Unit 3 : Control System & Transfer function Based Modelling

Que. 1). Explain Open loop control system (Explanation, Examples, advantages, disadvantages

and block diagram)

Ans : An open-loop control system is a type of control system where the output is not fed back to the
input for comparison and adjustment. In this system, the control action is determined solely by the input
and does not take into account the system's actual output or the desired output. It operates based on a
predefined set of instructions or commands.

Explanation: In an open-loop control system, the input is provided to the system, and the system
produces an output based on that input. The output is not measured or compared to the desired output,
and there is no feedback loop to make adjustments. The control action remains constant regardless of
any disturbances or changes in the system.

Examples:

1) Automatic washing machine: When you set the washing machine to a specific program, it performs a
sequence of predefined actions like filling water, washing, rinsing, and spinning for a fixed duration. The
actions are not adjusted based on the cleanliness of clothes or the amount of dirt present.

2) Traffic signal: Traffic signals operate based on predetermined timings. The signals change according
to a fixed schedule, regardless of the actual traffic conditions.

Advantages:

1) Simplicity: Open-loop control systems are relatively simple to design and implement since they don't
require feedback sensors or error correction mechanisms.

2) Cost-effective: Due to their simplicity, open-loop systems are often more cost-effective compared to
closed-loop systems that require additional sensors and feedback mechanisms.

Disadvantages:

1) Lack of accuracy: Open-loop control systems do not account for disturbances, variations, or errors
that may occur during the system's operation. As a result, they may not provide accurate or precise
control.

2) Inability to adapt: Open-loop systems are unable to adapt to changes in the system or environment.
They operate based on fixed instructions, which can lead to inefficient or ineffective control in dynamic
situations.

Block Diagram:

The block diagram of an open-loop control system typically consists of the following components:

Input -> Controller -> Plant/System -> Output

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 2). Explain closed loop control system (Explanation, Examples, advantages,

disadvantages and block diagram)

Ans : A closed-loop control system, also known as a feedback control system, is a type of control system
that uses feedback from the output to adjust and regulate the system's behavior. It continuously
compares the output to the desired reference input and makes necessary corrections to minimize any
errors or deviations.

Explanation: In a closed-loop control system, the output is measured and compared to the desired
output or reference input. The feedback information is used to generate an error signal, which indicates
the difference between the actual output and the desired output. This error signal is then processed by
a controller, which determines the appropriate control action to reduce the error and bring the system
back to the desired state.

Examples:

1) Temperature control in a room: A thermostat in a room measures the current temperature and
compares it to the desired temperature set by the user. If the measured temperature deviates from the
desired temperature, the thermostat activates the heating or cooling system to adjust the temperature
accordingly.

2) Cruise control in a car: In a car with cruise control, the desired speed is set by the driver. The system
continuously measures the car's speed and adjusts the throttle or braking system to maintain the
desired speed, compensating for changes such as uphill or downhill gradients.

Advantages:

1) Increased accuracy: Closed-loop control systems can achieve high accuracy since they continuously
monitor and adjust the system based on feedback. They can reduce errors and deviations between the
desired and actual outputs.

2) Robustness: Closed-loop systems are generally more robust to disturbances and variations in the
system. They can adapt and correct for changes, making them suitable for dynamic environments.

Disadvantages:

1) Complexity: Closed-loop control systems are typically more complex to design and implement
compared to open-loop systems. They require sensors, feedback mechanisms, and more sophisticated
controllers to process the feedback information.

2) Cost: Due to their complexity and the need for additional components such as sensors and actuators,
closed-loop systems can be more expensive to implement than open-loop systems.

Block Diagram:

The block diagram of a closed-loop control system includes the following components:

Input (Reference Signal) -> Controller -> Plant/System -> Sensor (Feedback Signal) -> Error Detector ->
Controller

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 3) Difference between open loop and closed loop control system.
Ans.
Parameter Open Loop System
An open-loop control system does not
use feedback from the output to
Feedback adjust the control action.
In an open-loop system, the control
action remains constant and does not
Control Action change based on the system's actual
output or any disturbances or changes
in the environment.
Open-loop systems are unable to
Adaptability adapt to changes in the system or the
environment.
Accuracy Open-loop systems may lack accuracy
since they do not account for
disturbances, variations, or errors that
may occur during the system's
operation. They do not correct for
deviations from the desired output.
Effect of Gain No effect on gain
Cost Cost is Low
Open loop systems are more stable
Stability
Close Loop System
A closed-loop control system
utilizes feedback from the output
to make adjustments.
In a closed-loop system, the
control action is adjusted
continuously based on the
feedback information.
Closed-loop systems are designed
to adapt to changes. They
continuously monitor the output
and make adjustments based on
the feedback.
Open-loop systems may lack
accuracy since they do not
account for disturbances,
variations, or errors that may
occur during the system's
operation. They do not correct for
deviations from the desired
output.
Non linear change in system
Cost is High
Close loop control system are not
stable as compared to open loop
system
Presented By Deepak Waghade
Que. 4). Explain concept of transfer function (definition, features/properties, advantages and

disadvantages)

Definition: A transfer function is a mathematical representation of the relationship between the Laplace
transform of the system's output and the Laplace transform of its input, assuming zero initial conditions.
It is typically denoted as H(s), where 's' represents the complex frequency variable.

Features/Properties:

1). Linearity: The transfer function assumes linearity, meaning that the system's output is directly
proportional to the input. This property allows for superposition, where the response to a sum of inputs
is equal to the sum of the responses to individual inputs.

2) Time Invariance: The transfer function assumes time invariance, implying that the system's behavior
remains constant over time. This property allows for the analysis and design of control systems without
explicitly considering time-varying aspects.

3) Frequency Domain Analysis: The transfer function is particularly useful for analyzing the system's
behavior in the frequency domain. It allows engineers to evaluate the system's response to different
frequencies and understand its stability, gain, phase shift, and frequency-dependent characteristics.

4) Pole-Zero Representation: The transfer function can be expressed in terms of its poles and zeros,
which are points in the complex plane. Poles determine the stability and transient response of the
system, while zeros affect the frequency response.

Advantages:

1). System Analysis: The transfer function provides a convenient framework for analyzing and
understanding the behavior of linear systems. It enables engineers to study stability, frequency
response, transient response, and system performance characteristics.

2) Design and Control: With transfer functions, engineers can design control systems by manipulating
the system's response characteristics. They can use techniques like feedback, compensators, and filters
to achieve desired system performance.

3) Mathematical Representation: Transfer functions provide a concise mathematical representation of

a system, making it easier to model and analyze complex systems. They allow for algebraic
manipulations and mathematical operations to simplify calculations.

Disadvantages:

1). Limited to Linear Time-Invariant Systems: Transfer functions are only applicable to linear time-
invariant systems. They cannot accurately describe nonlinear or time-varying systems, which are more
common in real-world applications.

2) Neglects Initial Conditions: Transfer functions assume zero initial conditions, meaning they do not
consider the system's initial state or history. This limitation can be problematic when dealing with
systems that have memory or complex initial conditions.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

 Que. 5) Explain application of mechatronics.

a. Automotive application: ABS, Engine management system, fuel injection

b. Household application: washing machine, dish washer

Ans : Mechatronics, which combines mechanical engineering, electronics, computer science, and
control engineering, finds numerous applications in various fields. Here are some examples of
mechatronics applications in automotive and household settings:

a. Automotive Applications:

1. Anti-lock Braking System (ABS): Mechatronics plays a crucial role in ABS, which prevents wheel lock-up
during braking. Sensors detect wheel speed, and the mechatronic system regulates brake pressure to
individual wheels, ensuring optimal braking performance and stability.
2. Engine Management System: Mechatronics is used in engine management systems to control various
parameters, such as fuel injection timing, ignition timing, and airflow. Sensors gather data on engine
conditions, and the mechatronic system adjusts these parameters in real-time to optimize performance,
fuel efficiency, and emissions.
3. Fuel Injection: Mechatronics is employed in fuel injection systems to precisely control the amount and
timing of fuel delivered to the engine cylinders. Sensors monitor engine conditions, and the mechatronic
system adjusts fuel injection accordingly, resulting in efficient combustion and improved engine
performance.

b. Household Applications:

1. Washing Machine: Mechatronics plays a vital role in modern washing machines. The system
incorporates sensors to detect variables like load size, water level, temperature, and agitation speed.
Based on this feedback, the mechatronic control system adjusts the wash cycle, water flow, detergent
dispensing, and other parameters to ensure optimal cleaning while minimizing resource consumption.
2. Dishwasher: Mechatronics is utilized in dishwashers for effective cleaning and energy efficiency. Sensors
detect factors like water temperature, turbidity, and load size. The mechatronic system regulates water
spray intensity, detergent usage, water temperature, and cycle duration to deliver thorough cleaning
with minimal water and energy consumption.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

 Unit 4 : Time & Frequancy Domain Analysis

Que. 1) Explain transient response specification (graph, delay time, rise time, peak time,

maximum peak, settling time).

1). Delay Time (td):

The delay time Td is the time needed for the response to reach half to its final value the very first time.

2). Rise Time (tr):

The time required for the signal go from 0.1 to the final value to 0.9 of the final value.

3). Peak Time (tp):

The time required to reach maximum peak.

4). Maximum Overshoot (Mp):

Maximum overshoot (Mp) is measured as the percentage difference between the peak value and the
final value, relative to the final value.

5) Settling Time (ts):

Settling time is the time required for the system's output to reach and remain within a specified
tolerance band around the final value. It indicates the time it takes for the system to stabilize after the
transient response.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 2) Explain standard test input (step, ramp, impulse and parabolic)

Ans. Standard test inputs, also known as standard test signals or standard test functions, are commonly
used in control systems analysis and design to evaluate the behavior and performance of a system.
These signals have specific mathematical forms and allow engineers to observe and analyze the system's
response to different types of inputs. Four widely used standard test inputs are the step, ramp, impulse,
and parabolic signals.

1). Step Input: A step input is a sudden change in the input signal from one constant value to another
constant value. It represents an abrupt change or transition in the system's input. The step function is
typically represented as a unit step, where the input remains constant at a specified value after the
transition.

2) Ramp Input: A ramp input represents a linearly increasing or decreasing input signal over time. It
provides a continuous change in the input, allowing the observation of the system's response to a
varying rate of change.

3) Impulse Input: An impulse input, also known as a Dirac delta function, represents an instantaneous
and infinitely small input signal. It provides a way to observe the system's response to an instantaneous
perturbation or shock.

4) Parabolic Input: A parabolic input, also known as a quadratic input, represents a signal that changes
quadratically over time. It provides a smooth and continuous change in the input, allowing observation
of the system's response to a varying rate of change.

These standard test inputs help in analyzing system characteristics such as steady-state response,
transient response, stability, sensitivity, and frequency response. By applying these inputs and observing
the system's output, engineers can assess the system's performance and make informed decisions
regarding control system design and optimization.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que.3) For the system with transfer function 1 / (S+2+7j)(S+2−7j)

Draw the pole and zero plot and find damping ratio, natural frequency, peak time, maximum
overshoot.

 To draw the pole and zero plot, we need to analyze the transfer function and identify the location
of the poles and zeros. Given the transfer function:
 H(s) = 1 / ((s + 2 + 7j)(s + 2 - 7j))
 The transfer function has two poles, located at s = -2 + 7j and s = -2 - 7j. The poles represent the
values of s at which the transfer function becomes infinite, indicating the system's natural
response behavior.
 To calculate the damping ratio, natural frequency, peak time, and maximum overshoot, we can
use the pole locations.

 Damping Ratio (ζ): The damping ratio indicates the level of damping in the system and is
calculated as the ratio of the real part of the pole to the magnitude of the pole. In this case, the
poles have a real part of -2.

 ζ = -2 / |7| = -2/7 ≈ -0.286

 Natural Frequency (ωn): The natural frequency represents the frequency at which the system
oscillates in the absence of any external input. It is calculated as the magnitude of the imaginary
part of the pole.

 ωn = |7| = 7

 Peak Time (tp): The peak time is the time it takes for the response to reach its maximum value.
For a complex conjugate pole pair, the peak time can be approximated using the formula:

 tp ≈ π / (ωd * √(1 - ζ^2))

 where ωd is the damped natural frequency and is calculated as ωd = ωn * √(1 - ζ^2).
 ωd = 7 * √(1 - (-0.286)^2) ≈ 6.782
 tp ≈ π / (6.782) ≈ 0.463 seconds

 Maximum Overshoot (Mp): The maximum overshoot represents the maximum percentage by
which the response exceeds the steady-state value. For a complex conjugate pole pair, the
maximum overshoot can be approximated using the formula:

 Mp ≈ e^((-ζ * π) / √(1 - ζ^2))

 Mp ≈ e^((-(-0.286) * π) / √(1 - (-0.286)^2)) ≈ 0.119 or 11.9%
 Now let's plot the pole-zero diagram for the given transfer function:
 Pole-Zero Plot:

 Pole at s = -2 + 7j
 Pole at s = -2 - 7j

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que.4) Explain frequency response specifications (resonant peak, resonant frequency, band

width, gain crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency).

Ans. : Frequency response specifications describe the behavior of a control system in the frequency
domain. They provide information about the system's response to different frequencies, including the
amplitude and phase relationships between the input and output signals. Here are some common
frequency response specifications:

1). Resonant Peak: The resonant peak is the peak value of the system's frequency response curve. It
occurs at the resonant frequency, which is the frequency at which the system exhibits the maximum
response. The resonant peak represents the system's maximum amplification or amplification factor at
the resonant frequency.

2) Resonant Frequency: The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the system's frequency
response curve reaches its peak or maximum value. It corresponds to the frequency at which the system
is most sensitive to inputs.

3) Bandwidth: The bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the system's frequency response is
considered significant. It is typically defined as the difference between the upper and lower cutoff
frequencies, where the response is within a certain tolerance (e.g., 3 dB) of the maximum response.

4) Gain Crossover Frequency: The gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of
the system's frequency response is equal to 1 (0 dB). It represents the frequency at which the system's
gain or amplification becomes unity. The gain crossover frequency is often used to determine the
system's gain margin and stability.

5) Phase Crossover Frequency: The phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the phase of
the system's frequency response is equal to -180 degrees or π radians. It represents the frequency at
which the system's output lags the input by 180 degrees. The phase crossover frequency is often used to
determine the system's phase margin and stability.

These frequency response specifications provide valuable insights into the system's behavior and
performance in the frequency domain. They help in analyzing stability, gain and phase margins,
resonance, and system performance at different frequencies. Engineers can use these specifications to
design control systems, tune controllers, and ensure desired system performance across a range of
frequencies.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que.5) Explain natural frequency, damped frequency and damping ratio in detail

1). Natural Frequency (ωn): The natural frequency is a fundamental property of a second-order dynamic
system. It represents the frequency at which the system would oscillate if it were left to respond freely,
without any external input or damping. The natural frequency is determined by the system's physical
characteristics and is typically denoted by the symbol ωn (omega n).

2) Damped Frequency (ωd): The damped frequency represents the actual frequency of oscillation of a
second-order dynamic system under the influence of damping. Unlike the natural frequency, the
damped frequency takes into account the effects of damping on the system's oscillatory behavior.

3) Damping Ratio (ζ): The damping ratio represents the level of damping present in a second-order
dynamic system. It quantifies the ratio of the actual damping to the critical damping of the system.

Que. 6) Compare time response and frequency response analysis.

Ans. :

Parameter Time Response Frequency Response

Nature of Analysis
Representation
Control System Design
Transient vs. Steady-State
Time response analysis focuses
on studying the system's
behavior in the time domain
Time response analysis involves
analyzing the system's response
as a function of time.
Time response analysis provides
insights into the dynamic
behavior and performance of a
control system.
Time response analysis focuses
on both transient and steady-
state behavior.
Frequency response analysis
focuses on studying the system's
behavior in the frequency
domain.
Frequency response analysis
involves analyzing the system's
response as a function of
frequency.
Frequency response analysis
helps in designing control
systems to achieve desired
stability, gain, and phase
margins.
Frequency response analysis
primarily focuses on the steady-
state behavior of the system.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 7) Explain gain margin and phase margin

Ans. : Gain margin and phase margin are two important measures used in frequency response analysis
to assess the stability and robustness of a control system. They provide insights into the system's
stability margin and its ability to handle disturbances and uncertainties.

1). Gain Margin: The gain margin is a measure of how much additional gain (amplification) the system
can tolerate without becoming unstable. It quantifies the closeness of the system's gain to the instability
threshold. A higher gain margin indicates a more robust and stable system.

Mathematically, the gain margin is defined as the amount of gain at the frequency where the phase of
the system's transfer function is equal to -180 degrees or π radians, when the magnitude of the transfer
function is equal to 1 (0 dB). The gain margin is usually expressed in decibels (dB) or as a positive
number.

2) Phase Margin: The phase margin is a measure of how much additional phase shift the system can
tolerate without becoming unstable. It quantifies the closeness of the system's phase shift to the
instability threshold. A higher phase margin indicates a more robust and stable system.

Mathematically, the phase margin is defined as the amount of phase shift at the frequency where the
magnitude of the system's transfer function is equal to 1 (0 dB). The phase margin is usually expressed in
degrees.

Que. 8). Explain Bode plot and its advantages.

Ans. A Bode plot is a graphical representation used in frequency response analysis to display the
magnitude and phase of a system's transfer function as a function of frequency. It consists of two
separate plots: one for the magnitude response and another for the phase response. Bode plots are
widely used in control systems and other engineering disciplines to analyze and design systems based on
their frequency behavior.

Advantages of Bode Plot:

1). Frequency Domain Representation

2) Separate Magnitude and Phase Information

3) Logarithmic Scale

4) Stability Analysis

5) Gain and Phase Margin Estimation

6) System Performance Analysis

7) Design Tool

8) System Comparison

Presented By Deepak Waghade

 Unit 5) Controllers

Que. 1) Explain the Proportional-Integral controller with a block diagram.

Ans : Proportional Integral controller sometimes also known as proportional plus integral (PI)
controllers. It is a type of controller formed by combining proportional and integral control action. Thus
it is named as PI controller.

In the proportional-integral controller, the control action of both proportional, as well as the integral
controller, is utilized. This combination of two different controllers produces a more efficient controller
which eliminates the disadvantages associated with each one of them.

In this case, the control signal shows proportionality with both the error signal as well as with integral of
the error signal. Mathematical representation of proportional plus integral controller is given as:

Equation :

The figure below represents the block diagram of the system with PI controller:

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 2) Using a suitable block diagram explain the working of PID control in parallel form.

Ans :

In the parallel form of the PID controller, the proportional, integral, and derivative control actions are
implemented as separate components operating in parallel. Each component acts on the error signal to
generate a control output, and these outputs are then combined to form the overall control signal.
Here's a detailed explanation of how each component works in the parallel form of the PID controller:

1). Proportional Control: The proportional control action is proportional to the error signal. It multiplies
the error by a constant gain called the proportional gain (Kp).

2) Integral Control: The integral control action integrates the error signal over time. It sums up the
historical values of the error to eliminate steady-state errors and reduce the impact of cumulative
errors.

3) Derivative Control: The derivative control action considers the rate of change of the error signal. It
calculates the derivative of the error with respect to time to provide a predictive control action based on
the anticipated future behavior of the error.

Que.5) Explain the manual procedure for PID controller tuning with a suitable example.

Ans. : The manual tuning method for PID controller involves adjusting the proportional, integral, and
derivative gains (Kp, Ki, and Kd) of the controller based on the system's response to achieve the desired
control performance. The process typically involves the following steps:

1) Start with Kp = 0

2) Increase Kp until Oscillation

3) Determine Ultimate Gain and Oscillation Period

4) Calculate PID Gains

5) Fine-tuning and Iteration

Example:

Let's consider an example of temperature control in an industrial oven. The objective is to maintain a
desired temperature set point of 200°C. The system uses a PID controller to regulate the heating
element.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 3) Why derivative controller is not used in control systems?

Ans. : The derivative controller is less commonly used in control systems compared to the proportional
and integral controllers. There are several reasons why the derivative controller is not as widely
employed:

1). Sensitivity to Noise: The derivative controller amplifies high-frequency noise in the system. Since the
derivative action is based on the rate of change of the error signal, any noise or measurement
inaccuracies in the signal can lead to significant fluctuations in the control output. This sensitivity to
noise can make the system unstable or cause erratic behavior, especially in practical systems with real-
world noise sources.

2) Difficulty in Implementation: Implementing derivative control requires accurate and precise

measurements of the error signal's rate of change. Obtaining such measurements can be challenging in
many systems, as it often involves differentiating noisy signals, which can introduce additional noise and
measurement errors. Moreover, the derivative controller can be sensitive to sensor noise, which further
complicates its implementation.

3) Unpredictable Behavior: The derivative controller can introduce overshoot and oscillatory behavior,
especially in systems with varying or non-linear dynamics. It reacts strongly to sudden changes in the
error signal, leading to rapid changes in the control output. This can result in unstable responses or
cause oscillations in the system, making it difficult to achieve stable and precise control.

4) Limited Application Scenarios: The derivative controller is typically more useful in systems where the
rate of change of the error signal provides valuable information about the system's dynamics. It is more
suited for systems with fast dynamics and where anticipating future behavior is critical. However, many
practical control applications do not require or benefit significantly from derivative control, as other
control actions like proportional and integral control are often sufficient to achieve the desired
performance.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 4) How Zeigler Nichols method is useful in the tuning of PID controller?

Ans. : The Ziegler-Nichols method, also known as the Ziegler-Nichols tuning method, is a popular and
widely used heuristic technique for tuning PID controllers. It provides a systematic approach to
determine suitable values for the proportional, integral, and derivative gains (Kp, Ki, and Kd) of a PID
controller based on the system's response characteristics. The Ziegler-Nichols method is useful in the
tuning of PID controllers for the following reasons:

1). Simplicity and Ease of Implementation: The Ziegler-Nichols method offers a relatively simple and
straightforward procedure for tuning PID controllers. It does not require complex mathematical models
or extensive system identification. The method relies on step-response experiments and basic analysis
of the system's response to determine the appropriate PID gains.

2) Empirical Approach: The method is empirical, meaning it is based on practical observations and
experience. It takes into account the system's response characteristics and adjusts the PID gains
accordingly. This empirical nature makes it applicable to a wide range of systems without requiring
detailed knowledge of the system dynamics.

3) Quick Initial Tuning: The Ziegler-Nichols method provides initial tuning parameters that can be used
as a starting point for further refinement. By performing step-response experiments and analyzing the
system's behavior, it suggests suitable values for the PID gains that can provide a reasonable control
response.

4) Stability and Performance Trade-off: The method aims to achieve a balance between system stability
and performance. It identifies the critical gain value (Ku) and the corresponding oscillation period (Tu)
during the step-response experiments

5) Approximate Tuning: While the Ziegler-Nichols method may not yield the optimal PID gains for every
system, it provides a good starting point for tuning. It can help engineers quickly set up a PID controller
and make the system reasonably stable and responsive. From there, further fine-tuning and adjustments
can be made based on the specific system requirements and performance criteria.

Que. 6) Explain the advantages of an integral controller over a proportional controller.

An integral controller offers several advantages over a proportional controller in control systems:

1) Elimination of Steady-State Error: One of the main advantages of an integral controller is its ability to
eliminate steady-state error in the controlled variable.

2) Improved Stability: The integral control action helps improve the stability of the control system. By
continuously integrating the error signal, the integral controller adds a corrective action that can
counteract any persistent deviations from the desired set point.

3) Robustness to Parameter Variations: Integral control provides robustness to variations in system

parameters or external disturbances.

4) Flexibility in Control System Design: The integral controller offers flexibility in control system design.

5) Compensation for Nonlinearities: Integral control can help compensate for nonlinearities in the
system. Nonlinearities can cause the system's behavior to deviate from the ideal linear response.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 7) A PI controller is reverse acting, PB = 20, 12 repeats per minute. Find (i) Proportional gain
(ii) Integral gain (iii) Time that the controller output will reach 0 % after a constant error of 1.5 %
starts. The controller output when the error occurred was 72 %.

Ans. : To determine the proportional gain (Kp) and integral gain (Ki) for a reverse-acting PI controller, we
need to use the ultimate gain and ultimate period information from the system's frequency response.

Given: Process Gain (PB) = 20

Ultimate Period (Tu) = 1 / (12 repeats per minute) = 1 / (12/60) = 5 seconds

Constant error = 1.5% , Initial controller output = 72%

(i) Proportional Gain (Kp):

The proportional gain can be calculated using the ultimate gain (Ku) and process gain (PB) as follows:

Kp = (0.45 * Ku) / PB

Since the system is reverse-acting, we have Ku = 1 / PB. Therefore:

Kp = (0.45 * (1 / PB)) / PB = (0.45 / PB^2)

Substituting the given PB value:

Kp = (0.45 / 20^2) = 0.0001125

(ii) Integral Gain (Ki):

The integral gain can be calculated using the ultimate period (Tu) as follows:

Ki = Kp / Tu

Substituting the calculated Kp value and Tu:

Ki = 0.0001125 / 5 = 0.0000225

(iii) Time for Controller Output to Reach 0%:

To calculate the time it takes for the controller output to reach 0% after a constant error of 1.5% starts,
we can use the integral action of the PI controller.

The time it takes for the integral action to drive the controller output to 0% can be approximated as:

Time = (1.2 / Ki) * (1.5 / 100)

Substituting the calculated Ki value and given constant error:

Time = (1.2 / 0.0000225) * (1.5 / 100) = 800 seconds.

Therefore, it will take approximately 800 seconds for the controller output to reach 0% after a constant
error of 1.5% starts.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que.8) A derivative controller has initial, controller output Po = 55% and derivative constant KD

= 0.5% - sec/%. What will be the controller output, when the error.

(i) Change at 1.5 % sec.

(ii) Is constant at 4 %.

Ans. : To determine the controller output for a derivative controller with an initial controller output (Po)
of 55% and a derivative constant (Kd) of 0.5% - sec/%, we need to consider the change in error and the
constant error separately.

(i) When the error changes at 1.5 seconds: In this case, we need to calculate the rate of change of the
error to determine the impact of the derivative action on the controller output.

Let's assume the initial error (Eo) is 0%. The change in error (ΔE) at 1.5 seconds is 1%.

The rate of change of the error (dE/dt) is given by: dE/dt = ΔE / Δt = (1% - 0%) / (1.5 sec - 0 sec) = 1% /
1.5 sec = 0.67% / sec

The derivative controller output is given by: Derivative Output = Kd * (dE/dt)

Substituting the given Kd value and calculated dE/dt: Derivative Output = 0.5% - sec/% * 0.67% / sec =
0.335%

The total controller output is the sum of the initial controller output and the derivative output: Total
Output = Po + Derivative Output = 55% + 0.335% = 55.335%

Therefore, when the error changes at 1.5 seconds, the controller output will be approximately 55.335%.

(ii) When the error is constant at 4%: In this case, the derivative action will not have any effect since the
error is constant and not changing with time.

The derivative controller output is given by: Derivative Output = Kd * (dE/dt)

Since the error is constant, the rate of change of the error (dE/dt) is zero: dE/dt = 0

The derivative controller output becomes: Derivative Output = Kd * (dE/dt) = Kd * 0 = 0

The total controller output is the same as the initial controller output: Total Output = Po = 55%

Therefore, when the error is constant at 4%, the controller output will remain at 55%.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

 Unit. 6 Programmable Logic Controller ( PLC )

Que. 1) State the advantages of PLC over the relay system.

Ans. : 1). Flexibility and Programmability: PLCs are highly flexible and can be easily programmed to
perform complex control tasks. They provide the ability to implement a wide range of control algorithms
and logic functions, allowing for more advanced control strategies. The programming can be modified or
updated without the need for physical rewiring or component replacements, making PLCs more
adaptable to changing control requirements.

2) Increased Reliability: PLCs are generally more reliable than relay systems. Relays have mechanical
components that can wear out over time, leading to failures. PLCs, on the other hand, are solid-state
devices with no moving parts, resulting in improved reliability and longevity. They are less prone to
physical wear and tear and offer higher resistance to environmental factors such as vibration, dust, and
humidity.

3) Enhanced Diagnostics and Troubleshooting: PLCs provide advanced diagnostic capabilities, allowing
for easier troubleshooting and maintenance. They can monitor and record system variables, provide
real-time feedback, and generate detailed error messages or alarms in case of faults or malfunctions.
This simplifies fault finding, reduces downtime, and enables quicker resolution of issues.

4) Compact and Space-Saving: PLCs are compact devices that can replace multiple relays, timers, and
other control components, resulting in space-saving benefits. The consolidation of control functions into
a single unit reduces the overall size and complexity of the control system, making it easier to install and
maintain.

5) Improved Integration: PLCs can seamlessly integrate with other industrial automation components
and systems, such as Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs), sensors, actuators, and communication
networks. They support various communication protocols, enabling data exchange and coordination
with other devices and systems, which facilitates efficient control and monitoring of complex processes.

6) Cost-Effective

7) Remote Monitoring and Control

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 2) State the different areas of application of PLC.

Ans. : 1) Industrial Automation: PLCs are extensively used in industrial automation to control and
monitor manufacturing processes, assembly lines, and machinery. They can handle tasks such as
machine control, motion control, process control, and data acquisition. PLCs enable precise control and
coordination of equipment and systems, improving efficiency, productivity, and quality in industries
such as automotive, food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, chemical processing, and manufacturing.

2) Building Automation: PLCs play a crucial role in building automation systems, which control and
manage various building functions, including HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning), lighting,
access control, security systems, and energy management. PLCs help optimize energy usage, provide
centralized control and monitoring, enable scheduling and automation of building systems, and facilitate
integration with other building management systems.

3) Water and Wastewater Treatment: PLCs are widely used in water and wastewater treatment plants
to automate and control processes such as pumping, filtration, chemical dosing, and monitoring of
water quality parameters. They help optimize resource usage, maintain water quality standards, enable
real-time monitoring and control, and provide remote access for diagnostics and troubleshooting.

4) Power Generation and Distribution: PLCs are employed in power generation facilities, including
thermal power plants, hydroelectric plants, and renewable energy systems. They assist in controlling
and monitoring power generation equipment, managing load distribution, coordinating grid
synchronization, and implementing safety measures. PLCs also facilitate fault detection, protection, and
management in power distribution systems.

5) Material Handling and Logistics: PLCs are utilized in material handling systems, including conveyor
belts, robotic systems, sorting and packaging systems, and automated warehouses. They enable precise
control and coordination of material flow, optimize production processes, enhance inventory
management, and improve logistics efficiency in industries such as logistics, e-commerce, and
distribution centers.

6) Automotive Industry: PLCs are extensively used in the automotive industry for controlling various
manufacturing processes, assembly lines, and testing systems. They help automate tasks such as
welding, painting, assembly, and quality control. PLCs ensure precise control, sequencing, and
synchronization of operations, leading to improved production efficiency and quality.

7) Oil and Gas Industry: PLCs find applications in the oil and gas industry for controlling processes such
as drilling, pumping, pipeline monitoring, and refinery operations. They facilitate remote monitoring,
data acquisition, and control of critical operations in hazardous environments. PLCs also assist in
implementing safety systems and emergency shutdown protocols.

8) Food and Beverage Industry: PLCs are employed in the food and beverage industry for process
control, batch management, recipe handling, and quality control. They help regulate temperature,
pressure, flow, and mixing processes, ensuring consistent product quality, reducing waste, and
enhancing production efficiency.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 3) Using a suitable diagram explain the working of the counter in a PLC.

 The working of the counter can be described as follows:

1). Initialization: The counter is typically initialized to a starting value (e.g., 0) before the counting
operation begins. This ensures that the counter starts from a known state.

2) Counting Operation: As input pulses or events are received, the counting mechanism increments or
decrements the count based on the configured counting mode. For example, in an up-counting mode,
each input pulse increases the count by one.

3) Count Limit: The counter can be configured with a count limit, which specifies the maximum count
value. Once the count reaches the limit, the counter may either stop counting or reset to the initial
value, depending on the configuration.

4) Output Generation: The counted value is made available as an output within the PLC system. It can
be used in ladder logic or other programming languages to control other devices or processes. For
example, the count value can be used to activate a specific output when a certain count is reached.

5) Reset: The counter can be reset to the initial value manually or through a specific condition or
instruction in the PLC program. Resetting the counter clears the count and prepares it for the next
counting operation.

 The counter consists of three main components:

1) Input
2) Counting
3) Output

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 4) List and discuss, in brief, any five specifications of PLC.

Ans. : 1) Input/Output (I/O) Capacity: The I/O capacity refers to the number of digital or analog input
and output points that a PLC can support. It determines the number of devices or sensors that can be
connected to the PLC for monitoring and controlling processes. PLCs can range from small-scale
controllers with a few I/O points to large-scale systems with thousands of I/O points.

2)Processing Speed: The processing speed of a PLC is the rate at which it can execute instructions and
perform calculations. It is typically measured in terms of scan time, which is the time taken by the PLC to
complete one cycle of scanning and updating all inputs and outputs. Faster processing speed allows for
quicker response times and improved control performance in time-critical applications.

3) Memory Capacity: PLCs have internal memory to store the program logic, data, and configuration
settings. The memory capacity determines the size and complexity of programs that can be stored and
executed by the PLC. It includes program memory (for storing ladder logic or other programming
languages), data memory (for storing variables and values), and non-volatile memory (for retaining data
even during power loss or restart).

4) Communication Capabilities: PLCs offer various communication capabilities to exchange data with
other devices, systems, or networks. Common communication protocols supported by PLCs include
Ethernet, Modbus, Profibus, DeviceNet, and others. Communication capabilities enable integration with
Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs), Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, remote
monitoring, and connectivity with other PLCs or devices.

5) Programming Languages: PLCs support different programming languages, including ladder logic,
function block diagrams, structured text, and sequential function charts. The choice of programming
language depends on the application requirements and the familiarity of the programmer. PLCs provide
a user-friendly programming environment to develop and modify control logic for efficient system
operation.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 5) What is the function of timers in PLC programming? Explain any one of them.

Ans. : Timers are an essential component in PLC programming and are used to introduce time delays or
control the timing of specific actions within a control system. They allow for the implementation of time-
based logic and enable precise control over the sequence and duration of events.

One commonly used type of timer in PLC programming is the On-Delay Timer (TON). The TON timer is
used to introduce a delay before an output is turned on or a specific action is taken after a certain
condition is met. It is often used in applications where a delay is required before activating a device or
initiating a process.

The function of the TON timer can be explained as follows:

1) Setting the Timer: In the PLC program, the TON timer is configured with a preset time value, often
expressed in milliseconds, seconds, or minutes. This value represents the desired delay period before
the output is activated.

2)Activation Condition: The TON timer is associated with a specific input condition or event. When the
input condition becomes true, indicating that the trigger event has occurred, the timer starts counting.

3) Timing Operation: Once the timer is activated, it starts counting from zero towards the preset time
value. The timer continues to count until it reaches the preset value.

4) Output Activation: When the timer reaches the preset value, the output associated with the timer is
activated. This can be in the form of turning on a specific device, energizing a motor, or initiating a
process.

5) Timer Reset: After the output is activated, the TON timer is automatically reset to zero. It starts
counting again when the activation condition becomes true for subsequent cycles.

Applications of TON timers include:

 Delayed start of motors or equipment to allow for stabilization or warm-up time.

 Sequential control of devices or processes by introducing time gaps between actions.
 Time-based control of lighting systems, such as turning off lights after a preset time of inactivity.
 Time delays in safety systems to allow for reaction time or warning signals before executing
emergency shutdown procedures.

Presented By Deepak Waghade

Que. 6) Explain the basic components of PLC.

Ans. : 1) Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the PLC and is responsible for executing
the control program, performing calculations, and coordinating the operation of other components. It
interprets the instructions, manages data storage and retrieval, and communicates with other devices.

2) Memory: PLCs have different types of memory for storing program logic, data, and configuration
settings. The memory includes program memory (where the control program is stored), data memory
(for storing variables and values), and non-volatile memory (for retaining data even during power loss or
restart).

3) Input/Output (I/O) Modules: I/O modules connect the PLC to the external world by providing a
means to interface with sensors, actuators, switches, and other devices. Input modules receive signals
from external devices, convert them into digital signals, and send them to the CPU. Output modules
receive signals from the CPU and convert them into appropriate control signals to activate or control
external devices.

4) Power Supply: The power supply unit provides the necessary electrical power to operate the PLC. It
converts the incoming power supply (AC or DC) into the voltage required by the PLC components. The
power supply unit ensures stable and reliable power distribution to all components of the PLC system.

5) Programming Device/Software: PLCs are programmed using specialized programming devices or

software. These devices or software enable users to create, edit, and debug the control program. They
provide an interface for writing the program logic using programming languages such as ladder logic,
function block diagrams, structured text, or sequential function charts.

6) Communication Interfaces: PLCs often have built-in communication interfaces or slots for adding
communication modules. These interfaces enable communication between the PLC and other devices or
systems, such as Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs), Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
systems, other PLCs, or networks. Common communication protocols include Ethernet, Modbus,
Profibus, DeviceNet, and others.

7) HMI (Human-Machine Interface): In some cases, a PLC may be equipped with an integrated HMI or
connected to an external HMI device. The HMI provides a graphical interface for operators to monitor
and control the PLC system. It allows users to visualize process variables, view alarms, and interact with
the PLC through buttons, switches, and touchscreens.

Presented By Deepak Waghade