
s D
p c
d
s D
s R
s D
D
s H s G s G
s G
s D
s C
s T

0 ) ( When
Only ) ( to Due
0 ) ( When
Only ) ( to Due
Only
) (
to Due
Only
) (
to Due
Only
) (
to Due
Only
) (
to Due
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
= =
+
+
+
= + = + =
s R
s D
p c
d
s D
s R
p c
p c
s D
D
s R
R
s D
D
s R
R
s D
s H s G s G
s G
s R
s H s G s G
s G s G
s D s T s R s T s C s C s C

o To achieve C
D
(s) =0 (or T
D
(s) =0), we would need:
+ Reduce the gain of G
d
(s) to 0 for all s This is hard to achieve as G
d
(s) is a part of the given system.
+ Increase the loop gain G
c
(s)G
p
(s)H(s) to for all s by choosing proper controller G
c
(s) This could
only be partially achieved within certain bandwidth, as |G
c
(j)| cannot for all .
Unwanted component T
D
(s) is
caused by disturbance D(s).
To keep the system behaviour
unchanged, we need T
D
(s) = 0.
Unwanted component C
D
(s) is
caused by disturbance D(s).
To keep the system behaviour
unchanged, we need C
D
(s) = 0.
L7 Page 10 of 18


Question: Can we completely cancel out the effect of the
disturbance on the system behaviour?
Feedforward Compensation Disturbance Rejection:
o This scheme may require some kind of sensing or measuring
or estimating of the disturbance D(s) via different means.
o Idea: Allow the same disturbance D(s) to enter the system
via a designed path [G
cd
(s)], so that collectively the effect
caused by D(s) can be completely rejected.
o The block G
cd
(s) is called a feedforward compensator.

o The compensated system closed-loop transfer functions and output are:

0 ) ( When
0 ) (
Only
) (
to Due
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
=
=
+
= =
s D
s R
p c
p c
s R
s D
s R
R
s H s G s G
s G s G
s R
s C
s T

0 ) ( When
0 ) (
Only
) (
to Due
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
) (
=
=
(
(
+
+
= =
s R
s D
p c
p c cd
p c
d
s D
s R
s D
D
s H s G s G
s G s G s G
s H s G s G
s G
s D
s C
s T

0 ) ( When
Only ) ( to Due
0 ) ( When
Only ) ( to Due
Only
) (
to Due
Only
) (
to Due
Only
) (
to Due
Only
) (
to Due
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
= =
(
(
+
+
+
+
= + = + =
s R
s D
p c
p c cd
p c
d
s D
s R
p c
p c
s D
D
s R
R
s D
D
s R
R
s D
s H s G s G
s G s G s G
s H s G s G
s G
s R
s H s G s G
s G s G
s D s T s R s T s C s C s C

o To reject the effect of D(s) completely, we require:
only ) ( ) ( s C s C
R
0 ) ( s C
D

0
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 1
) (
=
+
+
+ s H s G s G
s G s G s G
s H s G s G
s G
p c
p c cd
p c
d
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( = s G s G s G s G
p c cd d

o Hence, the feedforward compensator G
cd
(s) is found to be:
) ( ) (
) (
) (
s G s G
s G
s G
p c
d
cd
=

The 2
nd
-term
(- signed) is
created by
compensator
G
cd
(s).
L7 Page 11 of 18


Example 7-5: (Disturbance Rejection)
Design a feedforward compensator for the given control
system to completely reject the disturbance D(s)
The original system C.L. transfer function with R(s) only is:
7
6
6 1
6
) (
1
1
1
1
0 ) (
+
=
+
=
+
+
=
s
s T
s
s
s D
R

The original system C.L. transfer function with D(s) only is:
7 6 1
1
2
1
) (
2
1
1
1 0 ) (
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
+
=
s s
s T
s
s
s
s R
D

Before Feedforward Compensation The original system
output with both R(s) and D(s) applied is:
) (
7
) (
7
6
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
s D
s
s R
s
s D s T s R s T s C
s
s
D R
+
+
+
= + =
+
+

After Feedforward Compensation The compensated system
output with both R(s) and D(s) applied is:
) (
7
6 ) (
7
) (
7
6
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
s D
s
s G
s
s R
s
s D s T s R s T s C
cd s
s
D R (
+
+
+
= + =
+
+

For complete disturbance rejection, we require:
0
7
) ( 6
7
2
1
=
(
+
+
+
s
s G
s
cd s
s

) ( 6
2
1
s G
s
s
cd
=
+
+

) 2 ( 6
1
) (
+
+
=
s
s
s G
cd

The simulation results are shown . It can be seen that before
compensation, c(t) is diverted by the disturbance. After
compensation, the trajectory of c(t) is accurately corrected.

TD(s) should have the
same denominator as
that of TR(s).
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Unit-Step Response

c(t) - Dueto Input Only
c(t) - Dueto Input and Disturbance
BeforeFeedforward Compensation
c(t) - Dueto Input and Disturbance
After Feedforward Compensation
r(t) - Unit Step Input
d(t) - Unit Step Input
L7 Page 12 of 18

5. Steady-State Accuracy
The goal of a control system is to achieve Actual System Output =Desired System Output.
The desired-level of system output is represented by the System Input Set Point.
The control system is aimed to follow the desired trajectory specified in the Set Point.
Whether or not the actual output of the control system can, after a certain period of transition, eventually
follow the desired trajectory precisely is the measure of the system steady-state accuracy.
Unity Feedback vs. Non-Unity Feedback:
A non-unity feedback system can be converted into a unity feedback system via block diagram transformation:
Non-Unity Feedback:

+ Input r(t) has different unit as Output c(t).
+ Error a(t) =r(t) H
k
c(t).
+ System Transfer Function:
k p c
p c
H s G s G
s G s G
s T
) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
+
=

Unity Feedback:

+ Input r
u
(t) has the same unit as Output c(t).
+ Error e(t) =r
u
(t) c(t)
+ System Transfer Function:
k p c
p c
k p c
k p c
k
H s G s G
s G s G
H s G s G
H s G s G
H
s T
) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( 1
) ( ) (
1
) (
+
=
+
=
[Unchanged]

This part is a
perfect unity-
feedback
system
L7 Page 13 of 18

Definition of System Error:
System Error =Desired Output Actual Output e(t) =c
d
(t) c(t)
o For Unity Feedback System: r(t) =c
d
(t). Hence, e(t) =r(t) c(t).
o For Non-Unity Feedback System: r(t) c
d
(t). The system needs to be transferred into an equivalent
Unity Feedback system where r
u
(t) can be exposed. Then, r
u
(t) =c
d
(t). Hence, e(t) =r
u
(t) c(t).
Definition of System Type:
o The Open Loop Transfer function of a typical
feedback control system can be expressed as:
) (
) (
) ( ) (
s D s
s N
s H s G
N
=

where:
. 0 at roots no have ) ( and ) ( s polynomial both
0 ) 0 (
0 ) 0 (
=
)
`
s s D s N
D
N

o System Type The number of free integrators, N, in
the open loop transfer function is
defined as System Type.
+ When N =0, the system is called a Type 0 System.
o System Type is not the same as System Order. The
former describes how many free integrators the open
loop transfer function has, whereas the latter refers to
the order of the system dynamics.

Example 7-6: (System Type)
Given a system open-loop transfer function:
) (
) (
) 4 (
) 1 (
4
1
) ( ) (
2 2
2
2 3 4
2
s D s
s N
s s s
s s
s s s
s s
s H s G
N
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=

System Type: N =2 Type 2 System.
System Order: n =4 4
th
-order system.
Given a system open-loop transfer function:
) (
) (
18 11 7 2
5
) ( ) (
3 5
2
s D s
s N
s s s
s
s H s G
N
=
+ + +
+
=

System Type: N =0 Type 0 System.
System Order: n =5 5
th
-order system.
R(s) C(s)
+
G(s)
H(s)
L7 Page 14 of 18


Definition of Steady-State Accuracy:
o The system steady-state accuracy is measured by the Steady-State System Error e
ss
, i.e.,
) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim
0 0
s sE e t e e
s t
ss

= = =
o Unity Feedback Systems:
[For non-unity feedback systems, convert them to unity feedback first.]
+ Open Loop Transfer Function
) (
) (
) (
s D S
s N
s G
N
=
+ System Error: ) (
) ( 1
1
) (
) ( 1
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( s R
s G
s R
s G
s G
s R s C s R s E
+
=
+
= =
+ Steady-State Accuracy:
) (
) (
) (
1
1
lim ) (
) ( 1
1
lim ) ( lim
0 0 0
s R
s D s
s N
s s R
s G
s s sE e
N
s s s
ss
+
=
+
= =

+ Since: 0
) 0 (
) 0 (

D
N
, we can assume that: 0 alue) constant v a (
) (
) (
lim
Assume
0
=
K
s D
s N
s

+ We then have:
) (
1
1
lim ) (
) (
) (
1
1
lim
0 0
s R
s
K
s s R
s D s
s N
s e
N
s
N
s
ss
+
=
+
=

+ It can be seen that:
. different in result and ) ( Different
Type System
) ( Input System
factors on two depends
ss ss
e N s R
N
s R
e
)
`

L7 Page 15 of 18


Analysis of System Steady-State Accuracy:
) (
1
1
lim ) (
) (
) (
1
1
lim
0 0
s R
s
K
s s R
s D s
s N
s e
N
s
N
s
ss
+
=
+
=

o Unit-Step Input: 1 ) ( = t r
s
s R
1
) ( =
>
=
=
=
+
=
+
=
+

Types) (Higher 1 when 0
System) 1 (Type 1 when 0
1
1
lim
1
1
1
lim
1
1
0 0
N
N
N
s
K
s
s
K
s e
K
N
s
N
s
ss

o Unit-Ramp Input: t t r = ) (
2
1
) (
s
s R =
>
=
=
=
=
+
=
+
=

Types) (Higher 2 hen w 0
System) 2 (Type 2 hen w 0
System) 0 (Type 0 en wh
lim
1
lim
1
1
1
lim
1 1
0
1
0
2
0
N
N
N
N
K
s
s
K
s
s
s
K
s e
K
N
s
N
s
N
s
ss

o Remarks:
+ Steady-State Accuracy e
ss
does not exist for unstable systems.
+ Increasing the System Type to more than 1 (by adding free integrators in the open loop transfer
function of the system) may cause the system to become unstable.

For unit-step input, if
it is required that
e
ss
=0, then the system
must have one free
integrator in its open
loop transfer function.
For unit-ramp input, if
it is required that
e
ss
=0, then the system
must have two free
integrators in its open
loop transfer function.
L7 Page 16 of 18


Example 7-6: (Steady-State Accuracy)
Consider two unity-feedback systems with their respective System Type being 0 and 1.

Unit-Step Input:
667 . 0
1 ) 2 (
2
lim
1
2
1
1
1
lim ) ( lim
0 0
1
0
1
=
+ +
+
=
+
+
= =
s
s
s
s
s s sE e
s s s
ss
0
1 ) 2 (
) 2 (
lim
1
) 2 (
1
1
1
lim ) ( lim
0 0
2
0
2
=
+ +
+
=
+
+
= =
s s
s s
s
s s
s s sE e
s s s
ss

Unit-Ramp Input:
=
+ +
+
=
+
+
= =
] 1 ) 2 [(
2
lim
1
2
1
1
1
lim ) ( lim
0
2
0
1
0
1
s s
s
s
s
s s sE e
s s s
ss
2
] 1 ) 2 ( [
) 2 (
lim
1
) 2 (
1
1
1
lim ) ( lim
0
2
0
2
0
2
=
+ +
+
=
+
+
= =
s s s
s s
s
s s
s s sE e
s s s
ss

Type 1 System Type 0 System
Add One Free
Integrator

Increase System
Type by 1
) 2 (
1
) (
2
+
=
s s
s G
R(s) E
2
(s) C(s)
+
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Unit-Ramp Response

c(t) - Type0 System
c(t) - Type1 System
r(t) - Unit Ramp
e
1ss
=
e
2ss
= 2
2
1
) (
1
+
=
s
s G
R(s) E
1
(s) C(s)
+
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Unit-Step Response

c(t) - Type0 System
c(t) - Type1 System
r(t) - Unit Step
e
1ss
= 0.667
e
2ss
= 0
L7 Page 17 of 18


Reading Assignment for Lecture 7:

1. Phillips, C.L. and Parr, J .M., <<Feedback Control Systems>>, Pearson
Section 5.1: Closed-loop Control System
Section 5.2: Stability
Section 5.3: Sensitivity
Section 5.4: Disturbance Rejection
Section 5.5: Steady-State Accuracy

2. Kuo, B.C., <<Automatic Control Systems>>, Prentice Hall
Section 6.1: Introduction
Section 6.2: Bounded-Input Bounded-Output Stability: Continuous-Data Systems

L7 Page 18 of 18

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