Biology 12 Chapter 14 Digestive System and Nutrients Notes (Ve 2.

10) P a g e 1 | 10
: Digestive System and Nutrition











Biology 12 Chapter 14 Digestive System and Nutrients Notes (Ve 2.10) P a g e 2 | 10

Digestion
The process of involves mechanical digestion of food to smaller pieces and
chemical digestion by specific enzymes.
It begins in the mouth and ends at then anus
Digestion functions to




The Mouth
enclose the mouth.
Its roof is formed by the hard (at front
of mouth; has bones) and soft (at back
of mouth; no bones, just muscles)
that separate it from the
nasal cavities.
Soft palate ends in .
Three pairs of send
into the mouth.
at the back sides protect against
infections.

The teeth
20 deciduous (baby) teeth are replaced by
32 adult teeth. Each tooth has
.
The crown has a layer of enamel, dentin,
and an inner pulp with nerves and blood
vessels that extend into the root.
Fluoride treatments make tooth enamel
stronger and reduce dental caries or
cavities.
With aging, inflammation of the gums and
periodontal membrane are more serious.

The pharynx
The air passage and food passage cross in the . Swallowing is a reflex action.
The air passage is usually blocked off by the and , and the
moves under the to cover the opening to the windpipe.
Breathing and swallowing cannot occur at the same time.



Biology 12 Chapter 14 Digestive System and Nutrients Notes (Ve 2.10) P a g e 3 | 10
The Esophagus
This muscular tube conducts food through the and

begins in the ; this collapsed tube moves the bolus of food
downward after swallowing occurs.
is a burning pain when acidic
stomach contents enter the esophagus.

The Wall of the Digestive Tract
The has four layers:
o (mucous membrane),
o (loose connective
tissue),
o (smooth muscle),
o And (serous membrane).

The Stomach
The expands to store food (up
to 4L).
Food in the stomach is churned, mixing
the food with gastric juices containing
hydrochloric acid and pepsin (for the
digestion of protein to peptides).
In 2-6 hours, the soupy leaves
the stomach by way of
.
, open sores in the wall of the
stomach are usually caused by a
bacterial infection that prevents
protective mucus from being produced.

The Intestine
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The Small Intestine
The averages about 6 meters
in length; it has a slightly basic pH.
The first 25cm is the that receives
bile (emulsifies fat) from the as
well as pancreatic juice that contains pancreatic
lipase, trypsin for digestion of protein to
peptides, and lipase for digestion of fat to
glycerol and fatty acids.
Pancreatic juice contains NaHCO
3
that is basic
and neutralizes the acidic chyme.
Enzymes that finish the process of digestion are
produced by the intestinal wall.
Wall of the small intestine have finger-like
projections called where nutrient
molecules are absorbed into the cardiovascular
and lymphatic system.
The small lymphatic capillary in a villus is called a .

Regulations of Digestive Secretions
Both the nervous system and hormones regulate .
In response to eating protein-rich foods, the is produced by the lower
part of the stomach and flows through the bloodstream to stimulate the stomach to
produce digestive juice.
The produces to inhibit gastric gland
secretion.
The and ) are produced by the duodenal wall
and stimulate the pancreas to secrete digestive juice and the gallbladder to release
The Large Intestine
The consists of the

The large intestine does not produce
digestive enzymes but does absorb water
salts, and some vitamins
The is an extension of the
cecum
Indigestible material is stored in the
until the anus allows defecation
in the feces break
down indigestible material and produce
some vitamins that we use
Biology 12 Chapter 14 Digestive System and Nutrients Notes (Ve 2.10) P a g e 5 | 10
Water tests that show the presence of Escherichia coil indicate water is contaminated and
unsafe for swimming/drinking.
The digestive system - an animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5lyQUtq1KQ&feature=kp
Polyps
are small growths arising from the epithelial lining that may be benign or
cancerous
Consuming fat may increase the risk of colon cancer, while consuming fiber may
decrease the risk of colon cancer
Diarrhea and Constipation
Causes of include infection of the lower tract and nervous stimulation, both
moving feces more rapidly than normal, but also causing dehydration if prolonged
Water and fiber in the diet can prevent where the feces become too dry
are enlarged and inflamed blood vessels at the anus.
Question
1. How do we taste?
Answer: Sensory receptors called occur primarily on the tongue, and when these
are activated by the presence of food, nerve impulses travel by way of cranial nerves to the
brain.

2. What is dental caries, and how/why does it occur?
Answer: Tooth decay, called , or cavities, occurs when bacteria within the mouth
metabolize sugar and give off acids, which erode teeth. It is commonly caused by eating a
substantial amount of sweets, not brushing and flossing of teeth regularly and so on.

3. Trace the path of the food from the mouth to the large intestine.
Answer:

4. Why cant we breathe and swallow at the same time? What happens when food goes
down the wrong way?
Answer: The air passage and food passage cross in the pharynx which takes food to the
. When we swallow, the soft palate closes off the , and the
moves up under the to cover the glottis. The is the opening to the larynx
(voice box), and therefore the air passage. During swallowing, food normally enters the
esophagus because the air passages are blocked.
When food goes down the wrong way, which may be either into the nasal cavities or into the
trachea. If it is the latter, will most likely force the food up out of the trachea and into
the pharynx again.

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5. i) What is a sphincter and ii) why is there a sphincter at the opening of your stomach
and esophagus?
Answer: i) are muscles that encircle tubes and act as valves; the tubes close when
sphincters contract, and they open when sphincters relax. The entrance of the esophagus to the
stomach is marked by a constriction that is often called a sphincter, although the muscle is not
as developed as it would be in a true sphincter.
ii) Relaxation of the sphincter allows the bolus to pass into the stomach, while contraction
prevents the acidic contents of the stomach from backing up into the esophagus.

6. What do the 4 layers of the walls of the esophagus do? (Not what are they made; do
not answer for muscularis)
A layer of epithelium supported by connective
tissue and smooth muscle lines the lumen (central cavity) and contains glandular epithelial
cells that secrete digestive enzymes and goblet cells that secrete mucus.
A broad band of loose connective tissue that
contains blood vessels lies beneath the mucosa. Lymph nodules, including some called
Peyers patches, are in the submucosa. Like the tonsils, they help protect us from disease.
Two layers of smooth muscle make up this
section. The inner, circular layer encircles the gut; the outer, longitudinal layer lies in the
same direction as the gut. (The stomach also has oblique muscles.)
Most of the digestive tract has a serosa, a very
thin, outermost layer of squamous epithelium supported by connective tissue. The serosa
secretes a serous fluid that keeps the outer surface of the intestines moist so that the
organs of the abdominal cavity slide against one another.

7. What is a hormone?
Answer: A is a substance produced by one set of cells that affects a different set of
cells, the so-called target cells. Hormones are usually transported by the bloodstream.

8. What is the purpose of diarrhea?
Answer: It is to purge substances which the body perceived as harmful by decreasing the time
they remain in the body. So, it's not an entirely useless condition. However, other conditions can
also cause diarrhea, such as food sensitivity and gastrointestinal inflammation.
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Common Duct
The of digestion send secretions
They are:
o
o
o
The Pancreas
The produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes for carbohydrates
(i.e., salivary amylase), protein (i.e., trypsin), and fat (i.e., lipase) digestion.
The pancreas is also en that secretes insulin and glucagon to help regulate
blood glucose levels.
The Liver
The produces , which is stored in the gallbladder.
The liver receives blood from the small intestine by way of the .
The liver regenerates very rapidly, although it is possible to irreversibly harm it
The liver:
o
o
o
o
Biology 12 Chapter 14 Digestive System and Nutrients Notes (Ve 2.10) P a g e 8 | 10
o
o
o
Liver Disorders
is a yellowish tint to eyes and skin that
indicates abnormal levels of bilirubin in the blood
is inflammation of the liver; different strains
of virus cause , etc.
o (Hep A: drinking sewage contaminated water;
Hep B: Unprotected sex, contaminated blood
transfusions)
is scar tissue that can form when the liver is
diseased or killed by alcohol concentrations
The Gallbladder
The , which is a sac attached to the
liver, stores bile until it is sent to the
duodenum. Water is reabsorbed in the
gallbladder making the bile thick;
Assists in fat digestions; bile emulsifies fat
are crystals of cholesterol;
gallstones may block the bile duct of the
gallbladder, in which case it must be removed.





None.





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The Fundamentals Digestion and Enzymes in The Human Body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5TaS0-VaDo
Enzymes in digestion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_pDxx2s0Ck

Hydrolytic Enzymes
are present in digestive juices and introduce water at specific bonds
to break down food into sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol
are absorbed into the blood capillaries of the villi
rejoin in the villi to produce lipoprotein droplets which enter
the lacteals
speed specific reactions and functions best at a warm body
temperature an optimum pH
For digestion to occur,



1) List 8 digestive enzymes, what each one breaks down and into what it converts the
breakdown products.
Answer: Refer to Table 14.3 on the top of this page.

Digestion takes place within a tube called the digestive tract, which begins with the mouth and ends with
the anus. Digestion involves mechanical and chemical digestion.
The Mouth
Biology 12 Chapter 14 Digestive System and Nutrients Notes (Ve 2.10) P a g e 10 | 10
The mouth receives food and contains the sensory receptors that make eating food an
enjoyable experience. Due to enzymes in saliva, chemical digestion begins in the mouth.
The Teeth
The teeth begin the process of mechanical digestion.
The Pharynx
The pharynx is a region that receives air from the nasal cavities and food from the mouth.
Swallowing occurs in the pharynx. The epiglottis covers the opening to the larynx.
The Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube that passes from the pharynx to the stomach.
Peristalsis pushes the food along the digestive tract.
The Wall of the Digestive Tract
The wall of the esophagus has four layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.
The Stomach
The stomach receives food from the esophagus, stores food, starts the digestion of proteins, and
moves food into the small intestine.
The Small Intestine
The wall of the small intestine contains fingerlike projections called villi that aid in the
absorption of nutrients.
Regulation of Digestive Secretions
The secretion of digestive juices is promoted by the nervous system and by hormones.
The Large Intestine
The large intestine absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins. It stores indigestible material until it is
eliminated at the anus.

The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are accessory digestive organs.
The Pancreas
The pancreas is an endocrine gland that secretes insulin and glucagon to keep blood glucose
levels within normal limits. For the purposes of digestion, it is an exocrine gland. It produces
pancreatic juice, pancreatic amylase, trypsin, and lipase to aid in digestion.
The Liver
The liver acts as the gatekeeper to the blood. It maintains the blood glucose level and
produces bile.
The Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores bile.

The various digestive enzymes present in the digestive juices help break down carbohydrates, proteins,
nucleic acids, and fats. The enzymes required for digestion work at particular pH optimum.