Control System

Engineering
Prof. Amitkumar B. Panchal, Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL
PROBLEM
I. Introduction To Control System.
What is Control System?

 A system Controlling the operation of another system.

 A system that can regulate itself and another system also.

 A control System is a device, or set of devices to manage, command, direct or

regulate the behaviour of other device(s) or system(s).
Definitions
 System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.

 Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired response.

 Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The input and output
relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship of the process.

Input Process Output

Definitions
 Controlled Variable – It is the quantity or condition that is measured and
Controlled. Normally controlled variable is the output of the control system.

 Manipulated Variable – It is the quantity of the condition that is varied by the

controller so as to affect the value of controlled variable.

 Control – Control means measuring the value of controlled variable of the

system and applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or limit
the deviation of the measured value from a desired value.
Definitions
Manipulated Variable

Input
or Output
Set point Controller Process Or
or Controlled Variable
reference

Disturbances – A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of

the system. It is an unwanted input of the system.

• If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called internal

disturbance. While an external disturbance is generated outside the
system.
Simplest form of control system

Figure 1 Basic control system

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Control System Configurations
There are two major configurations of control systems:
1. Open-Loop System
2. Closed Loop System
Open-Loop System
 An open-loop control system output is dependent on input, but controlling
action or input is totally independent of the output or changes in output on
the system.
 The open-loop system is also called the non feedback system.

Figure 2 Basic open loop system

Image source: Control Systems By Ashfaq Husain,Haroon Ashfaq-Dhanpat Rai & Co.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Open-Loop Systems
Advantages:
1. Open-Loop systems are simple in construction and design.
2. These systems are economical.
3. These systems are easy from maintenance point of view.
4. There is no stability problem. Generally they are stable.
Disadvantages:
1. Open-Loop systems are less accurate and unreliable because accuracy of
such Systems are dependent on the controller.
2. If there are any disturbances, the output changes
3. Recalibration of the controller is required from time to time for maintaining
quality and accuracy.
Closed-Loop System
 A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on
the output or changes in output is called closed-loop system.
 In order to have dependence of input on the output, a closed-loop system
uses the feedback property.
 A system which maintains a prescribed relationship between the controlled
variable and the reference input, and uses the difference between them as a
signal to activate the control, is known as a feedback control system.
Closed-Loop System

Figure 3 Block diagram of closed loop system

Image source: Control Systems By Ashfaq Husain,Haroon Ashfaq-Dhanpat Rai & Co.
Advantages of Closed-Loop Systems
1. Closed-loop systems are more accurate than open-loop systems because of the
presence of feedback.
2. Closed-loop systems reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on the system
performance.
3. The sensitivity of the closed-loop systems for parameter variations is made small
by increasing the feedback loop gain.
4. The range of frequencies over which the system responds is increased because
of the increased bandwidth.
5. If an open-loop system is unstable, it is possible to make the system stable by
providing feedback.
6. There is reduced effect of nonlinearities in these systems
Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Systems
1. Closed-loop systems are more complex and costlier than open-loop systems
because of additional components required for providing feedback.

2. Feedback can be harmful to stability if it is not properly applied. The system tries
to correct the error time to time.
Feedback Control & Effects of Feedback
The feedback control is an operation in which the output is sampled and a
proportional signal is fed back to the input.
• Positive Feedback
• Negative Feedback
EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK:
1. Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
2. Effect of Feedback on Stability
3. Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
4. Effect of Feedback on External Disturbance or Noise
5. Effect of Feedback on Bandwidth, Impedance, Transient Response and
Frequency Response
Classification of Control System
Control Systems

LT var
I C ian
in

on t c
tro on
l S tro
Natural Man-made

ys l s
te ys
m te
s(L m
Manual Automatic

in s)
ea
r ti
m
Open-loop Closed-loop

e
Non-linear linear
Non-linear linear

Time variant Time invariant Time variant Time invariant

Examples of Control Systems

Water-level float regulator

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Examples of Control Systems

Manual Control System

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Examples of Morden Control Systems

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Transfer Function
What is Transfer Function?
 Transfer Function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of the input. Considering all initial conditions to zero.

x(t) y(t)
Plant

 ℒ [x(t)] = X(s) and ℒ [y(t)] = Y(s) ,where ℒ is Laplace operator

 Transfer function = Y(s) / X(s)
Why Laplace Transform?
 By use of Laplace transform we can convert many common functions into
algebraic function of complex variable s.
 For example

sin t  2 2
-----------(1)
OR
s  
1
e  at 
sa
 Where s is a complex variable (complex frequency) and is given as

s    j -----------(2)
Laplace Transform of Derivatives
 Not only common function can be converted into simple algebraic expressions
but calculus operations can also be converted into algebraic expressions.
 For example

dx( t ) -----------(3)
  sX ( S )  x( 0 )
dt

d 2 x( t ) 2 dx( 0 )
  s X ( S )  x( 0 )  -----------(4)
dt 2 dt
Laplace Transform of Derivatives
 In general

d n x( t )
  s n X ( S )  s n 1 x( 0 )    x n 1 ( 0 )
dt n
-----------(5)
 Where x(0 ) is the initial condition of the system.
Laplace Transform of Integrals

1
 x(t )dt  X ( S ) -----------(6)
s
Calculation of the Transfer Function
 Consider the following ODE where x(t) is input of the system and y(t) is the
output.
Ay ' ' (t )  Cx' (t )  By ' (t ) -----------(7)

 Taking the Laplace transform on either sides

A[ s 2Y ( s )  sY (0)  Y ' (0)]  C[ sX ( s )  X (0)]  B[ sY ( s )  Y (0)]

-----------(8)
Calculation of the Transfer Function

𝐴[𝑠 2 𝑌 (𝑠)− 𝑠𝑌 (0)−𝑌 ′ (0)]=𝐶[𝑠𝑋 (𝑠)− 𝑋 (0)]− 𝐵[𝑠𝑌 (𝑠)− 𝑌 (0)]

-----------(9)
 Considering Initial conditions to zero in order to find the transfer function of the
system 2
𝐴 𝑠 𝑌 (𝑠)=𝐶𝑠𝑋 (𝑠)− 𝐵𝑠𝑌 (𝑠)-----------(10)
 Rearranging the above equation

-----------(11)

-----------(12)

𝑌 (𝑠) 𝐶𝑠 𝐶
= = -----------(13)
𝑋 (𝑠) 𝐴 𝑠 +𝐵𝑠 𝐴𝑠+𝐵
2
Transfer Function
˙ ˙
( 𝑛) 𝑛 −1 (𝑚 ) 𝑚 −1
𝑎0 +𝑎 1 𝑦 + ⋯+𝑎 𝑛 −1 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 =𝑏 0 +𝑏 1 𝑥 +⋯+ 𝑏𝑚 −1 𝑥 +𝑏𝑚 𝑥(𝑛 ≥ 𝑚)
-----------(15)
 Where x is the input of the system and y is the output of the system.

Transfer function ¿
-----------(16)
What is Transfer Function?

-----------(16)

 When order of the denominator polynomial is greater than the numerator

polynomial the transfer function is said to be ‘proper’.

 Otherwise ‘improper’
Transfer Function

 Transfer function helps us to check

 The stability of the system

 Time domain and frequency domain characteristics of the system

 Response of the system for any given input

Stability of Control System

-----------(16)

 Roots of denominator polynomial of a transfer function are called ‘poles’.

 And the roots of numerator polynomials of a transfer function are called

‘zeros’.
II. Mathematical modelling
Basic Types of Mechanical Systems

 Linear mechanical system

 Rotational mechanical system

(a) (b)
Figure: (a) Linear mechanical system (b) Rotational mechanical system
Image Source: https://nl.m.wiktionary.org/wiki
Translational Mechanical System
Basic Elements of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational Translational Mass

i) Spring ii)

Translational
iii) Damper
Translational Spring
 A translational spring is a mechanical element that can be deformed by an
external force such that the deformation is directly proportional to the force
applied to it.
Translational Spring
i)

Circuit Symbols
Translational Spring
Image Source: http://www.thefreechoice.info/
Translational Spring
 If F is the applied force
x1
x2

 Then x1 is the deformation if x2  0 F

 Or ( x1  x 2 ) is the deformation.
F
 The equation of motion is given as F  k ( x1  x2 )

 Where k is stiffness of spring expressed in N/m

 Translational Mass
 Translational Mass is an inertia element. Translational
ii) Mass
 A mechanical system without mass does
not exist.

 If a force F is applied to a mass and it is

displaced to x meters then the relation
b/w force and displacements is given by
Newton’s law. x(t )

F (t )
M

F  Mx -----------(17)
 Translational Damper
 When the viscosity or drag is not
negligible in a system, we often model
them with the damping force. Translational
iii) Damper
 All the materials exhibit the property of
damping to some extent.

 If damping in the system is not enough

then extra elements (e.g. Dashpot) are
added to increase damping.
 Common Uses of Dashpots

Door Vehicle
Stoppers Suspension

Bridge Flyover
Suspension Suspension

Image Source:
http://www.google.com
Translational Damper

F  Cx -----------(18) F  C ( x 1  x 2 )
-----------(19)

 Where C is damping coefficient (N/ms-1).

Modelling a Simple Translational System
 Example-1: Consider a simple horizontal spring-mass system on a frictionless
surface, as shown in figure below.

mx  kx -----------(20)

mx  kx  0 -----------(21)
Example-2
 Consider the following system (friction is negligible)
k
x
F
M

fk
 Free Body Diagram M fM
F
 Where f k and f M are force applied by the spring and inertial force
respectively.
Example-2
fk
M fM
F

F  fk  fM -----------(22)

 Then the differential equation of the system is:

F  Mx  kx -----------(23)

 Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and ignoring initial conditions we get

F ( s )  Ms 2 X ( s )  kX ( s ) -----------(24)
Example-2
F ( s )  Ms 2 X ( s )  kX ( s ) -----------(25)
 The transfer function of the system is

X (s) 1
 -----------(26)
F (s) Ms 2  k
 if

M  1000kg X (s) 0. 001

1
 2 -----------(27)
k  2000 Nm F(s) s 2
Example-2
 The pole-zero map of the system is

X (s) 0. 001
 2
F(s) s 2
-----------(10)

Figure: Pole Zero Map of system

III. Block Diagram Reduction Technique.
Introduction to Block Diagram of system
 A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial representation of the cause-and-
effect relationship of a system.

 The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains a

description of or the name of the element, gain, or the symbol for the
mathematical operation to be performed on the input to yield the output.

 The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow.

d
x y
dt
Introduction to Block Diagram of system
 In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more than one block
or summing point, a takeoff (or pickoff) point is used.

 This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several different paths to
several destinations.
Example-1

x3  a1 x1  a 2 x 2  5
Example-1
x3  a1 x1  a 2 x 2  5
Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System

𝐶 𝐺
=
𝑅 1 ± 𝐺𝐻
---------(28)

𝐸 1
= ---------(29)
𝑅 1 ± 𝐺𝐻
𝐵 𝐺𝐻
= ---------(30)
𝑅 1 ± 𝐺𝐻
Characteristic Equation
 The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the system.

C( s ) G( s )
 ---------(31)
R( s ) 1  G( s ) H ( s )

 The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines the characteristic

equation of the system.

 Which is usually determined as: 1  G( s ) H ( s )  0 ---------(32)

Different transfer function
B( s ) G(s )
 G( s ) H ( s )
1. Open loop transfer function E( s )

C (s)
 G (s)
2. Feed Forward Transfer function E (s)

C( s ) G( s )

3. control ratio R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

4. feedback ratio
B( s )

G( s ) H ( s )
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
H (s)
E( s ) 1

5. error ratio R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )

6. closed loop transfer function R( s ) 1  G( s )H ( s )

1  G( s ) H ( s )  0
7. characteristic equation
Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade

G1 G2 G1G2

2. Combining blocks in parallel

G1
G1  G2
G2
Reduction techniques
3. Eliminating a feedback loop

G
G
1 GH
H

G
G
1 G

H 1
Reduction techniques
4. Moving a summing point behind a block

G G
G
5. Moving a summing point ahead a block

G G
1
G
Reduction techniques
6. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

G G
1
G

7. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block

G G
G
Reduction techniques
8. Swap with two neighboring summing points

A B B A
Reduce the following block diagram to canonical form.

H2

R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1
Reduce the following block diagram to canonical form.
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1 G2 G3
+

H1
Reduce the following block diagram to canonical form.

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
Reduce the following block diagram to canonical form.

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
Reduce the following block diagram to canonical form.

H2
G1
R _ G1G2 C
+_ + G3
1  G1G2 H1
Reduce the following block diagram to canonical form.

H2
G1
R _ G1G2G3 C
+_ +
1  G1G2 H1
Reduce the following block diagram to canonical form.
R G1G2G3 C
+_ 1  G1G2 H1  G2G3 H 2
IV. Signal Flow Graph.
 Introduction to signal flow graph
 Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed by Samuel
Jefferson Mason.

 Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula, also called Mason’s gain
formula.

 A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by

directed branches.

 It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and gives the
relationships among the signals.
Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
 Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y  ax
 The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;
a y
x
 Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

 Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by a Branch.

 Branches are always unidirectional.

 The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y1( s ) G11( s )  R1( s )  G12( s )  R2( s )

Y2( s ) G21( s )  R1( s )  G22( s )  R2( s )

R1 ( s ) Y1 ( s )

R2 ( s ) Y2 ( s )
Signal-Flow Graph Models
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs
a11 x1  a12 x2  r1 x1

a21 x1  a22 x2  r2 x2

r1 x1

r2 x2
Signal-Flow Graph Models
xo is input and x4 is output

f
c
x1  ax0  bx1  cx2 x0
a x1 d x2 g x3 h x4
x 2  dx1  ex3
x3  fx0  gx 2
b e
x 4  hx3
 Construct the signal flow graph
 There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four
nodes are required to construct the signal flow graph.
 Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the
associated branches.
𝒙 𝟐 = 𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐𝟑 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟑= 𝑨 𝟑𝟏 𝒙 𝟏+ 𝑨 𝟑𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝑨𝟑𝟑 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟒 = 𝑨𝟒𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝑨𝟒𝟑 𝒙 𝟑

 Another way to arrange this

graph is shown in the figure.
 Terminologies
 An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1

 An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4

 A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no node
is passed more than ones. i.e.,A forward path is a path from the input node to the
output node. i.e., X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
 A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on the
same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.
 Terminologies
 A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self loop.
 The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
 The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path. i.e.
the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
 The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain of
the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.
 Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have no
nodes in common.
Que:From signal flow graph identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
 There are two forward path
gains;
• There are four loops
• Nontouching loop
gains;
Que:From signal flow graph identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

b) Output node
Forward Paths
Feedback Paths or Loops
Feedback Paths or Loops
Feedback Paths or Loops
Feedback Paths or Loops

Feedback Paths or Loops

Self Loop(s)
Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
Path Gains of the Forward Paths
Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
 The block diagram reduction technique requires successive application of
fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the system transfer function.

 On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a single
transfer function requires the application of one formula.

 The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow graph
to the simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph.
Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
 The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph
is;
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1
Where 
R( s ) 
n = number of forward paths.
Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

 ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since

∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.
Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
 ∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains of
all possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the products of
the gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each other) + … and so
forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop gains

 ∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-th
forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
Systematic Approach
1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider pair non-touching loops at a time
4. Consider group of three non-touching loops at a time etc.
5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
6. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path i
Obtain transfer function using Mason’s rule.

There are two forward paths

𝑃 1= 𝐺1 𝐺 2 𝐺4 𝑃 2= 𝐺1 𝐺3 𝐺 4

Therefore, C P11  P2  2

R 
There are three feedback loops
L1  G1G4 H 1 , L2  G1G2 G4 H 2 , L3  G1G3G4 H 2
Obtain transfer function using Mason’s rule.

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

  1  L1  L2  L3 

  1  G1G4 H1  G1G2 G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2 

Obtain transfer function using Mason’s rule.

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
∆1 = 1
Eliminate forward path-2
∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
∆2 = 1
Obtain transfer function using Mason’s rule.

𝐶 𝑃 1 Δ 1 + 𝑃 2 Δ2 𝐺1 𝐺 2 𝐺 4 + 𝐺 1 𝐺 3 𝐺 4
= =
𝑅 Δ 1− 𝐺1 𝐺4 𝐻 1+𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺4 𝐻 2 +𝐺1 𝐺3 𝐺 4 𝐻 2

¿¿¿
References
1. Control Systems By Ashfaq Husain,Haroon Ashfaq-Dhanpat Rai & Co.
2. Control System Engineering By I.J. Nagrath, M. Gopal -New Age Publication.
3. Modern Control Engineering by Katsuhiko Ogata - 4th Edition, Prentice Hall
4. Feedback and Control Systems by Joseph J Distefano - 2nd Edition TMH.
5. Automatic Control System by B.C.Kuo- Wiley India
6. Control systems by N.C.Jaynn -2nd Edition, B.S. Publications
www.paruluniversity.ac.in