LESSON 1: Robots designed by control

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS system principles can compensate for

Control systems are an integral
part of modern society. Numerous
applications are all around us: The rockets
fire, and the space shuttle lifts off to earth
orbit; in splashing cooling water, a
metallic part is automatically machined; a
self-guided vehicle delivering material to
workstations in an aerospace assembly
plant glides along the floor seeking its
destination. These are just a few
examples of the automatically controlled
systems that we can create.
human disabilities. Control systems are
also useful in remote or dangerous
locations. For example, a remote-
controlled robot arm can be used to pick
up material in a radioactive environment.
Control systems can also be
used to provide convenience by changing
the form of the input. For example, in a
temperature control system, the input is
a position on a thermostat. The output is
heat. Thus, a convenient position input
yields a desired thermal output.

We are not the only creators of

automatically controlled systems; these
systems also exist in nature. Within our
own bodies are numerous control
systems, such as the pancreas, which
regulates our blood sugar. In time of
‘‘fight or flight,’’ our adrenaline increases
along with our heart rate, causing more
oxygen to be delivered to our cells. Our
eyes follow a moving object to keep it in
view; our hands grasp the object and
place it precisely at a predetermined
location.

We build control systems for four

primary reasons:
1. Power amplification
2. Remote control
3. Convenience of input form
Another advantage of a control
4. Compensation for disturbances
system is the ability to compensate for
disturbances. Typically, we control such
A radar antenna, positioned by
variables as temperature thermal
the low-power rotation of a knob at the
systems, position and velocity in
input, requires a large amount of power
mechanical systems, and voltage, current,
for its output rotation. A control system
or frequency in electrical systems. The
can produce the needed power
system must be able to yield the correct
amplification, or power gain.
output even with a disturbance.

CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS:
1. Linear and nonlinear system
2. Time invariant and time varying
system
3. Continuous time and discrete time
system
4. Dynamic and static systems
5. Deterministic and stochastic system
6. Causal and non-causal system
• Linear and non-linear system
A system is known as linear if
and only if it possesses both homogeneity
and superposition properties.
Superposition implies that if an input r1
gives an output of c1 and another input r2
gives an output of c2 and if the two input
are applied together will give the sum of
the two inputs.
A system is said to be non-linear
if it does not satisfy the superposition and
homogeneity. Common non-linearities
are friction, transistor, saturation, op-
amps, magnetic circuits.
How to determine if the system is linear
or non-linear
Determine the output at 𝑥1 (𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑡)
Determine the output at 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 𝑦2 (𝑡)
Determine the output at 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑡) +
𝑦2 (𝑡)
Determine the output if 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑥2 (𝑡) =
𝑦 ′′ (𝑡)
If 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) the system is linear
otherwise it is non-linear
Consider the system below
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 10𝑥(𝑡) + 5
𝑦(𝑡) = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝑡𝑥(𝑡)
• Causal and non-causal
If the output depends on the
past and present output, therefore it is
independent of the future values, it is
causal. If it depends on the past, present
and future output or present and future
or past and future, it is non-causal. If the
system depends only on the future, it is
called anti-causal system
Consider the system
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 2𝑥(3 − 𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(2𝑡)
• Time invariant and time varying
system
If the output does not vary in
time, it is called time invariant and if the
output varies with time it is known as time
varying system. For example, the
parameters of a circuit R, L and C does not
vary with the variation of time. The
current, distance, voltage varies with time
therefore they are called time varying
variables. If you have systems that is a
function of time, it is called time varying
system.
Tell whether the following if time variant
or time invariant system
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 10) + 𝑥2 (𝑡)
• Continuous time and discrete time
system
If a function is defined for every
instant of time the values are changing at
any instant, it is called continuous time. If
the system is defined at only specified
instant of time, it is called discrete time
system
• Dynamic (with memory) and static
(memoryless) system
Static system depends only on
the present values of i/p while dynamic
system depends on the previous and the
future i/p values
1. 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
2. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
• Deterministic and stochastic system
In stochastic system for a given
input, the output is uncertain, only
probability can be predicted. In
deterministic system, the output could be
exactly determined for a given input.
Other type of system:
• SISO
• SIMO
• MISO
• MIMO
What is a Control System?
It is an arrangement of several
elements that performs particular task.
These elements are connected in proper
sequence and facilitates signal to flow.
Types and Basic Components
1. Open Loop Control Systems
It has no feedback elements.
Hence the control action is
independent of the output. Its basic
elements are the controller and the
controlled process. The controller
may be an amplifier, filter circuits,
etc.
The input (r) is applied to the
controller where some control
actions are performed and a signal is
obtained from the controller. The
controller is connected to a
controlled process which is
regulating the system. Signal
obtained from the controller is fed to
the controlled process which further
process the signal and gives the
desired output (c). The direction of
the signal is uni-directional.
Examples:
1. Washing machine (the timer is set
without knowing the desired
cleanliness of the cloths)
2. Armature control of a DC machines
(the rotation of the armature is not
sensed)
3. Immersion rod (does not sense the
increase of heat)
4. Traffic lights (the three lights are
time fixed)
Advantages:
1. They are simple
2. They are economical
3. Maintenance is cheap and easy
4. Proper calibration is not a problem
Disadvantages:
1. They are inaccurate
2. They are not reliable and slow
3. Optimization is not possible.
2. Closed Loop Control Systems
It is also known as feedback
control systems. The control action is
dependent on the desired output. The
output is compared with the reference
input and therefore an error signal is
produced. The error signal is fed to the
controller to reduce the error and the
desired output is obtained.
Terminologies:
1. PLANT
A physical object to be
controlled. The plant G2(s), is the
controlled system, of which a particular
quantity or condition is to be controlled.
2. FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM or
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
A system which compares
output to some reference input and keeps
output as close as possible to this
reference
3. OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
Output of the system is not feed
back to the input.
4. CONTROL ELEMENTS G1(s)
also called controller, are the
components required to generate the
appropriate control signal M(s) applied to
the plant
5. FEEDBACK ELEMENTS H(s)
The component required to
establish the functional relationship
between the primary feedback signal B(s)
and the controlled output C(s).
6. REFERENCE INPUT R(s)
An external signal applied to the
feedback control system in order to
command a specified action of the plant.
7. CONTROLLED OUTPUT C(s)
The quantity or condition of the
plant which is controlled.
8. PRIMARY FEEDBACK SIGNAL B(s)
A signal which is a function of
the controlled output C(s), and which is
algebraically summed with the reference
input R(s) to obtain the actuating signal
E(s).
9. ACTUATING SIGNAL E(s)
also called error or control
action, is the algebraic sum of the
reference input R(s) plus or minus (usually
minus) the primary feedback B(s).
10. MANIPULATED VARIABLE M(s)
control signal is that quantity or
condition which the control elements
G1(s) apply to the plant G2(s).
11. DISTURBANCE U(s)
An undesired input signal which
affects the value of the controlled output
C(s). It may enter the plant by summation
with M(s) or via an intermediate point.
12. FORWARD PATH
The transmission path from the
actuating signal E(s) to the controlled
output C(s).
13. FEEDBACK PATH
Typical Applications
The transmission path from the
Ecological:
controlled output C(s) to the primary
control of plant chemical waste, air and
feedback B(s).
water pollution abatement, flood control
14. SUMMING POINT
via dams
A circle with a cross that
Medical: artificial limbs
indicates a summing point. The (+) or (-)
Home: home heating refrigeration and
sign at each arrowhead indicates whether
air- conditioning
that signal is to be added or subtracted.
Appliances: humidity controller,
15. BRANCH POINT
temperature control of ovens
A point from which the signal
Power and energy: solar panel, oil
from a block goes concurrently to the
recovery
other blocks or summing point.
Transportation: traffic flow, speed
control, elevators and escalators
Examples:
Manufacturing: sensor equip robots for
1. Air-conditioner
cuttings and drilling, chemical process
2. Clothes dryer
control, torsion control for textile mills,
3. Water Level controller
conveyor speed
4. Missile launch
Aerospace and military: missile guidance
5. Space telescopes with pointing
control, automatic piloting, navigation,
accuracy of 10-6degrees
tracking system
6. Airplane Autopilot
Advantages:
1. They are more reliable and faster
2. A number of variables can be
handled simultaneously
3. Optimization is possible
4. Output can be maintained at desired
level
Disadvantages:
1. Complex in construction
2. Expensive
3. Maintenance is difficult
4. Unstable under certain conditions
TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS
Transducer - It is a device that transform
one form of energy into another. It can
change quantities such as heat, light,
motion, etc., into a form of electrical
energy.
Sensors – It converts the physical quantity
to a signal that can be recognized by other
components such as display, transmitter
and etc.

Sensor Types
Temperature: Thermocouple, RTD,
Thermistor
Pressure: bellows, bourdon tube,
diaphragm
Flow Rate: orifice, venture, magnetic,
ultrasonic, coriolis effect
Liquid Level: float, differential pressure
pH: pH electrode
Viscosity: pressure drop across venture or
vane deflection
Composition: density, conductivity, GC,
IR, NIR, UV
Position Sensing
The potentiometer as a sensor has the
following advantages:
1. It is inexpensive
2. It can provide a high output
voltage
Disadvantages are:
1. They become noisy with age
2. It wears out.
3. Friction loads the mechanical
system
4. The slider will bounce with fast
motion

The potentiometer is the most

common electrical transducer. It consists
of resistive elements and a movable
contact that can be positioned along
with the length of the element. This
movable contact is called by various
names including tap, wiper and slider.
 A linear variable differential
transformer gives an AC output voltage signal
which is proportional to a physical
displacement. It is an electromechanical sensor
that converts rectilinear motion of an object to
which it is mechanically coupled into a
corresponding electrical signal

When the LVDT core is perfectly centered, the

output voltage equals to zero.

When the LVDT core moves up, the output

voltage is in phase with the input voltage.

When the LVDT core moves down, the output

voltage is out of phase with the input voltage.

• Velocity Sensor
The presiding figure shows a typical
velocity measuring transducer used for
determining linear velocity. It can also be used
for rotational velocity when used with the
proper mechanical rotary to linear motion
conversion technique.
The sensor uses a photocell device
that detects the passage of light and dark
spaced marks on a rotating
disk.
The photocell in turn produces
either a voltage or no voltage signal depending
on the light level that it senses
and sends this pulsating voltage level to a signal
conditioning circuit. The circuit then converts
the frequency of the pulses into a
proportionally varying DC voltage level. Whose
magnitude represents the velocity amount.
• Pressure Sensor
The most commonly used method
for sensing pressure is thru the usage of strain
gages. The principle of operation rests in the
fact that if one wire is stretch its DC resistance
would also increase proportionally to the
applied stress. Very small changes in wire’s
resistance can be detected by arranging the
wire in a wheat stone bridge.
A voltage source, V, supplies voltage
to the bridge. By design, R3 is unstressed
meaning no pressure is present on the
transducer’s pressure diaphragm. The
opposing current flowing thru the bridge’s
central leg are equal and are therefore,
nullified. Consequently, no current at all flows
under this condition. However, as soon as
pressure occurs at the transducer’s diaphragm,
R3 becomes stressed. Thereby upsetting the
balanced condition of the bridge and causing
current to flow thru the indicator in the bridge
central leg.
The amount of current will be
proportional to the amount of pressure being
applied. This resulting imbalance of current is
then transmitted thru a signal conditioning
circuit that converts the current into a designed
signal form.
Another different approach to
industrial pressure measurement is the use of
Bourdon tubes and bellows. These devices
detect the measured pressure and convert it
into a mechanical movement. The mechanical
movement is then transduced into an electrical
signal by either a potentiometer or an LVDT.
• Flowrate Sensor
The flowrate sensor uses hot wire
anemometer which has a sensing gases. In this
process, a heated wire is allowed to be cooled
by the flowing gas. The amount of cooling is
determined by the amount of decrease in wire
electrical resistance. Once this change in
resistance is known, this can be correlated to
the flowrate of the gas flowing past the sensor
itself. Its purpose is to regulate the flow of gas
in the system.
• Electromagnetic Sensor
Electromagnetic sensing covers
very large range of sensor types. This is due to
the very broad nature of the electromagnetic
spectrum. In control system, electromagnetic
sensing is usually limited to the radio
communication frequencies. Basically, a radio
frequency sensing device or RF sensing is
nothing more than a radio receiver that has
been designed to tune to a desired range of
radio frequency.
• Light Sensor
They are photoelectric devices that
converts light energy “photons” whether
visible or infrared light into an electrical signal.
The two main categories are:
1. Photovoltaic or photoemissive
Generate electricity when illuminated
2. Photo-resistors or photo-conductors
Change the electrical properties when
illuminated.
TYPES OF LIGHT SENSORS
Photosensors are used in a great variety of
electronic devices, circuits, and systems,
including:
o fiber optic systems
o optical scanners
o wireless LAN
o automatic lighting controls
o machine vision systems
o electric eyes
o optical disk drives
o optical memory chip
o remote control devices
• Temperature Sensor
A commonly used temperature
sensing device is the thermocouple. The device
depends on the phenomenon called Seebeck
Effect. Two dissimilar wires are heated to their
ends where they are physically connected
through twisting or welding. This produce and
EMF at the wire’s opposite ends. The EMF is
proportional to the amount of heat being
applied to the junction. Since the generated
voltage is very small, it can be amplified to a
larger value and can represent either DC or AC
voltage.
Controllers
A combination of components
which utilizes the error signal to determine the
flow of power to the final correcting devices
which is usually a motor.
Types of Controllers
a. on-off controllers
This final correcting device has only
two positions or operating states. The
controlled variable oscillates about the desired
setting. The simplest kind of on-off control
mechanism is an electromagnetic relay, whose
contacts are either open or closed, depending
on the signal received from the sensor. On-off
controllers are widely used in cases where the
operation of equipment requires some control
within given limits but does not require a high
accuracy of control (for example, the control of
electric furnaces, refrigerators, or steam
heating and water heating).
When the coil of the solenoid is deenergized
that is no current flowing, fuel is supplied to the
burner since the valve is open as shown.
Temperature rises until the level reaches point
A producing a closed circuit thereby energizing
the coil. Due to this, the switch moves
downward and also the valve closes. Fuel is
therefore cut- off. The process temperature
will stop increasing and will eventually go down
until it reaches point B. Solenoid is still
energized at this point. When the level goes
below point B, coil is deenergized and the fuel
is again admitted. Process temperature will
therefore swing back and forth between TA
and TB
b. PID controller
P – proportional – it produces a signal which is
proportional to the error, it increases the error
by a constant value.
I – Integral – it helps in the elimination or
reduction of steady state errors and it degrades
stability.
D- Derivative – it increases the speed of
response and improves stability.
There are three basic modes on
which the whole control action takes place and
these modes are written below. We will use the
combination of these modes in order to have a
desired and accurate output.
a. Proportional controllers
b. Integral controllers
c. Derivative controllers
Combinations of these three controllers are
written below:

Proportional and integral controllers.

Proportional and derivative controllers.

In proportional controller, output is

directly proportional to error signal, writing
this mathematically we have,

𝑢∞𝑒
then 𝑢 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒

Where, 𝐾𝑝 is proportional constant also known

as controller gain.

It is recommended that 𝐾𝑝 should be kept

greater than unity. If the value of 𝐾𝑝 is greater
than unity, then it will amplify the error signal
(actuating signal) and thus the amplified error
signal can be detected easily.

Integral Controllers (reset controller)

As the name suggests in integral
controllers the output (also called the actuating
signal) is directly proportional to the integral of
the error signal. An integral controller output is
directly proportional to the integration of the
error signal,
𝑢 ∞ ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡

𝑢 = 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡

In derivative controller, the output

(also called the actuating signal) is directly
proportional to the derivative of the error
signal. Now let us analyze derivative controller
mathematically.
A derivative controller output is directly
proportional to the derivative of the error
signal,

𝑑𝑒
𝑢∞
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑒
𝑢 = 𝐾𝐷
𝑑𝑡
LESSON 2: LAPLACE TRANSFORMS Laplace Transform Pairs
𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠)
System Linearization
𝛿(𝑡) 1
The complex function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) can be
linearized at the given points using the 1
𝑢(𝑡)
linear equation 𝑠
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) 𝑡
1
𝛿𝑓 𝑠2
+ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ ) 𝑛!
𝛿𝑥 𝑡𝑛
𝛿𝑓 𝑠 𝑛+1
+ (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ ) 1
𝛿𝑦 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑠−𝑎
𝛿𝑓
+ (𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ ) 1
𝛿𝑧 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎
at point
𝜔
𝑝 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 sin (𝜔𝑡)
𝑠 2 + 𝜔2
𝑠
Example: Linearize the given functions cos (𝜔𝑡)
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) 𝑠 2 + 𝜔2
𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 =
2 Other Laplace Transform Pairs
2. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
5𝑦 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎)
𝑠
𝑎𝑡 (2, −1)
𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
3. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 + 𝑥𝑧
𝜔
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝜔𝑡)
𝑎𝑡 (2, −1,2) 𝑠 2 − 𝜔2
𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝜔𝑡)
Laplace Transforms 𝑠 2 − 𝜔2
The Laplace transforms of the function 𝑠(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) + 𝜔(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑓(𝑡) is given as 𝑠 2 + 𝜔2
𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) − 𝜔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑠 2 + 𝜔2
𝑳[𝒇(𝒕)] = 𝑭(𝒔) = ∫ 𝒇(𝒕)𝒆−𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟎

Where:
𝒔 = 𝜹 + 𝒋𝝎 (Complex frequency variables
with unit sec-1)
𝒆−𝒔𝒕 = laplace factor that approaches to
zero as 𝑡 approaches to infinity.
𝑭(𝒔) = the Laplaced function
𝑳[𝒇(𝒕)] = the symbol for Laplace
Laplace Theorems Trigonometric Product Identities
1. Addition/Subtraction 1
1. sin(𝑥) cos(𝑦) = [sin(𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝐿[𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡)] = 𝐹1 (𝑠) + 𝐹2 (𝑠) 2
+ sin(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2. Scalar multiplication
𝐿[𝑘𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑘𝐹(𝑠) 1
2. cos(𝑥) sin(𝑦) = [sin(𝑥 + 𝑦)
3. Translation in time 2
𝐿[𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) − sin(𝑥 − 𝑦)]

1
3. cos(𝑥) cos(𝑦) = [cos(𝑥 − 𝑦)
4. Translation in s-domain 2
+ cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎)
5. Real Differentiation 1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 4. sin(𝑥) sin(𝑦) = [cos(𝑥 − 𝑦)
𝐿[𝐷 𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑓(0) 2
− 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝐷𝑓(0) − cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]
− 𝑠 𝑛−3 𝐷2 𝑓(0)
−⋯
6. Real Integration
𝐹(𝑠) 𝐷 −1 𝑓(0)
𝐿[𝐷 −𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)] = + +⋯
𝑠𝑛 𝑠𝑛
𝐷 −𝑛 𝑓(0)
+
𝑠

7. Complex Differentiation
(−1)𝑛 𝑑𝐹(𝑠)
𝐿[𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)] =
𝑑𝑠
8. Complex Integration
∞
𝑓(𝑡)
𝐿[ ] = ∫ 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠

9. Initial value theorem

lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) = lim 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑠→∞ 𝑡→0

10. Final value theorem

lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) = lim 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑠→0 𝑡→∞
LESSON3: SYSTEM MODELING 2. Mechanical System
1. Electrical System a. Mechanical Translational System
a. Resistor
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 𝑖𝑅

𝑉𝑟 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑖= =
𝑅 𝑅

b. Inductor
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 𝐿 = 𝐿𝐷𝑖
𝑑𝑡 • Damping or Viscous friction (it
occurs whenever a body moves
1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑖𝐿 = ∫ 𝑉𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = through a fluid, which may be a
𝐿 𝐿𝐷
liquid or a gas.)
c. Capacitor
𝑞 1 𝑖
𝑉𝐶 = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 =
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶𝐷

𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝑑𝑡

EXAMPLE NO. 6 • Elastance or Stiffness (it

1. Determine the mesh and nodal provides a restoring force, thus if
equation of the given circuit. stretched, the spring tries to
expand and if compressed, it tries
to shorten its normal length.

Units for Translational

Metric
Sym Quantity English
Units
𝑓(𝑡) Force Newton Pounds
𝑥(𝑡) Distance Meters Feet
𝑣(𝑡) Velocity 𝑚/𝑠 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑎(𝑡) Acceleration 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
𝑀 Mass 𝐾𝑔 slugs
𝐾 Stiffness 𝑁/𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡
𝑁𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑠(𝑠)
𝐵 Damping
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
EXAMPLE NO. 7
Write the differential equation of
performance of the given system and
determine the position at t = 2 sec if M =
1kg, B = 5N-s/m and K = 6N/m

b. Rotational Mechanical System

• Inertial Mass, J

• Damper, B
 • Spring, K Force Current
Mass Capacitance
Damper Conductance
Inductive
Stiffness
Susceptance
Displacement Flux
Velocity Voltage

In the F-I analogy:

Each junction in the mechanical systems
corresponds to a node which joins
electrical excitation sources and passive
Units for Rotational System
Metric
elements analogous to the mechanical
Sym Quantity English driving sources and passive elements
Units
𝑇(𝑡) Torque 𝑁−𝑚 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 connected to the junction.
𝜃(𝑡) Angle 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Angular 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔(𝑡)
Velocity 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Mechanical-Electrical (F-V)
Angular 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑎(𝑡) Force Voltage
Acceleration 𝑠2 𝑠2
𝐽 Inertial Mass kg−𝑚2 slug−𝑓𝑡 2
Mass Inductance
𝑁𝑚 𝑙𝑏(𝑓𝑡) Capacitive
𝐾 Stiffness Stiffness
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑 Susceptance
𝑁𝑚 𝑙𝑏(𝑓𝑡) Damper Resistance
𝐵 Damping 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑 Displacement Charge
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

In the F-V analogy:

EXAMPLE NO. 8
Write the differential equation
performance of the given systems
Each junction in the mechanical system
of corresponds to a closed loop which
consists of electrical excitation sources an
passive elements analogous to the
mechanical driving sources and passive
elements connected to the junction.

Consider the mechanical system,

determine the equation of the force.

Mechanical-Electrical (F-I)
Now determine the equation of
𝑅, 𝐿 and 𝐶 in series by applying 𝐾𝑉𝐿 and
change the current 𝑖 to charge equation
𝑞 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡, the displacement is the mesh
current.

Now determine the equation of the 𝑅, 𝐿

EXAMPLE NO. 10
and 𝐶 in parallel by applying 𝐾𝐶𝐿 and
Write the differential equation of
change the voltage by magnetic flux
performance of the given system
linkage 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑡, the displacement is
the node voltage.

EXAMPLE NO. 9
Convert the mechanical system of
example no. 7 item 2 into electrical
analogy using F-I conversion.

3. Electromechanical Systems
a. Levers
Gear Train (mechanical coupling)
Let 𝑵 = no. of teeth on each gear
𝝎 = angular velocity of each gear
𝜽 = angular position
𝑻 = torque in each gear
𝒓 = radius of each gear
𝑷 = power in each gear
𝒏 = speed of driving shaft /
speed of driven shaft

𝑥 𝑦
=
𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐿1 𝑥
=
𝐿2 𝑦
The moment at point o (pivot)
𝑓1 𝐿1 = 𝑓2 𝐿2

𝐿1 𝑓2 Let 𝑟∞𝑁 (the larger the radius, the more

=
𝐿2 𝑓1 the no. of teeth)
Therefore,
𝑓2 𝐿1 𝑥 Therefore, 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑁
= =
𝑓1 𝐿2 𝑦 𝑟1 = 𝑘𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 = 𝑘𝑁2
 𝑟1 𝑟2 The actuator in the circuit is rotating at
𝑘= =
𝑁1 𝑁2 certain speed thru the amount of torque
Therefore, being applied. Find the relationship
𝑟1 𝑁1 between the torque and the displacement
=
𝑟2 𝑁2 x.
Assuming 100% efficient,
𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝑇1 𝜔1 = 𝑇2 𝜔2
Therefore,
𝑇2 𝜔1
= =𝑛
𝑇1 𝜔2

The length of the gear surface in contact

are equal.
𝑆 = 𝑟𝜃 Armature Controlled DC motor
𝑆1 = 𝑆2
𝑟1 𝜃1 = 𝑟2 𝜃2
Therefore,
𝑟2 𝜃1
=
𝑟1 𝜃2

Divide 𝜃1 ⁄𝜃2 by 𝑡 so that 𝜃⁄𝑡 = 𝜔,

combining terms

𝑇2 𝑁2 𝑟2 𝜃1 𝜔1 𝑹𝒂 = armature resistance
𝑛= = = = =
𝑇1 𝑁1 𝑟1 𝜃2 𝜔2 𝑳𝒂 = armature self-inductance caused by
armature flux
𝒊𝒂 = armature current
𝒊𝒇 = field current
𝑬 = induced EMF (back EMF)
𝑽 = applied voltage
𝑻 = torque developed by the motor
𝜽 = angular displacement of the motor
shaft
𝑱 = moment of inertia of motor shaft and
load referred to the motor
EXAMPLE NO. 11 𝑩 = coefficient of friction of motor and
load referred to the motor