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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL. 14, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
I. INTRODUCTION
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image can be obtained [15], [16]. Because of the difculty in inverting the invariant representation to provide the watermarked
image, we take the template approach given in [16], and insert
a template composed of 14 points into the DFT domain of the
image besides a watermark. Those points are distributed uniformly along two lines (seven points per line), which go through
the origin (usually the center of the DFT domain of the image)
at angles and as illustrated in Fig. 1. The angles and radii
(the distance from the point to the origin) of each point are
chosen pseudorandomly. It is known that an image, which has
undergone a linear transformation, will have undergone the inverse linear transformation in the DFT domain. Thus, the two
lines going through the origin will still cross the origin, and go
through the same transformation. Exploiting this knowledge, a
matched template can be found in the distorted image by an exhaustive search. The parameter of such a transform can then be
identied, and the inverse process can be applied to compensate
for the distortion prior to watermark detection.
III. WATERMARK DETECTION USING ECPM
A. Estimating Chaotic Parameters Based on Ergodic Theory
Considering a 1-D chaotic map
,
is the
sequence of chaotic signal generated by this map and is within
the chaotic regime
. According to the Birkhoff erexists
godic theorem [8], the limit
and is equal to the constant
. This limit is independent
of the initial condition
and is only determined by the bifurcating parameter . In other words, each bifurcating parameter
has a unique invariant ergodic measure for
the chaotic map . We use the term mean value function to
represent this relationship, i.e.,
. Fig. 2 is plotted for
the mean value function of the Chebyshev map dened by
(4)
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL. 14, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
Fig. 2.
Mean value curve of the chaotic signals generated by the Chebyshev map using different bifurcating parameters.
and
. Equa(7)
If
is the corresponding parameter that generates
, we
have
as
. Using the standard assumption
that
in (5) is a zero-mean white Gaussian process, i.e.,
as
, we have
, and
furthermore
. Therefore, if the mean value
function
is known, we can obtain an accurate estimate of
by inverting
. That is,
. The monotone property of
guarantees the existence of
.
Since an analytical expression of
for a chaotic map is
usually difcult to derive, we can estimate by minimizing the
objective function as
(8)
with respect to
(9)
A small MSE value indicates a better detection performance.
The simulation results are plotted in Fig. 4. It is seen that as
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Fig. 3. Unimodal objective function J () for the Chebyshev map with = 1:65.
Fig. 4. Error performance comparison between the ECPM approach and the SS scheme versus SNR values.
the SNR value decreases, the performance of the SS scheme degrades signicantly. Only at high SNR, the SS scheme achieves
a performance close to that of the ECPM approach. In addition,
the MSE curve of the ECPM approach is relatively smooth and
at, indicating that the proposed scheme is not sensitive to the
noise power, as long as the noise mean is close to zero. There-
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL. 14, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
Fig. 5. Real mean values of the image pixels and the estimated values using Wiener lter.
^
,
and
are the variances
where
of
and
, respectively. Although
cannot be obtained
directly, an estimate of the watermarked image can be obtained
as
. It is expected that
is
close to , unless the watermarked image has been damaged
to a level that it cannot be further used for commercial purpose.
Therefore, (12) can be expressed as
(10)
(13)
where ,
and
denote the ensemble averages of the original image pixel, the watermark, and the distortion, respectively.
From (10), the mean of the original image
has to be determined for the estimation of the watermark mean. In other words,
the interference from the host data has to be removed. Since the
original image is not available in blind detection, we employ
Wiener lter to estimate
here. Wiener ltering is commonly
used in image restoration and denoising [19]. It exhibits optimal
performance when both image and noise statistics are Gaussian.
Suppose that the mean of the whole image can be written as
The variance
can be calculated as
. And
can be determined by a priori.
That is, it can be obtained by applying a large amount of tests
on images. The simulation results as plotted in Fig. 5 show that
Wiener lter can estimate the mean value of the original image
pixels accurately. The MSE between the real and the estimated
values is as small as
.
With an estimated value of , the interference from the host
image can be removed effectively. The estimated mean value of
the chaotic watermark can then be obtained according to (10) as
(11)
(14)
can be assumed as a Gaussian random variable with the mean
. Since a watermark has to be imperceptible, it is a much
weaker signal compared to image pixels. Therefore,
can be treated as a small Gaussian noise added to , and can
be estimated accurately from the distorted watermarked image
by
(12)
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(15)
if
if
(16)
where
is a threshold for decision making. In this study, we
and
. That
choose to be the midpoint between
. Comparing the estimated mean
is,
value of the watermark to , we have
Recall that
and assume that the distoris a random variable, which has a normal distribution
tion
can be
with zero mean and variance . The variance of
written as
(17)
When the transmitted symbol is 0, we have
in (15). And (17) becomes
as given
(23)
(18)
Using (23), the probability of error detection in (22) can be further written as
(19)
for the transmitted symbol 1. If we dene
(20)
(24)
as the mean distance of the two corresponding bifurcating parameters, (18) and (19) can be further written as
for
(21)
Equation (24) indicates that using a large value of the sequence length , the scalar , or the mean distance
can
produce less detection errors. Figs. 79 plot the theoretical BER
curves derived above with the corresponding Monte Carlo simulations. In the simulations, the image Lena as shown in Fig. 6
is used as the host image. A binary sequence is randomly generated as the information signal to be transmitted. Each information bit is modulated into the bifurcating parameter as described
above to generate the watermark. Noise is added to the watermarked image. Using the ECPM method, the information bit is
retrieved and compared to the original one. The number of error
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL. 14, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
Fig. 7.
Theoretical and empirical BER curves versus different mean distances for the Chebyshev map with N = 1024, = 5 and = 2.
bits is counted and divided by the total amount of binary information, providing the bit-error rate (BER).
In Fig. 7, the scalar , the sequence length , and the variance of additive noise are set as 2, 1024, and 5, respectively.
The curves are plotted versus different values of mean distances.
Although the mean distance ranges from 0 to 0.8528 for the
Chebyshev map, we vary the mean distance between 0.0716 and
0.8528 in our experiments. From the gure, it is found that there
is a drastic improvement in BER when the mean distance is over
0.25. Therefore, to achieve a satisfactory detection, we take two
bifurcating parameters with the mean distance of at least 0.25.
The empirical curve is found to uctuate around the theoretical
one and the difference is quite small.
Fig. 8 depicts the BER values versus sequence length.
varies between 60 and 1000 with a step size of 10. The theoretical BER value is close to zero when becomes larger than
300. Again, the empirical curve is very close to the theoretical
BER. In Fig. 9, the relationship between the BER and noise variance is illustrated. The BER value is reduced when the noise
variance gets smaller. All three analyzes show that the experimental results are consistent with the analytical probability of
error derived in (24).
It should also be noted from (24) that the interference from
the host image has no direct impact on the error performance,
which is quite different from the conventional SS watermarking
scheme. According to the theoretical analysis given in [20], the
error performance of the SS watermarking scheme can be expressed as
(25)
Fig. 8.
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Theoretical and empirical BER curves versus different sequence lengths for the Chebyshev map with
1M = 0:5089,
Fig. 9. Theoretical and empirical BER curves versus different value of noise variances for the Chebyshev map with
= 5, and
= 2.
Our experiments are divided into two parts. The rst type
of experiments investigates the robustness performance of the
three watermarking schemes under different kinds of attacks.
The sequence length is set as 512 for all three schemes. For
fair comparison, the power of the inserted watermark signal is
controlled at the same level so that the delity degradations introduced by the three watermark insertions are the same. For the
ECPM approach, the Chebyshev map in (4) is used to generate
the chaotic watermark. The bifurcating parameters are selected
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Fig. 10.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL. 14, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
BER performance comparison of the holographic method, the ISS scheme, and the ECPM approach under the rotating attack for different rotation angles.
as
and
, providing a mean distance of
0.6662. For the ISS scheme, a -sequence is employed as the
spreading sequence.
The second type of experiments evaluates the impact of the
on the robustness performance of the ISS
sequence length
as
scheme and the ECPM approach when
analyzed above. The sequence length is set as 127, 255, 512,
is equal to 28.4046 for
and 1023, respectively. And
is equal to 63.441 for the ISS
the ECPM approach, while
scheme. As for the holographic method, although it is different
from the ISS scheme by the way of watermark embedding, it
also employs a normalized correlator to do the detection. Thus,
the sequence length has the same impact on this method as on
the ISS scheme. So we do not take it for the performance comparison in this test.
A. Image Rotation
With the use of template matching, the rotation attack can
be compensated for by identifying the rotation angle and then
rotating the image back. Hence, the introduced distortion only
comes from the interpolation due to image rotation. The BER
curves for the three different schemes are plotted in Fig. 10. The
rotating angle is the degree that the original watermarked image
has been rotated, and is set as 45, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, and
5, respectively. It can be seen that the ECPM approach has a
better performance than the ISS scheme when the rotation angle
is large, for 30 and above. Both schemes are found to be more
robust than the holographic method.
Fig. 11 is plotted the results for the second experiment. It is
found that even when the sequence length is as short as 127, the
ECPM approach still can achieve a very good performance. As
for the ISS scheme, when is decreased to 255, the detection
Fig. 11.
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BER performance comparison for different sequence lengths between ISS and ECPM under the rotation attack by 30 .
Fig. 12. BER performance comparison of the holographic method, the ISS scheme, and the ECPM approach under the cropping attack for different cropping
parameter.
D. Image Compression
Image compression addresses the problem of reducing the
amount of the data for transmission and storage. It is now an
essential component in all image and multimedia systems. In
Fig. 16, the BER curves are plotted for the three watermarking
schemes under JPEG compression. The quality factor 10, 20, 30,
40, 50, 60, and 70 is used as the compression factor, respectively.
The ECPM approach outperforms the holographic method, but
is slightly better than the ISS scheme when the quality factor is
as small as 10, 20, or 30. Fig. 17 plots the performances under
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Fig. 13.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL. 14, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
BER performance comparison for different sequence lengths between ISS and ECPM under the cropping attack with the cropping parameter equal to 0.4.
Fig. 14. BER performance comparison of the holographic method, the ISS scheme, and the ECPM approach under the median ltering attack for different ltering
parameters.
Fig. 16.
factors.
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BER performance comparison of the holographic method, the ISS scheme, and the ECPM approach under the JPEG compression for different quality
Fig. 15. BER performance comparison for different sequence lengths between ISS and ECPM under the median ltering with the ltering parameter equal to 3.
machines. For the holographic method and the ISS scheme, because correlation requires many multiplication operations, the
speed is relatively slow.
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we propose a novel watermarking scheme called
ECPM for digital images. The information signal is modulated
into the bifurcating parameter of a chaotic dynamical system.
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Fig. 17.
to 30.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL. 14, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2005
BER performance comparison for different sequence lengths between ISS scheme and ECPM under the JPEG compression with the quality factor equal
Siyue Chen (S00) received the M.S. degree in electrical and computer engineering from the University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, in 2001. She is
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Calgary.
Her research interests include chaos, multimedia signal processing, digital
watermarking, and data hiding.