1.

2 Basic digital control system

In a closed loop control system
o Input to a controlled system is determined as a function
of the system output & the reference i/p.
o There is a mechanism to sense the plant output.
o Controller is used to feed the desired input to the
system so as to achieve a desired goal
• Disturbance rejection
• Steady state error
• Transient performance
• Sensitivity to parameter variation
o Actuator drives the plant taking input from controller
 Continued ……………..
Plant can be
• Linear or nonlinear
• Time variant or time invariant

Signals can be (response, sensor, desired)

• Continuous in space and time
• Discrete in space continuous in time
• Continuous in space but discrete in time
• Discrete in space and discrete in time
 Continued ……………..
figure : basic digital feedback control s/m layout

where
𝑟 𝑡 : reference input / desired output
𝑦 𝑡 : controlled output / actual output
𝑒 𝑡 : error
𝑢 𝑡 : control input
𝐴/𝐷: Analog to Digital converter
𝐷/𝐴: Digital to Analog converter
 Continued ……………..
 Regulation : process of holding 𝑦 𝑡 close to 𝑟 𝑡 .
 A s/m that has Good disturbance rejection
 Has good regulation in the presence of disturbance
signals.
 A s/m that has low sensitivity to parameter variations
Has good regulation in the face of changes in the
plant parameters.
 Robust s/m :
Has both Good disturbance rejection and low
sensitivity to parameter variations.
 Steps in digital feedback realization
 Step 1- Analysis of closed loop system
• Modeling of the system
• Determining the control goals and the required control
efforts
 Step 2- design of digital controller
• Determine the required sensors and actuators
• Design the controller based on models
 Step 3- realization of digital controller
• Simulate the controller on model of the system
• Implement the controller using digital computer or
other hard ware
• Test the system performance
• Loop back
 1.3 Description of discrete time systems
 Description of discrete time systems
a) Difference equation method
b) Transform method /Transfer function method/
c) Impulse response method
d) State space method
 Analysis of discrete time systems
 Analysis based on difference equation
 Analysis based on transform method
 Analysis using impulse response method
 Analysis using state space method
 Continued ……………..
 Assume 𝑦 be the output of the s/m and 𝑢 be the input of
the system, then the system can be represented by the
following 4 methods.
a) Difference /recurrence/ equation method
o General form is
𝒚 𝒌 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒚 𝒌 − 𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚 𝒌 − 𝟐 +. . . . +𝒂𝒏 𝒚 𝒌 − 𝒏 =
𝒃𝟎 𝒖 𝒌 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒖 𝒌 − 𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒖 𝒌 − 𝟐 +. . . . +𝒃𝒎 𝒖 𝒌 − 𝒎

o The initial conditions 𝑦(−1), 𝑦(−2) etc. should be given

o Difference equation may be obtained from differential
equations describing systems or continuous controllers.
 Continued ……………..
b) Transfer method/Transfer function method/
o A transform method used for digital systems is Z
transform.
o It is a transform for number sequences.
o Similar to continuous time systems:
 transfer function of a discrete time system 𝐻(𝑧) is
given by the ratio of Z-transform of output 𝑦(𝑘) to
the Z transform of the input 𝑢(𝑘).
𝓏 𝑦(𝑘) 𝑌(𝑧)
𝐻 𝑧 = =
𝓏 𝑢(𝑘) 𝑈(𝑧)

Where 𝑦 𝑘 = 𝑢 𝑘 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 < 0

 Continued ……………..
c) Impulse response method
 When the input to a discrete system is the unit
impulse sequence, the output of the system 𝒚(𝒌) =
𝒉(𝒌), assuming zero initial condition of system.

1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 0
where 𝑢 𝑘 = 𝛿 𝑘 = ቊ
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≠ 0
d) State space method
• State equation is set of first order difference equations
• state space equation of discrete time systems is
𝑥 𝑘 + 1 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑘 + 𝐺𝑢 𝑘
y 𝑘 = 𝐶𝑥 𝑘 + 𝐷𝑢 𝑘
 Discrete approximation to Integration
Suppose we have a continuous signal 𝑒(𝑡) of which a segment is
sketched in below and we wish to compute an approximation to the
integral
𝑡
𝐽 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
using only the discrete values 𝑒(0) , 𝑒(1) , 𝑒(2) , . . . , 𝑒(𝑡𝑘−1 ), 𝑒 𝑡𝑘 .
 1.4. Euler's method of digital approximation
 Euler’s method of Digital Approximation
 From the definition of derivative
∆𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Discrete approximation of a 1st order derivative of a

function is:
𝒙 𝒌+𝟏 −𝒙(𝒌)
𝒙ሶ 𝒕 ≅
𝑻
E.g. for a sampling period of 0.25 seconds, find the
discrete equivalent of:
𝒔−𝟐
a) 𝑯(𝒔) = 𝟏𝟎
𝒔+𝟒
b) 𝒖(𝒕)
ሷ + 𝟐𝒖ሶ 𝒕 = 𝒆(𝒕)
 1.5. Constant coefficient Difference equations /CCDE/
 for a controller that have an input of 𝑒𝑘 and output of 𝑢𝑘 , the
𝑖𝑡ℎ o/p can be expressed by:
𝒖 𝒌 = −𝒂𝟏 𝒖 𝒌 − 𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒖 𝒌 − 𝟐 −. . . . −𝒂𝒏 𝒖 𝒌 − 𝒏 +
𝒃𝟎 𝒆 𝒌 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒆 𝒌 − 𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒆 𝒌 − 𝟐 +. . . . +𝒃𝒎 𝒆 𝒌 − 𝒎

 CCDE: a difference equation with constant coefficients.

 Stable s/m :
 have a decaying response with bound for any
finite initial conditions.
 All poles have a magnitude of less than 1.
 Continued ……………..
 consider the following equation with no inputs.
𝒖 𝒌 =𝒖 𝒌−𝟏 +𝒖 𝒌−𝟐 ,𝒖 𝟎 =𝟎 ,𝒖 𝟏 =𝟏
Its solution can be obtained by defining an assumption and
solving it by using the initial conditions:
𝒖 𝒌 = 𝜷𝒁𝒌 , Z&𝜷 ≠𝟎
Finally,

𝒌 𝒌
𝟐 𝟓 𝟏 𝟓 𝟏 𝟓
⇒𝒖 𝒌 = + − −
𝟓 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟓
here since + > 1, the system is unstable.
𝟐 𝟐
 1.6 Sample and Hold
Sampling
 process of converting a continuous analog signal to a
discrete signal.
 Modulation process in which a pulse train 𝒑(𝒕) with a
magnitude of 1Τ𝜎 and a period 𝑇 multiplies a
continuous function 𝒇(𝒕) and produces a sampled
function 𝑓 ∗ (𝑡).

Where 𝒑 𝒕 = σ∞
𝒌=𝟎 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒌𝑻
 Continued ……………..
 Sampler
 have infinite switching frequency
 output of the sampler 𝒇∗ (𝒕) is a series of impulse signals
whose amplitude is equal to the original signal 𝑓 𝑡 .
𝒇 𝒕 𝒇∗ (𝒕) = 𝒇 𝒌𝑻
𝒑 𝒕
Where 𝒇∗ (𝒕) = 𝒇(𝒕) ∗ 𝒑 𝒕
= 𝒇(𝒕) ∗ σ∞
𝒌=−∞ 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒌𝑻
= σ∞
𝒌=−∞ 𝒇(𝒕) ∗ 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒌𝑻
= 𝒇(𝒌𝑻)
T: sampling period / interval
𝜹: impulse function
In general,
𝒇 𝒌𝑻 = 𝒇(𝒕) ∗ 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒌𝑻
 Continued ……………..
o E.g. Find the sampled o/p of the following signals. {Assume
a sampling period f 2 seconds}.
a) 𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡
b) 𝑓 𝑡 = 1 𝑡 − 2(𝑡 − 2)

Sampled signals
 Easier to transmit
 Easily regenerated
 Easy for coding
 Can be easily multiplexed
 Continued ……………..
Sampler is introduced to improve dynamic behavior of control
loop
 Better reliability
 Better sensitivity behavior
 Noise reduction
 Less weight
 Less hardware cost
 Less software/ maintenance cost
Sampled control
 Multiple use of expensive equipment
 Usually in controlled system data are available/ modified
in certain instants only {e.g., Radar control, chemical
analysis, }
 Naturally discrete {E.g. Stepping motor, encoders}
 Continued……………………
Data hold
 converts the sampled analog signal into a continuous
time analog signal.
 approximates an ideal low pass filter
 three types of data hold circuits
• Zero order hold, first order hold and second
order hold.
 Zero order hold
 takes the value of the sampled analog signal at 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑇
and holds it constant for the time interval of 𝑘𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 <
(𝑘 + 1)𝑇.
o E.g. find the sampled and ZOH output of
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑟 𝑡 −2 𝑡−2
 1.7 Digitization

Fig. Block diagram of continuous and discrete control systems

 Difference between the two implementations
Comparison Parameter Digital control s/m Continuous control s/m
Input to the controller Sampled digital signal Continuous analog signal
Dynamics representation Using difference 𝑒𝑞 𝑛 Using differential 𝑒𝑞 𝑛
Physical construction Using digital computers Using Analog Electronics.
 1.8 Discrete TF of a continuous s/m
preceded by a ZOH

 Consider that the sampled input signals to the D/A converter

are unit impulse analog signal as the following:
𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒌 = 𝟎
𝒖 𝒌𝑻 = ቊ
𝟎 𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒆𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
Then the Discrete TF of a continuous s/m preceded by a ZOH
is:
𝑮(𝒔)
𝑮 𝒛 = 𝟏 − 𝒛−𝟏 ∗ 𝔃 𝓛−𝟏 ቚ
𝑺 𝒕=𝒌𝑻
𝟐
E.g.: Find the discrete TF of a continuous s/m 𝑮 𝒔 =
𝑺(𝑺+𝟒)
1.9 Analysis of Sample and Hold

Fig : A/D with Sample and Hold Circuit

 1.10 Sampling operation by using Impulse
Modulation
 In the analysis of continuous signals, sampled signals can
be included by using Laplace transform technique.
 Consider the following sampler:
𝒇(𝒕) 𝒇∗ (𝒕) = 𝒇(𝒌𝑻)
Output of the sampler 𝑓 ∗ (𝑡) is
𝒇∗ (𝒕) = σ∞
𝒌=−∞ 𝒇 𝒕 ∗ 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝒌𝑻 = 𝒇 𝒌𝑻

Laplace Transform of the sampler output signal

𝓛 𝒇∗ (𝒕) = 𝑭∗ 𝒔 = σ∞
𝒌=−∞ 𝒇 𝒌𝑻 𝒆 −𝒔𝒌𝑻

 E.g.: Find the Laplace transform of the sampled o/p of a

unit step input signal to the sampler.