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Define output.
It is the actual response obtained from a control system, which must be
maintained at a prescribed value.
Define plant.
It is the process/body/ machine, of which a particular quantity or condition is to
be controlled.
What is feedback?
The feedback is a control action, in which the output is sampled and a
proportional signal is given to input for automatic correction of any changes in desired
output.
Define - Servomechanism
It is the power amplifying feedback control system in which the controlled
variable (output) is mechanical position, or a time derivative of position such as velocity
or acceleration. Occasionally it refers to a mechanical system in which the steady state
error is zero for a constant input signal.
Define - Regulator.
It is the system, in which the output is a steady state value for a variable input
signal.
The other name for closed loop control system is feedback control system.
What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical translational system?
The model of mechanical translational system can be obtained by using three
basic elements mass spring and dashpot.
Define torque.
This is the motion about a fixed axis. In such systems, the force gets replaced by a
moment about the fixed axis. I.e. {force x distance from fixed axis} which is called
torque.
Define friction.
Whenever there is a motion, there exists a friction. Friction may be between
moving element and fixed support or between two moving surfaces. Friction is also non-
linear in nature.
Give the other names for force voltage analogy, force current analogy. The
other names for force voltage analogy and force current analogy are
Force voltage analogy- Loop analysis.
Force current analogy- nodal analysis.
What is block diagram?
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component of the system and shows the flow of signals.
What is transmittance?
The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when travels from one node
to another node in the signal flow graph.
STEP 6: Using standard transfer function of simple closed loop system, obtain the closed
loop transfer function. C(S)/R(S) of the overall system.
Unit- II
What are the standard test signals employed for time domain studies?
The standard test signals employed for time domain studies are 1. step signal,
ramp signal, parabolic signal, impulse signal.
Kp = Lt
G(S)H(S)
s 0
What is velocity error coefficient?
Steady state error of the system for a ramp input is 1/( Kv). where Kv is the
velocity error coefficient. The velocity error coefficient is given by
Kv = Lt sG(S)H(S)
s 0
What is acceleration error coefficient?
Steady state error of the system for a step input is 1/(Ka). where Ka is the
acceleration error coefficient. The acceleration error coefficient is given by
Ka = Lt s2 G(S)H(S)
s 0
How are control systems classified in accordance with the number of integrations in
the open loop transfer function?
Control systems are classified in accordance with the number of integrations in
the open-loop transfer function as
Type - 0 system.
Type – 1 system.
Type - 2 system.
Why the zeros on the real axis near the origin are generally avoided in design?
The closer the zero at the origin, the more pronounced is the peaking
phenomenon. Hence the zeros on the real axis near the origin are generally avoided in
design.
Define damping.
Every system has the tendency to oppose the oscillatory behavior of the system,
which is called damping.
What will happen to the stability of the system, if closed loop poles moves in the
left half way from imaginary axis?
As closed loop poles moves in the left half way from imaginary axis in the s-
plane, transients die out more quickly, making system more stable.
2.35.A system is critically damped. How will the system behave, if the gain of the
system is increased?
A system is critically damped means, gain is at its marginal value and system
closed loop poles are on the imaginary axis. If gain is increased beyond this marginal
value, the closed loop poles on the imaginary axis gets shifted in the right half of the s-
plane making the system unstable in nature.
Define bandwidth.
It is defined as the range of frequencies over which the system will respond
satisfactorily. It can also be defined as range of frequencies in which the magnitude
response is also flat in nature. So it is defined as range of frequencies over the magnitude
of closed loop response.
List the advantages of bode plots.
Transfer function of system can be obtained from bode plot.
Data for constructing complicated polar and nyquist plots can be easily obtained
from bode plot.
It indicates how system should be compensated to get desired response.
Relative stability of system can be studied by calculating G.M. and P.M. from
bode plot.
Write short notes on the correlation between the time and frequency response.
There exists a correlation between time and frequency response of first or second
order systems. The frequency domain specifications can be expressed in terms of the time
domain; there is a corresponding resonant peak in frequency domain. For higher order
systems there is no explicit correlation between time and frequency response. But if there
is a pair of dominant complex conjugate poles, then the system can be approximated to
second order system and the correlation between time and frequency response can be
eliminated.
For a stable system the gain cross over occurs earlier than phase cross over. Justify
your answer.
System is said to be stable when P.M. and G.M. are positive, while system is said
to be unstable when both P.M. and G.M. are negative. Now when system is on the verge
of instability, i.e. marginally stable in nature, then G.M and P.M. both are zero. This is
possible when gc = pc. This condition gc =pc is useful to design the marginally stable
systems. For P.M. and G.M. are positive i.e. for stable system gc < pc. While for P.M.
and G.M. negative i.e. for unstable system gc > pc. In some absolutely stable system
G.M. may be obtained as + , while for inherently unstable system G.M. may be
obtained as -,
List the frequency domain methods to find the stability of the system.
The commonly used frequency domain methods to sketch the frequency response
of the systems are
Bode plot
Polar plot
Nyquist plot
Nichol‟s chart
Define an octave.
The range of frequencies 2= 2 1 is called an octave.
How the closed loop frequency response is determined from the open loop frequency
response?
The G(jw) locus or the Nichols plot is sketched on the standard Nichols chart. The
meeting point of M contour with G(jw) locus gives the magnitude of the closed loop
system and the meeting point with N circle gives the argument or phase of the closed
loop system.
What happens to the damping ratio and rise time if the band width is increased?
A large BW corresponds to a small rise time or fast response so BW in inversely
proportional to the speed of response, so as BW is increased damping ratio and rise time
both reduces.
If the very low frequency asymptote magnitude plot of an unity feedback system has
a slope of -40db/decade, find the standard input or inputs it can follow with any steady
state errors:
At very low frequency, the magnitude plot slope is -40db/decade i.e. there are two poles
at the origin and hence the system is Type 2 system. Type 2 system follows parabolic
input with some error but it can follows ramp type standard inputs without any steady
state errors.
For a stable system the gain margin and phase margin should be positive. Justify
answer.
The gain margin indicates the amount of the gain which can be introduced in the system
till system reaches on the verge of instability. Here positive gain margin indicates that
such a gain introduction is possible till system becomes unstable i.e. system is basically
stable.
Similarly margin is the amount of the lag which can be introduced till system reaches on
the verge of instability so positive phase margin indicates that such an introduction
possible and the system is stable. The negative gain margin and the phase margin indicate
that there is no chance to introduce gain or phase lag as the system is already unstable.
What is sensitivity?
All physical elements have properties that change with environment and age. A good
control system should be very sensitive to these parameters variations while being able to
follow the command responsively. This is called sensitivity.
If the gain of the open loop system is doubled the gain margin………….
Becomes half
What are the two methods of specifying the performance of control system?
There are basically two approaches to the control system design problem:
We select the configuration of the overall system by introducing compensators and then
choose the parameters of the compensators to meet the given plant, we find an overall
system that meets the given specifications and then compute the necessary
compensations.
What are the two types of compensation techniques write short notes on them?
Gc(s) = (s+Zc) / (s + Pc) = (s+1/γ)/ (s+ 1/at), where a = Zc/Pc < 1, t > 0,
a< 1 ensures that the pole is located to the left of the zero. The compensator having a
transfer of the form given above is known as a lead compensator. A lead compensator
speeds up the transient response and increases the margin of stability of the system. It
also helps to increase the system error constant though to a limited extent.
When both the transient and steady state response require improvement lag lead
compensator is required. This is basically a lag lead compensator connected in series.
i. Electrical components
ii. Mechanical components
iii. Pneumatic components
iv. Hydraulic or other components.
Series Compensation
Parallel compensation
Series-parallel compensation
In some cases, the feedback is taken from some internal element and compensator
is introduced in such a feedback path to provide an additional feedback loop. Such
compensation is called feedback or parallel compensation.
What are the observations that are made from the Bode’s plot of the lag
compensated system?
Lead compensator increases the system bandwidth whereas Lag compensator reduces the
system bandwidth.
What are the forms in which frequency domain specification are given in
cascade compensation?
The frequency domain compensation may be carried out using Nyquist plots, Bode plots
or Nichol‟s chart. The advantages of the Bode plots are that they are easier to draw and
modify.
The lead compensator adds dominant zero and a pole. This increases the damping
of the closed loop system.
It improves the phase margin of the closed loop system.
The steady state error does not get affected.
It increases bandwidth of the closed loop system. More the bandwidth the faster is
the response.
The increased damping means less rise time and less settling time. Thus there is
improvement in the transient response.
Lag compensator allows high gain at low frequencies, thus it is basically a low
pass filter. Hence it improves steady state performance.
The system becomes more sensitive to the parameter variations.
Reduced bandwidth means slower response. Thus rise time and settling time are
usually longer.
The attenuation characteristics are used for compensation.
Lag compensator approximately acts as PI controller and thus tends to make they
system less stable.
The attenuation due to lag compensator shifts the gain crossover frequency to a
lower frequency point. Thus the bandwidth of the system gets reduced.
The lead compensation on Bode’s plot proceeds by adjusting the system error constant to
the desired value. The phase margin of the uncompensated system is then checked, if
found satisfactory, the lead compensation is designed to meet the specified phase margin.
What are the observations that are made from the Bode plots of the lead
compensated system?
What are the observations that are made from the Bode plots of the lag
compensated system?
What are the conditions for a linear time invariant system to be stable?
A linear time- invariant system is stable if the following two notions of system
stability are satisfied.
I. When the system is by a bounded input, the output is bounded.
II. In the absence of the input, the output temds towards zero irrespective of
initial conditions.
What do you mean by asymptotic stability?
In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero(the equilibrium state of
the systems) irrespective of initial conditions. This stability is known as asymptotic
stability.
∫m(τ)dτ < α
What does the positive ness of the coefficients of characteristic equation indicate?
The positive ness of the coefficients of characteristic equation is
necessary as well as sufficient condition for stability of system of first and
second order.
The positive ness of the coefficients of the characteristic equation ensures
the negative ness of the real parts of the complex roots for third and
higher order systems.
State the conditions under which the coefficients can be zero or negative.
One or more roots have positive real parts.
A root (or roots) at origin i.e. SK = 0 and hence an = 0.
Sl = 0 for some l, which implies the presence of roots on the jw
axis.
How the roots of characteristic equation are related to stability?
If the roots of characteristic equation has positive real part then the impulse
response of the system is not bounded (the impulse response will be finite as t tends to
infinity.) hence the system will be unstable. If the roots have negative real parts then
impulse response is bounded. ( the impulse response becomes zero as t tends to infinity).
Hence the system will be stable.
What is the relation between stability and coefficient of characteristic polynomial?
If the coefficients of characteristic polynomial are negative or zero, then some of
the roots lie on the right half of the S-plane. Hence the system is unstable. If the
coefficients of characteristic polynomial are positive and if no coefficient is zero, then
there is a possibility of the system to be stable, provided all the roots are lying on left half
of S-plane.
What will be the nature of impulse response when the roots of characteristic
equation are lying on imaginary axis?
If the roots of characteristic equation lie on imaginary axis, then the impulse
response is oscillatory.
What will be the nature of impulse response when the roots of characteristic
equation are lying on right half of the S-plane?
When the roots are lying on the real axis, i.e on the right half of the S-plane, the
response is exponentially increasing. When the roots are complex conjugate and lying on
the right half of the S-plane, the response is oscillatory with exponentially increasing
amplitude.
The addition of a pole will make a system more stable. Justify your answer.
This is false statement. When the pole is added to the system, it drives the root
locus towards imaginary axis; they become dominant and hence relative stability of the
system decrease. It makes the system more oscillatory. So addition of pole makes the
system unstable and not stable.
In the routh array what conclusion you can make when there is a row of all zeros?
All zero row in routh array indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a
factor of the given characteristic equation. The even polynomial may have roots on
imaginary axis.
The root locus gives the bird’s eye view of the stability of the systems. Justify your
answer.
The above statement is false. The root locus gives the locus of the characteristic
equation as gain K is varied from zero to infinity. So from root locus we can get the exact
locations of roots for any value of k. similarly for any value of K, the nature of the roots
were real complex conjugates can be predicted. From this we get the idea about transient
response nature of the system, including the settling time of the system. It can give range
of values of K for which system remains stable. Thus root locus gives total information
about the stability of the system. Hence it is said that root locus gives inside analysis of
the stability and not the bird‟s eye view of the stability.
Whether root locus gives the idea about the steady state error?
The root locus gives the information about the nature of the roots of the
characteristic equation. So from it, root locus gives the idea about the overall stability of
the system and the nature of the transient response. But it cannot give idea about the
steady state errors. The steady state error depends partly on the system gain K, hence we
may say that root locus gives the partly information about steady state errors.
The roots of characteristic equation will be real and equal for a system. Justify your
answer.
The above statement is false, because the under damped system is the one having
exponential decaying. It oscillates with decreasing amplitude and settles down. For the
real and equal roots, the response is exponential but fast and without any oscillations. It is
called critically damped. So real and equal roots does not represent under damped
system.
The root locus gives the idea about the transient response of the system. Justify your
answer.
The root locus is the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation as K (gain)
varies from 0 to infinity. The transient response is totally dependent on the nature of the
roots of the characteristic equation, real -negative roots give exponentially decaying.
Real- positive roots give exponentially increasing. Complex with negative real parts give
decaying oscillatory transient response. The information about nature of roots is provided
by root locus. Hence it gives idea about the transient response of the system.
What are asymptotes? Give the formula to calculate the angle of asymptotes.
Asymptotes are straight lines, which are parallel to root locus going to infinity and
meet the root locus at infinity.
Angle of asymptotes = +(2q+1) 180 where P- no. of poles, N- no.of zeros
P-Z.
If a system is having complex conjugate with positive real point, then the system is said
to be unstable.
If a system is having complex conjugate with negate real point, then the system is said
to be absolute stable.
How will you find the gain K at a point on the root locus?
The gain K at a point S= Sa on root locus is given by
K= product of length of vectors from open loop zero to the point Sa
product of length of vectors from open loop poles to the point Sa
Nyquist has used the mapping theorem or the principle of argument effectively to
develop a criterion to study the stability of control system in the frequency domain. He
has suggested to select a single valued function F(s) as 1+G(s)H(s), where G(S)H(s) is
open loop transfer function of the system. F(s) = G(s)H(s)
Poles of 1+G(s)H(s) = poles of G(s)H(s) = open loops poles.
They are known to us, but the zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) are unknown to us.
For stability all the zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) must be in left half of s-plane. Instead of
analyzing whether all the zeros are located in the left half of the s-plane, it is better to the
presence of any one zero of 1+G(s)H(s) in the right half of the s-plane making system
unstable.
So Nyquist has suggested to select a T(s) path which will encircle the entire half of the s-
plane. This path is called Nyquist path and should not be changed except small
modifications.
Step1: count how many no. of poles of G(s)H(s) are in the right half of the s-plane i.e,
with the positive real part. This is the value of p.
Step2: Decide the stability criterion as N= (-P) i.e., how many times Nyquist plot should
encircle -1+j0 point for absolute stability.
Step3: select Nyquist path as per the function G(s)H(s).
Step4: Analyse the sections as starting point and terminating point. Last section analysis
not required.
Step5: Mathematically find out Wpc and the intersection of Nyquist plot with negative
real axis by rationalizing G(jw)H(jw).
Step6: With the number of encirclements N of -1+j0 by Nyquist plot. If this matches with
the criterion decided in step 2 system is stable, otherwise the system is unstable.
UNIT V
What is state?
The state of dynamic system is defined as a minimal set of variables such that the
knowledge of these variables at t = t 0 together with the knowledge of inputs t > 0
completely determine the behavior of the system for t > 0.
What is controllability?
A general nth order multi-input linear time invariant system
Derivative of X(t) = AX +BU. Is completely controllable if and only if the rank of
the composite matrix Qc = [ B: AB: A2B..............An-1B] is n.
What is observability?
When the control system can be called as sampled data control system?
Any control system can be called as sampled data control system, when ever
A digital system( computer/ microprocessor/microcontroller) becomes
part of control system.
Control components are on the time sharing mode.
Control signals are discrete or digital signals.
Distinguish between sampled data systems and continuous-time systems.
Control system components of sampled data control system are able to handle
discrete( digital ) signals. On the other hand, continuous time system components can
handle analog signals. Similarly output of sampled data system components are discrete
signals.
How the high frequency noise in the output hold circuits can be filtered?
The control system components act as low pass filter. Hence high frequency
signals are automatically filtered.