British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Joseph Shabalala: Chronicles of an African Composer

Author(s): Christopher Ballantine
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 5 (1996), pp. 1-38
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060865
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BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala:
ch ro nicle s o f an Af rican
co mp o s e r
Ch ris to p h e r
Ballantine
Ngalo kh u
s ikh umwnbula u Jo h n
Blacking
Eth no mus ico lo gis ts ge ne rally
h ave labo ure d unde r th e
ide o lo gy
th at th e mus ic
th e y
s tudie d
be lo nge d
to s o cie tie s th at we re
culturally h o mo ge ne o us .
Mus ic h as be e n tre ate d as a kind
o f
mys tical o utp o uring
o f a f o lk co lle ctive , and th e dive rs ity
o f
s ingular,
cre ative
individuals h as te nde d to be
igno re d.
In th e cas e o f Af rica, th is h as
large ly
le d to th e
p re s ump tio n
o f a co ntine nt f ull o f mus ic but e mp ty
o f
co mp o s e rs . Agains t
th is
ide o lo gy,
th is
p ap e r p ro p o s e s
th e ne e d f o r a
p re cis e
e th no grap h y
o f th e cre ative
p ro ce s s . Making
a
cas e
s tudy
o f th e
co mp o s e r Jo s e p h Sh abalala, it lo o ks at, inte r alia, as p e cts
o f h is
e ducatio n as a
co mp o s e r,
h is me th o ds o f
co mp o s ing,
and s o me s o cial, ae s th e tic and
e ducatio nal is s ue s re late d to h is wo rk as a
co mp o s e r.
It als o intro duce s s o me o f
Sh abalala's o wn writte n
th o ugh ts
o n
co mp o s ing
mus ic.
( NE OF THE MANY THEMES o f Jo h n
Blacking's
wo rk was an
argume nt
agains t
th e vie w th at Af rican mus ic h ad no
co mp o s e rs .
"Th e ide a s till
p e rs is ts ",
h e no te d o n o ne o ccas io n,
"th at in th e rural are as o f s ub-Sah aran Af rica,
mus ic was and is
co mp o s e d by
s o me kind o f 'f o lk co lle ctive "',
in
"quas i-mys tical
acts o f co mmunal
cre ativity."
Th is
no tio n,
h e s tate d
baldly,
is a
myth -but
it
de rive s its
le gitimacy
f ro m "th e o bno xio us and
de ro gato ry
te rm 'e th nic
mus ic', by
wh ich
p e o p le
o f te n
cate go rize
mus ic th at was
ap p are ntly
no t cre ate d
by gre at
o r
kno wn
co mp o s e rs " ( 1989: 17).
And th is
myth ,
h e
argue d e ls e wh e re , was linke d to
ano th e r: th e be lie f th at be caus e Af rican mus ic is no t writte n do wn,
it mus t
th e re f o re aris e
s p o ntane o us ly ( 1985: 17). Th o ugh
th e s e is s ue s we re
amo ng
h is
p articular
co nce rns ,
Blacking
is no t th e
o nly
o ne to h ave rais e d th e m. Ve it
Erlmann, f o r ins tance , h as be e n
e qually f o rth righ t,
and h as h inte d at th e
de p th
o f
th e
p ro ble m.
It is no t
s imp ly
th at
"e th no mus ico lo gis ts
o f Af rican
p e rf o rmance
s e e m to h ave made little
h e adway
in
e xp lo ring
th e diale ctic o f individual
cre ativity,
cultural ae s th e tics and co lle ctive
p ro ce s s e s
o f mus ic
making."
Mo re
crucial, p e rh ap s ,
is th e f act th at "until
re ce ntly
Af ricanis ts h ave de mo ns trate d
o nly
a
p as s ing
inte re s t in th e ide a th at Af rican individuals h ad th e ir o wn
co ns cio us ne s s ". Attitude s s uch as th e s e
e xp lain,
in
p art, wh y
individual
cre ativity
ap p e ars
as th e e xclus ive
p re ro gative
o f s o -calle d "art" o r "clas s ical" traditio ns ,
'In
me mo ry
o f Jo h n
Blacking.
I
VOL. 5
1996
2 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5
( 1996)
and
wh y
it is th e s e cultural co nte xts -rath e r th an Af rican culture -th at are we ll
s e rve d
by
s tudie s
f o cus ing
o n
"as p e cts
o f individual
mus icians h ip " ( 1989: 31-2).
Th is
te nde ncy
to re nde r Af rican
co mp o s e rs
invis ible -to tre at th e m
imp e rs o nally,
almo s t as if , in Bruno Ne ttl's f e licito us
p h ras e , th e y
we re
"s p e cime ns
o f f lo ra and f auna"
( 1983: 292)-is p ro bably p art
o f a
bigge r
p ro ble m. Th o ugh
th is h as s tarte d to
ch ange
o ve r th e las t f e w
ye ars ,
e th no mus ico lo gis ts ge ne rally
h ave labo ure d unde r th e
ide o lo gy
th at th e mus ic
th e y
s tudie d
be lo nge d
to s o cie tie s th at we re
culturally h o mo ge ne o us . Dive rs ity-
p articularly
th e
dive rs ity
o f
s ingular,
cre ative individuals -wo uld th e re f o re te nd
to be
igno re d,
o r
s imp ly
no t s e e n.
Eve rywh e re
th is h ad
co ns e que nce s ;
and in
wo rks o n Af rican mus ic, e ve n th e mo s t ce le brate d, th e
co ns e que nce s
f o r an
unde rs tanding
o f individual
cre ativity
we re dire .
Emble matically,
e ve n J. H.
Kwabe na Nke tia's f amo us
co mp e ndium,
Th e mus ic
o f Af rica ( 1975), p aints
a
p icture
o f a co ntine nt with o ut
co mp o s e rs .
Th e
p ro ble m
o f th e
invis ibility
o f individual
co mp o s e rs -p articularly
in
Af rica-h as an e ve n mo re s e rio us dime ns io n, h o we ve r. It is th at o ur
kno wle dge
o f th e cre ative mus ical
p ro ce s s
is
s e ve re ly imp o ve ris h e d. And, as Ne ttl
s ugge s ts ,
th is is iro nic:
de s p ite
th e f act th at "an
unde rs tanding
o f th e nature o f mus ical
cre atio n is a
majo r is s ue ", mus ic s ch o lars
"actually
kno w
ve ry
little abo ut th e
way
in wh ich mus ic co me s abo ut, e s p e cially
in its inno vative
as p e ct,
wh ich
th e y
p e rh ap s
mo s t admire "
( 1983: 29, 35).
But it is a dif f e re nt s o rt o f
iro ny alto ge th e r
th at
Blacking, h aving s o ugh t
bo th to
re nde r Af rican
co mp o s e rs
vis ible and to
lay
bare wh at h e calls "th e
co mp o s ing
p ro ce s s ", actually
made little
h e adway
in
s o lving
th is
p ro ble m.
Fo r ins tance ,
in
o ne o f h is
typ ically e ngage d
and co mmitte d
co ntributio ns , h e
be gan by drawing
atte ntio n to a s e rio us lacuna in th e
s tudy
o f
indige no us
mus ical
co mp o s itio n
in
So uth e rn Af rica. Wh at is
mis s ing,
h e
argue d,
is th at
"[t]h e co mp o s ing p ro ce s s
h as
no t be e n
ade quate ly
s tudie d".
By
th is h e me ant th at
s ch o larly e mp h as is
h ad be e n
p lace d o n, f o r
e xamp le ,
s o cial
backgro und
and
s ubje ct matte r, and o n mus ic as a
me ans o f co mmunicatio n. To f ill th e
lacuna, wh at was no w ne e de d was re s e arch
into
p rincip le s
o f co mmunal
mus ic-making, p atte rns
o f
me lo dy, typ e s
o f mus ical
s tructure , and th e
ways
s o cial f unctio n af f e cts mus ical f o rm. But as th is lis t
s ugge s ts , Blacking's unde rs tanding
o f th e
co mp o s ing p ro ce s s
is
ultimate ly
co nf ine d to wh at h e te rms "[c]e rtain rule s o f
co mp o s itio n";
and th e s e co uld be
e labo rate d if atte ntio n we re to be f o cus e d
o n, f o r
e xamp le ,
"to nal and h armo nic
mo de ls
[wh ich ] are
always
in th e mind", e ve n
th o ugh th e y
"are no t
always
ap p are nt
in th e s urf ace s tructure "
( 1982: 294-5).
I want to
s ugge s t
th at
Blacking's p ro p o s al,
wh ile no t
inco rre ct, is its e lf s till f ar
to o limite d. It is a
p ro p o s al
th at will le ad us -as
Blacking's
wo rk
s ure ly
do e s -to
an
unde rs tanding
o f
indige no us co mp o s itio nal te ch nique s :
th e ir mus ical
gram-
mars , th e ir
de e p s tructure s , th e ir
re latio ns h ip s
to s o cial co nte xt. But it will
ce rtainly ge t
us no clo s e r to a
gras p
o f th e cre ative
p ro ce s s e s
wh ich
o p e rate
in th e
mus ics o f Af rica. If th at is wh e re we wis h to arrive -at an
unde rs tanding
o f wh at
Ne ttl te rme d "th e
way
in wh ich mus ic co me s abo ut", o r "th e nature o f mus ical
cre atio n"-th e n we will ne e d to lo o k
be yo nd
matte rs o f
co mp o s itio nal te ch nique .
Ballantine : Jo s e p h Sh abalala 3
We will ne e d to as k s uch
que s tio ns
as : Ho w o r in wh at circums tance s do
co mp o s itio ns
aris e ? Wh at "caus e s " th e m? Wh e n and h o w o f te n do e s
cre ativity
o ccur? Wh at do e s th e cre ato r o f a
p ie ce
th ink h e o r s h e is
do ing?
To wh at e xte nt
is th e
p ie ce co mp o s e d
be f o re th e f irs t "re h e ars al"? To wh at e xte nt is it
imp ro vis e d? Ho w,
if at all, do e s th e
p ie ce ch ange during "re h e ars als ",
and
wh y?
Ho w do e s th e
co mp o s e r co mp o s e
in th e abs e nce o f writte n no tatio n? Ho w did th e
co mp o s e r
le arn h is o r h e r craf t? And s o o n. In
s h o rt,
if we wis h to unde rs tand "th e
way
in wh ich mus ic co me s abo ut",
th e n wh at h as be e n
mis s ing,
and wh at we no w
ne e d, is cle ar: we mus t
be gin
to
de ve lo p
a
p re cis e e th no grap h y
o f th e cre ative
p ro ce s s .2
With th e s e co ns ide ratio ns in
mind,
I de cide d to e mbark o n a
s tudy
o f th e
cre ative
p ro ce dure s
o f th e mo s t ce le brate d
living
So uth Af rican
co mp o s e r
wo rking
with in a "traditio nal" Af rican idio m. He is
Jo s e p h Sh abalala,
le ade r o f
th e
inte rnatio nally
re no wne d
Ladys mith
Black
Mambazo ,
and th e be s t-kno wn
e xp o ne nt
o f th e
unacco mp anie d
male ch o ral
s tyle
kno wn as
is icath amiya ( a ge nre
de s cribe d in de tail in Erlmann
1996). Th o ugh
a vital and
p o p ular co nte mp o rary
s o ng-and-dance
s tyle , is icath amiya
h as ro o ts th at
p o we rf ully
co nne ct it to o lde r
Zulu mus ical and dance idio ms -s o me o f th e m o f
p re co lo nial p ro ve nance -th at
s till f lo uris h with in ce rtain rural co mmunitie s in So uth Af rica. Th e
is icath amiya
s tyle its e lf , h o we ve r,
h as be e n
de ve lo p e d large ly by
Zulu-s p e aking
migrant
wo rke rs ; and
during
th e co urs e o f a rich
h is to ry e xte nding
back at le as t to th e
e arly ye ars
o f th e
ce ntury,
th e
s tyle
h as drawn into its e lf trace s o f s uch o th e r
idio ms as Ame rican
mins tre ls y, vaude ville , s p irituals , mis s io nary h ymno dy,
Tin
Pan
Alle y, Ho llywo o d tap -dance ,
and
go s p e l
mus ic. Th e name
is icath amiya
is
actually
o f
re lative ly
re ce nt
o rigin,
and is
ins e p arable
f ro m th e
imp act
th at
Sh abalala h as h ad o n th e
s h ap ing
o f th e
s tyle
o ve r th e las t 25 o r 30
ye ars .
( Pro mine nt
e arlie r name s o r ve rs io ns o f th e
s tyle
we re is ikh unzi, imbube ,
is ikh we la Jo , is ikambula, ingo ma e bus uku, 'mbo mbing,
and co th o za
mf ana.)
Th o ugh is icath amiya-p articularly th ro ugh
th e nume ro us
re co rdings , to urs ,
and
te le vis io n
ap p e arance s
o f
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo -h as
re ce ntly e njo ye d
co ns ide rable
p o p ular
and co mme rcial
s ucce s s ,
th e
s tyle
is s till
p re do minantly
th e
do main o f
migrant-wo rke rs '
h o s te ls and th e ir
all-nigh t
is icath amiya co mp e titio ns .
Th e
gro up s
wh o e nte r th e s e
co mp e titio ns no rmally
co ns is t o f be twe e n abo ut 10
and 25 me n; e ach
gro up
will h ave its o wn f o rmal dre s s
s tyle ( f re que ntly invo lving
2
One
s tudy
wh ich
be gins
o n a
ve ry
limite d s cale to
inve s tigate
s o me th e s e
que s tio ns -and
is rare
f o r
do ing
s o at all-is
Trace y
1970
( s e e e s p e cially p p . 2-6, wh e re th e o utline s o f s uch an
e th no grap h ic
acco unt
e me rge
f ro m h is clo s e
s tudy
o f th e
gre at Ch o p i co mp o s e rs
Katini and
Go muko mu).
Much mo re can be
e xp e cte d
o f th e f if te e n
p ap e rs
in
Flo yd ( in p re s s ).
We s te m
clas s ical mus ic is o f co urs e much be tte r s e rve d in th is
re s p e ct.
To cite
jus t
o ne re ce nt
e xamp le :
a
bo o k o n 25
co nte mp o rary
Ame rican
co mp o s e rs ( Smith
and Smith 1995)
is
e ntire ly
s tructure d
aro und s uch
que s tio ns
as : Wh at wo uld
yo u s ay yo ur
mus ic is
f o r? Wh y
do
yo u
cre ate it? Ho w do
yo u actually
go
abo ut
co mp o s ing?
Do
yo u
h ave a ro utine ? Ho w much do
yo u re ly
o n intuitio n?
Wh at do e s it me an to
yo u
to be a
co mp o s e r?
Wh at's th e e s s e ntial mo tivatio n f o r
yo ur
wo rk?
Wh at is it th at
re ally
make s
yo u
s it do wn and write ? Wh at do
yo u
s e e as
yo ur p rincip al
ro le as a
co mp o s e r?
Ho w do
yo u us ually
s tart a ne w
p ie ce ?
Wh ich
as p e ct o f yo ur
wo rk co me s
f irs t?
Is
yo ur
mus ic a
th e rap y?
Wh e re do th e ide as co me
f ro m?
4 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l 5 ( 1996)
jacke ts , tie s , and wh ite
glo ve s );
and in e ach
gro up
th e vas t
majo rity
will be
bas s e s , with
no rmally
o ne o r mo re te no rs , o ne alto , and a le ade r wh o will
s ing
a
f re e r and mo re s o lo is tic
p art. Jo s e p h
Sh abalala is no t
o nly
th e
gre ate s t living
co mp o s e r
o f
p ie ce s
in th is
s tyle ;
h e is als o th e
s tyle 's
f o re mo s t
re co rding artis t,
with mo re th an 20 albums to h is and h is
gro up 's cre dit, as we ll as a
Grammy
Award and nume ro us So uth Af rican re co rd
indus try
awards .
In
July 1995, I1 as ke d Sh abalala if h e wo uld be
willing
to
co -o p e rate
with me o n
a
p ro je ct
th at wo uld
be gin
to
p ro be
th e s o urce s o f bo th h is cre ative
e ne rgie s
and
h is
p ro ce dure s
f o r
f o llo wing
th e s e
th ro ugh
to th e ir f ull re alizatio n. He was
imme diate ly
ke e n to do s o : no t
s imp ly
be caus e we h ave a
f rie nds h ip
and a
p ro f e s s io nal
as s o ciatio n th at h as las te d mo re th an f if te e n
ye ars ,
but als o be caus e
h e be lie ve d it wo uld
h e lp
h im to
clarif y
is s ue s th at h e co uld th e n turn to th e
be ne f it o f o th e r
is icath amiya co mp o s e rs -and
s uch as s is tance is an
imp o rtant p art
o f wh at h e take s to be h is s o cial ro le . Be twe e n
Augus t
1995 and
January
1996 we
me t o n nume ro us o ccas io ns in co nne ctio n with th is
p ro je ct.
Mo s t o f th e s e
me e tings
o ccurre d at th e
Unive rs ity
o f Natal, and to o k th e f o rm o f de taile d
inte rvie ws and dis cus s io ns ,
wh ich I re co rde d and
s ubs e que ntly
trans cribe d. We
s p o ke
in
Englis h ,
a
language
in wh ich Sh abalala is bo th co mf o rtable and f lue nt,
th us
avo iding
th e
ne ce s s ity
f o r a
me diating
trans lato r. On o ne o ccas io n,
I
vide o tap e d
in f ull o ne o f
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo 's re h e ars als . Th is was in
almo s t
e ve ry re s p e ct
a
typ ical
re h e ars al-o r at le as t it was
typ ical
o f th o s e
re h e ars als in wh ich Sh abalala s e ts abo ut
te ach ing
h is
gro up
h is late s t
co mp o s itio n.
Th e
re s p e cts
in wh ich it was unus ual we re o f co urs e th at it was
be ing vide o e d, but
als o th at th e
p ie ce
was o ne th at Sh abalala h ad
co mp o s e d
at
my re que s t, p re cis e ly
s o th at I co uld vide o h im
te ach ing
a ne w
co mp o s itio n.
Parts o f th is vide o we re
late r trans late d
( by my
re s e arch as s is tant Mf ana
Mlambo )
and trans cribe d.
In wh at f o llo ws ,
I
quo te co p io us ly
f ro m th e
th ings
Sh abalala s aid o n th e s e
dive rs e o ccas io ns .
Ine vitably,
in o ur inte rvie ws we came ro und to th e s ame is s ue s
many time s , as
p art
o f an
o ngo ing
but th e re f o re
f ragme nte d dis cus s io n;
and it
s o o n be came cle ar to me th at th e e s s e nce o f wh at Sh abalala was
ge tting
at co uld
o f te n be re ach e d
o nly by
late r
s titch ing
th e s e
s e p arate
mo me nts
to ge th e r-by
re co nne cting
th e s e
f ragme nts .
No w s ince
ins igh t
and
clarity
are e s s e ntial to
my
p ro je ct,
I h ave f o und it
ne ce s s ary
wh e n
p re s e nting
Sh abalala's wo rds to take two
me th o do lo gical
libe rtie s . Firs t, many
o f th e Sh abalala
quo tatio ns
I
p re s e nt
are th e
re s ult o f th is
"s titch ing to ge th e r". Se co nd,
in th e inte re s ts o f
co ge ncy
o r
bre vity
I
h ave s o me time s
ligh tly
e dite d th e s e
quo tatio ns , th o ugh
I
h o p e
in s uch a
way
as
no t to af f e ct th e
p articular
ch aracte r o f Sh abalala's
s p e e ch .
But I ne e d to s tre s s
th at all th o s e wo rds we re th e n h ande d back to h im in writte n f o rm f o r h im to
s tudy,
in o rde r to
re je ct,
to co rre ct, to add to , to f urth e r e dit in
any way
h e wis h e d,
o r
s imp ly
to
ap p ro ve .
Th e wo rds o f Sh abalala's th at I
f inally us e , th e n, are wo rds ,
o r f o rmulatio ns ,
th at h e
f ully
o wns to be
h is ,
and th at h e take s
re s p o ns ibility
f o r as
wo rds th at
s p e ak
h is mind as
accurate ly
as
p o s s ible .
Ballantine : Jo s e p h
Sh abalala 5
1. Sh abnlala's e ducatio n as a
co mp o s e r
One o f th e mo s t
imp o rtant to p ics
we addre s s e d
be gan
with th e
que s tio n
o f h o w
Sh abalala le arnt h is craf t as a
co mp o s e r.
His ans we r was
s tartling:
f o r a
p e rio d
o f
s ix mo nth s in 1964,
h e was vis ite d in h is dre ams
e ve ry nigh t by
a ch o ir "f ro m
abo ve " wh o
s ang
to h im. It
was ,
h e
s ays , jus t
like a
nigh tly
s h o w-but h e was th e
o nly
lis te ne r. "I'm
s le e p ing,
but I'm
watch ing
th e s h o w. I s aw
mys e lf s le e p ing
but
watch ing jus t
like wh e n
yo u
are
watch ing
TV."
Sh abalala
co mp are s
th is
e xp e rie nce
to th at o f
go ing
to s ch o o l. "It's
jus t
like
wh e n
s o me bo dy give s yo u
a bo o k to re ad, and
give s
yo u
ano th e r o ne and ano th e r
o ne . Yo u re ad all th e s e bo o ks . Fo r s ix mo nth s , th e n co me back h o me
[laugh s ]
with
my
bo o ks . Th at was h o w I le arnt. I was
jus t
like a
p e rs o n
f ro m s ch o o l:
p ro ud
and co nf ide nt. I
go t
wh at I wante d. I was
ve ry h ap p y.
Yo u ne e d
s o me bo dy
to train
yo u.
I was
lucky
to be traine d
by
th at
s p iritual gro up .
Th e s e
p e o p le
we re
my
te ach e rs . I le arnt
e ve ryth ing
abo ut mus ic f ro m th o s e
p e o p le ."
And th is
e xp e rie nce
s tands
by
h im in th e
p re s e nt,
be caus e th e
le arning
is no w "in" h im: wh e n h e is
lo s t h e h as
s imp ly
to
"o p e n
th e s e bo o ks ".
Initially,
th e
p e o p le
in th is ch o ir we re invis ible ; Sh abalala was able to "s e e "
th e m
o nly
late r. Eve n th e n h e did no t
re co gnize any
o f
th e m,
and is s till unable to
s ay
wh o
th e y
we re .
Ve ry
little was cle ar abo ut th e m: no t e ve n wh e th e r
th e y
we re
black o r wh ite ,
f e male o r male , yo ung
o r o ld. With s o me
h e s itatio n,
h e calls th e m
"ch ildre n"--but
o nly me tap h o rically,
in th e
s e ns e ,
as h e
p uts it,
th at
"th e y
we re
ch ildre n o f Go d".3
Th e y
co mmunicate d no t with th e ir mo uth s , but
"s p irit
to
s p irit".
And
th e y
didn't
s p e ak; th e y o nly s ang,
and th e n in a
s trange language
th at
Sh abalala h ad no t h e ard be f o re . He be lie ve s th is was de libe rate ,
f o r wh at
th e y
wante d h im to do was to co nce ntrate o n th e
h armo ny,
th e
rh yth m,
and th e
e xp e rie nce ,
and th e n to th ink f urth e r. But wh ile th e ir wo rds re maine d o bs cure ,
th e ir mus ic did no t. He
e njo ye d
it: "I f e lt like it was mine ." And th e n th e time
came wh e n h e s tarte d to
jo in
th e m in th e ir
s inging, e ve ry nigh t.
Sh abalala maintains th at
by vis iting
h im in h is
dre ams ,
th e ch o ir was
re s p o nding
to s o me wo rrie s h e h ad h ad f o r a
lo ng
time abo ut th e co nditio n o f
Zulu mus ic. In
p articular,
as a tale nte d and ide alis tic
yo ung
man h e h ad f e lt th at
th e mus ic h ad ce as e d to
de ve lo p ,
o r to
de ve lo p
in an
ap p ro p riate
manne r. He h ad
as ke d h ims e lf : "Wh at's
go ing
o n? Th is is
wo nde rf ul,
but wh e re 's th e
way?"
Th e
ch o ir inte rve ne d. "I was a
p e rs o n
wh o 's
lo o king
f o r a
way
to
de ve lo p
o ur mus ic,
and th is
gro up
o f
p e o p le
was s e nt
by s o me bo dy
abo ve to co me and te ach me ." A
ve ry s p e cif ic wo rry
was th at s ince h is ch ildh o o d h e h ad be e n bo th e re d
by
a
p e rce p tio n
th at mus ic and
dancing
did no t
always
co rre late . "I f e lt like ,
no w
yo u
are
dancing
but th e
s o ng
is no t with
yo u.
Or wh e n
p e o p le
are
s inging
and
dancing,
3
Erlmann als o re f e rs to th is ce le s tial ch o ir, but s e e ms to h ave take n to o
lite rally
Sh abalala's labe l
f o r th e m as "ch ildre n". Th e
re s ulting
dis juncture
be twe e n, o n th e o ne h and, th e ro le o f "ch ildre n"
in th e dre am and, o n th e o th e r, "th e s o cial
p o s itio n
o f ch ildre n and th e ir
s ignif icance
in dre ams "
in a Zulu cultural co nte xt, cre ate s a
p arado x
wh ich Erlmann is th e n at
p ains
to
try
to
e xp lain
( 1996: 302-3).
6 Britis h Jo urnal
f Eth no mus ico lo gy, vo l 5
( 1996)
s o me time it's
to ge th e r,
s o me time s it's no t
to ge th e r: wh y?"
He re to o , th e ch o ir
s h o we d h im wh at h e ne e de d to kno w, in a
way
h e wo uld ne ve r
f o rge t.
Mo re
s p e cif ically,
Sh abalala als o
go t
f ro m th e ch o ir
many ins p iratio ns
f o r
s o ngs ,
wh ich h e wo uld be able to re call with o ut
dif f iculty
wh e n h e awo ke . He
s tre s s e s , th o ugh ,
th at th e s e we re ide as rath e r th an f inis h e d
p ro ducts : "th e y
didn't
give
me wh o le
s o ngs ."
But s o me time s th e s e co ntributio ns we re
f airly
e labo rate .
In th e cas e o f th e f amo us "No math e mba", f o r ins tance 4, th e ch o ir
s ugge s te d
th e
me lo dy,
th e
h armo ny
and th e
ge ne ral
ambie nce o f th e
s o ng,
and le f t Sh abalala to
make
up
th e wo rds .
Many
o f th e
s o ngs
o n h is albums h ave th e ir
o rigins
in th e s e
dre amtime
ins p iratio ns -a
s o urce th at h e
s o ugh t
to
ackno wle dge by naming
h is
f irs t album Amabuth o [Warrio rs ],
in
me tap h o rical
tribute to th e
vis io nary
ch o ir.
Th e album e arne d h im a
go ld
dis k. "It's like I h ave an advis e r", h e
s ays .
If th e dre amtime e nco unte rs we re f o r Sh abalala th e
e quivale nt
o f
go ing
to a
mus ic s ch o o l, a late r dre am as s ume d th e
s ignif icance
o f a f inal e xaminatio n and
graduatio n ce re mo ny, giving
h im th e co nf ide nce and
auth o rity
to be co me th e
co mp o s e r-le ade r
o f an
is icath amiya gro up .
He dre amt h e was
s itting
o n a
re vo lving
ch air in th e middle o f a circle o f 24 wis e o ld me n: "I us e d to call th e m
th e s e nio r, th e
go lde n
o ldie s marrie d me n-th e o ld o ne s with wh ite h air." Each o f
th e m was to addre s s o ne
que s tio n
to h im, and if h e ans we re d th e
que s tio ns
s atis f acto rily,
th e circle o f e lde rs wo uld de clare h im f it to be "a le ade r o f
mus icians ". But o ne
que s tio n-a
25th -to o k h im
to tally by s urp ris e .
"In f act I was
p uzzle d.
Th e re was a circle ; th e y jus t
s it aro und; I was at th e
middle . I kno w th at I'm
go ing
to ans we r th e
que s tio ns ,
but I do n't kno w th e
que s tio ns .
In th at ch air,
I can turn. Wh e n I
turn,
I turn until th e ch air-be caus e th e
ch air is th e
p ro p h e cy-th e
ch air will s h o w me wh o as ke d th e
que s tio n.
I can turn
th is s ide and
s o me bo dy
can as k th e
que s tio n.
Th e ch air will s h o w me wh o . It will
s tand s till, s traigh t
to h im,
and th e n I mus t ans we r th e
que s tio n.
No t
h e s itating.
Jus t ans we r th e
que s tio n.
Th o s e 24 me n
as king
me .
Th e y
we re
s up p o s e d
to as k
me
o nly
24. Th at was
wro ng
to as k me 25
que s tio ns !
All th e 24
que s tio ns
we re
ve ry e as y.
But th e las t o ne was
ve ry
dif f icult. Th at was no t
righ t. I, I kno w th at
I'm
go ing
to ans we r
o nly
24
que s tio ns .
But
th e y
did th at:
th e y
as k th at e xtra
que s tio n.
Th e ch air
give
me a ch ance to run aro und until, s traigh t
to th e m,
I
jus t
o p e n my
mo uth . I h ave no ans we r. Th e ch air was
turning.
And I
jus t o p e n my
mo uth
[make s
a
s igh ing no is e ].
Th e ans we r was
righ t! Th e y clap
h ands .
Th e y
s aid
ye s , yo u
are
go o d! Carry
o n! Th at's all."
Sh abalala is unable to
s ay
wh o th e s e e lde rs we re . I as ke d h im if h e wo uld
de s cribe th e m as ance s to rs . "No ,
mo re th an th at!
Th e y
we re o ld
p e o p le
but I can't
te ll
yo u
th at o h , th at is
my grandf ath e r,
and th at is ... No ,
I do n't kno w th e m but
th e y
are lo ve able , and I kno w th at th o s e are
big p e o p le [laugh s ]."
Ho w
big,
I
wo nde re d? As
big
as th e
p e o p le
in th e
vis io nary
ch o ir? No , much
bigge r
th an
th at:
"Th e y
we re th e 24 wh o traine d th at ch o ir!"
Unlike th e
p ro f o und unde rs tandings
and ide as th at h e to o k
away
f ro m th e
vis itatio ns o f th e ce le s tial ch o ir, Sh abalala is unable to re me mbe r th e co nte nt o f
O4n th e album Amabuth o .
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h Sh abalala 7
th o s e 25
que s tio ns .
And th is bo th e rs h im. "I'm
trying
to
s que e ze my mind,"
h e
s ays .
"I'm
trying
to
p ray
to
ge t
th e s e
que s tio ns ." Th e y
are
imp o rtant,
h e
f e e ls ,
be caus e
th e y
will be
e ducatio nally
us e f ul to o th e r
co mp o s e rs
and ch o ir le ade rs .
And as I s h all dis cus s late r in th is article ,
f o r Sh abalala s uch e ducatio nal wo rk is a
ne ce s s ary
e xte ns io n o f h is cre ative ro le . "Th o s e
que s tio ns
will
h e lp
to te ach o th e r
p e o p le .
I
f o rgo t
all th e
que s tio ns ,
but
e ve ry
time wh e n I th ink abo ut th e m I f e e l
like I h ave
th ings
to write do wn." He is
ve ry
uns ure abo ut th e co nne ctio n be twe e n
th e 25
que s tio ns
and th e ide as h e do e s in f act write do wn f o r e ducatio nal
p urp o s e s .
But th is do e s no t h o ld h im back. Inde e d, h e
s us p e cts
th at th e
que s tio ns
no w re s ide in h is unco ns cio us
me mo ry,
as
inf o rming ins p iratio ns .
"I th ink
th e y
we re
as king
me
que s tio ns
abo ut lif e , abo ut mus ic, h o w to
cre ate , h o w to talk to
th e
p e o p le ." Maybe ,
h e
s ays , re f e rring
to th e s e rie s o f
writings
I s h all
p re s e nt
late r
in th e article , "maybe
it's in be twe e n
th o s e , amo ng
th o s e . But I'm
jus t
gue s s ing.
Maybe
s o me
day
th e
que s tio ns
will co me back to me ."
Re markable as
th e y are , Sh abalala's dre amtime
le arnings
and
e xp e rie nce s
be lo ng
to th e
ge ne ral cate go ry
o f
dre aming
in Zulu
culture ,
a
cate go ry
to wh ich
s p e cial imp o rtance
is attach e d. Fo r Zulu
traditio nalis ts , as Axe l-Ivar
Be rglund
no te s , dre aming
is no t
o nly
a
p ath way
f o r co mmunicatio n be twe e n
"
th e s urvivo rs
and th e s h ade s "; it is als o
unde rp inne d by
a be lie f th at
"[w]ith o ut dre ams true and
uninte rrup te d living
is no t
p o s s ible " ( 1989: 97-8, cite d in Mulle r 1994:
365).
And
wh at Caro l Mulle r h as
argue d
as
be ing
th e cas e f o r th e
e p is te mo lo gy
o f th e
indige no us
Zulu Nazarite
ch urch , h o lds true f o r Zulu
th o ugh t
in
ge ne ral: name ly,
th at
dre aming
is
co nce p tualize d dif f e re ntly
f ro m th e manne r in wh ich We s te rn
p s ych o analys is
wo uld s e e it.
If , s ince
Fre ud, dre ams h ave als o be e n
th o ugh t
o f as
f o rms o f
co mmunicatio n, th e s e h ave be e n unde rs to o d as
h igh ly
co de d and
p e rs o nalize d s ymbo ls p as s ing
be twe e n "dif f e re nt lo calitie s with in th e arch ite cture
o f th e dre ame r's
p e rs o nality".
In Zulu
th inking, by co ntras t, th e be lie f is th at s uch
co mmunicatio ns are "f ro m
co mp o ne nts
o f a
co s mo lo gy
in wh ich th e dre ame r is
s ituate d"
( Mulle r
1994:
185,
af te r
Je dre j
and Sh aw 1992:
11).
But th at is no t all th e re is to be s aid abo ut it.
Ep is te mo lo gie s as ide ,
it is cle ar
th at dre ams are a vital, p urp o s e f ul activity
in th e live s o f Zulu
p e o p le .
As th e cas e
o f
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala make s cle ar, th e y
can be a
way
o f
re ach ing
f o cus e d
ins igh t
and a me ans o f
s e lf -e mp o we rme nt; th e y
can be
"p e rf o rmative
acts in th e s e ns e
th at
dre aming
be co me s a
p art
o f th e
do ing
o f
s o me th ing
and no t
me re ly
a
de s crip tio n
o f th e
do ing
o f
s o me th ing" ( Te dlo ck 1987, cite d in Erlmann 1996:
302). Taking
th e
large r vie w, th is
p o ints
to a
p o we rf ul
ro le f o r
dre aming
in th e
re p re s s ive
co lo nial o rde r in
wh ich , until re ce nt time s , Zulu
p e o p le
h ave h ad to
s ubs is t and s e e k to s urvive . In a
p ro f o und
me ditatio n o n th is
as p e ct
o f
dre aming,
Mulle r h as o bs e rve d:
In th e co nte xt o f mis s io nizatio n in
Natal, wh ich
s tro ngly
re s is te d th e no tio n o f
ance s tral
wo rs h ip ,
th e
ap p e arance
o f th e ance s tral re alm
th ro ugh
dre ams
co ns titute s a re clamatio n o f th e
p re co lo nial
and
p re cap italis t co s mo lo gy
into th e
co ns tructio n o f
e ve ryday re ality
and
e xp e rie nce .
It als o
p re s e nts
a re f o rmulatio n o f
s o cio -e co no mic and
p o litical re latio ns h ip s ,
and a re ve rs al o f s o cial
injus tice .
In
th is s e ns e , dre aming
f acilitate s a me ch anis m o f cultural re s is tance and
8 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
e mp o we rme nt
o n th e
p e rip h e ry
o f th e So uth Af rican s tate , albe it in a
h igh ly
co de d
s ymbo lic
f o rm.
... I
s ugge s t
th at [s uch ] dre aming
s tands in
o p p o s itio n
to th e do minant f lo w o f
we s te rn indus trialize d time . Th is
o rganizatio n
o f time is line ar, p ro gre s s ive ,
ratio nali7e d, and
p e rio dic. Dre am-time , h o we ve r, is irratio nal, unp re dictable ,
and
no n-line ar. By re inte grating
th e
co s mo lo gy
into
e ve ryday e xp e rie nce -th e
re latio ns h ip s
o f th e
living
with th e de ad-dre am-time re f o rmulate s ...
te mp o rality
f ro m we s te rn
line arity
to wards
p re cap italis t
Af rican no tio ns o f
cyclicity.5 ( 1994:
187)
In th e
ligh t
o f th e s e o bs e rvatio ns , it is no t
s urp ris ing
to f ind th at o th e r ins tance s
o f cre ative mus ical dre ams with in Zulu culture h ave be e n no te d.
Pro bably
th e be s t
kno wn are th e dre am
e xp e rie nce s
o f th e f o unde r o f th e Nazarite s , Is aiah Sh e mbe ,
wh o
co mp o s e d
th e mus ic and te xt o f all but 22 o f th e 242
h ymns
in th e ch urch 's
p rinte d h ymnal,
IziHlabe le lo ZamaNazare th a, be f o re h is de ath in 1935. Is aiah 's
s o n, Galile e , claime d th at h is f ath e r h ad to ld h im a
s to ry
abo ut h o w h e co nce ive d
h is
s o ngs .
Th e
s to ry go e s
th at Is aiah
wo uld h e ar a wo man's vo ice , o f te n a girl's vo ice , s inging
ne w and
une xp e cte d
wo rds . He co uld no t s e e h e r, but as h e wo ke
up
f ro m a dre am o r walke d
alo ng
th e
p ath
in Zululand, me ditating,
h e h e ard th at s mall vo ice , wh ich
gave
h im a ne w
h ymn.
He h ad to write do wn th e wo rds , wh ile
h umming
and
s inging
th e tune
wh ich was
bo rn
with th e wo rds .6 ( Sundkle r 1976:
186,
cite d in Mulle r 1994: 211-
2)
And Galile e h ims e lf
co mp o s e d s o ngs
in s imilar f as h io n. Since h e h ad h ad a mo re
f o rmal e ducatio n, th o ugh ,
Galile e 's vis io ns to o k a lite rate f o rm: h e s aw th e
s o ngs
as
"image s
o f te xt writte n o n a ch alkbo ard"
( ibid.,
cite d in Mulle r 1994:
403).
Th o ugh
o ur
p rimary
f o cus h e re mus t re main o n-and s o o n re ve rt
to -Jo s e p h
Sh abalala,
it is
p e rh ap s
wo rth
re marking p are nth e tically
th at th e
co mp o s itio n
o f
s o ngs
in s uch alte re d s tate s o f co ns cio us ne s s as dre ams is o f co urs e
by
no me ans
co nf ine d to
p articip ants
in Zulu culture .
Amo ng
Sh o na mus icians , f o r ins tance ,
dre aming
is o ne o f th e th re e
re p o rte d
s o urce s o f ne w
co mp o s itio ns ,
o r ne w
ve rs io ns o f traditio nal
p ie ce s ( and, inte re s tingly,
th e name s o f th e
co mp o s e rs
are
o f te n
ackno wle dge d
in th e title s o f th e
co mp o s itio ns ) ( Be rline r
1978: 85, 26).
Ins tance s much f urth e r af ie ld include , f amo us ly,
th o s e f o und
amo ng
Native
Ame rican
gro up ings , p articularly
th o s e we s t o f th e
Mis s is s ip p i
Rive r,
wh e re
s o ngs co mp o s e d
in dre ams and vis io ns e ith e r
carry gre ate r p re s tige
th an
s o ngs
p ro duce d
in o th e r
ways ,
o r are f o r s o me
gro up s
th e o nly
kinds o f
s o ngs
admitte d
at all
( Ne ttl
1956:
15-16).
And le s t we co nclude th at dre amtime
le arning
o r
co mp o s ing
f lo uris h e s
o nly
in co nditio ns o f
"unde rde ve lo p me nt"
o r
amo ng gro up s
marke d
by
trace s o f
p re co lo nial
s o cial f o rms ,
re ce nt re s e arch h as re ve ale d th at
s uch
e xp e rie nce s
are co mmo n
amo ng
Ame rican
jazz mus icians , including
th e
5
As no te d e arlie r, wh ile Mulle r write s h e re
s p e cif ically
in re latio n to th e ( Zulu)
Ch urch o f th e
Nazarite s
( ibandla
lamaNazare th a), it s e e ms to me th at h e r ins igh ts
be ar
up o n
Zulu e xp e rie nce
in
ge ne ral.
6
Galile e h ims e lf to ld th is
s to ry
to Sundkle r.
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h
Sh abalaa 9
mo s t ce le brate d. In h is
o uts tanding e th no grap h ic s tudy
o f th e
jazz co mmunity,
Paul Be rline r
re p o rte d
th at in Jo h n Co ltrane 's lif e , f o r
e xamp le , "p o we rf ul
dre ams
s o me time s
p ro vide d
th e
ins p iratio n
f o r ne w ide as o r
e nco urage d
h is
p urs uit
o f
inno vative mus ical co urs e s ." Th us f o r
Co ltrane , and
many
o th e r
de ve lo p ing
mus icians , "th e dre ams e s tablis h
e arly
landmarks in th e
abs o rp tio n
o f th e ir
ado p te d language ."
One o f th e dre ams Co ltrane to ld f rie nds abo ut o ccurre d
"during
th e
p e rio d
in wh ich h e was
e xp e rime nting
with intricate ch o rd s ubs titu-
tio n s ch e me s ". He re , "Ch arlie Parke r
actually ap p e are d
and co uns e le d h im to
'ke e p
o n th o s e
p ro gre s s io ns
caus e th at's th e
righ t th ing
to do ."' In a dif f e re nt
e xamp le , Je rry
Co ke r
re p o rte d
a dre am "th at
p o rtraye d
h is h ands at a
p iano s lo wly
and
me th o dically wo rking th ro ugh
a
co mp le x
s o lo th at,
in
f act, h ad f rus trate d h is
e arlie r e f f o rts at
trans crip tio n. Waking e xcite dly,
Co ke r dis co ve re d th at h e co uld
re co ns truct th e
p ro ble matic p as s age s by re calling
th e
f inge r p atte rns
f ro m h is
dre am." And-to
give
a f inal
e xamp le -Be rline r
als o re late s th e
e xp e rie nce
o f an
ins trume ntalis t wh o o nce dre ame d "th at
Dizzy Gille s p ie
was
p e rf o rming
th e
trump e t,
but ins te ad o f th e
trump e t's s o und, s cat
s yllable s p o ure d
o ut o f h is h o rn.
At th e e nd o f th e dre am,
Dizzy Gille s p ie 's image me rge d
into th at o f th e dre ame r.
Th e
e xp e rie nce e nco urage d
th e mus ician to
p urs ue
h is inte re s t in vo cal
imp ro vis atio n" ( Be rline r 1994: 494, 823 f tn 9, 114, 140).
Th is s ke tch
p lace s
dre amtime mus ical
le arning
and
co mp o s ing
in bro ade r and
co mp arative
cultural co nte xts . But it do e s no t its e lf
e xp lain
s uch
p h e no me na.
It
p o ints , s imp ly,
to an
imp o rtant
and little unde rs to o d te rrain o f mus ical
e xp e rie nce .
It is no t
my
brie f to
atte mp t
to
p urs ue
th is h e re . Furth e r re s e arch is ne e de d to
acco unt f o r h o w it
h ap p e ns
th at
dre aming
can
yie ld
s uch
tangible
mus ical
co ns e que nce s .
2.
Co mp o s ing
a
p ie ce
We re turn to
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala. Th e dre amtime
e xp e rie nce s
o f h is th at I h ave
no te d s o f ar re late to no w dis tant and
ve ry s p e cif ic p e rio ds
in h is mus ical lif e .
Ho w,
I as ke d h im, do e s h e
ge ne rally co mp o s e
a
p ie ce -wh e th e r no wadays
o r in
th e
p as t? Wh e re , in o th e r wo rds , do h is
co mp o s itio ns
"co me f ro m"? Wh at
p ro vide s
th e
imp uls e
f o r th e m? Sh abalala h as mo re th an a
s ingle
ans we r. One
re s p o ns e
is f amiliar: a
s o ng migh t
co me in a dre am o r a vis io n. Or wh at
may
be
ano th e r
way
o f
s aying
th e s ame
th ing:
"So me time s
yo u
can h e ar th e mus ic wh e n
yo u jus t ke e p quie t."
Pre s s e d to be mo re
s p e cif ic, th o ugh ,
Sh abalala's ans we rs
be co me le s s
mys tical,
mo re co ncre te . "Th e
co mp o s itio n
co me s f ro m
yo ur e ye s .
Yo u s e e
s o me th ing.
Yo u s e e
s o me th ing
and
yo u
want to co rre ct if th at
th ing
is
wro ng,
o r
yo u
want to
p rais e
if th at
th ing
is
righ t.
Yo u f e e l
maybe
th is
th ing's
no t
go o d,
h o w can I co rre ct th is ? Or
yo u
f e e l like h o w can I te ll th e
p e o p le
th at th is
th ing's
go o d,
we mus t all do
th ings
like
th is ,
I wis h to s e e th is
again?
Wh e n I s e e
s o me bo dy alo ng
th e s tre e t th e re 's a
p lace
wh ich
ins p ire s
me .
Maybe
it to uch
my
mind. I mus t do
s o me th ing
with th is . Wh at am I
go ing
to do ?
Alrigh t, alrigh t
le t
me make a
s o ng
abo ut it. But it will
de p e nd.
So me time
yo u go ing
to make th e
s o ng,
s o me time
yo u
no t
go ing
to make it. So me time
yo u go ing
to make th e
s o ng
and
yo u
f e e l like
yo u
can
s ing
th is
s o ng
alo ne -no t with th e
p e o p le ."
10 Brits h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5
( 1996)
Wh e n h e th inks th e re 's a ne e d to
p ro duce
a
s o ng
o f criticis m, th o ugh ,
Sh abalala will
always
do th is in a
p articular way:
"I f e e l like I want
p o lite wo rds ,
wh ich I th ink are
ve ry s tro ng."
He illus trate s bo th me th o d and
p rincip le by te lling
a
s to ry
abo ut an incide nt in h is
yo uth ,
wh e n h e dis co ve re d th at h is co us in was
do ing s o me th ing
th at was "no t
righ t."
Ins te ad o f
p icking
a
f igh t
with h im,
h e
made
up
a
s o ng
wh ich de alt
p re cis e ly
with th e is s ue , and
s ang
it to h im. No t
o nly
was th e
s o ng p o lite ,
it was h umo ro us , to o . So o n th e co us in
be gan
to
s ing
as
we ll-and to
laugh .
"Th e
s o ng
is
wo rking
in h im."
Fo r Sh abalala,
a dif f e re nt s o rt o f
s p ur
to
co mp o s itio n
is
intrins ically
mus ical:
h e aring
a
p ie ce
wh ich s trike s h im as
imp e rf e ct.
Such
e xp e rie nce s be gan
wh e n h e
was a
yo ung bo y.
"I re me mbe r f ro m th e
be ginning,
f irs t o f all
s o me th ing
wh ich
make s
yo u
to
co mp o s e
is wh e n
yo u
h e ard
s o me bo dy s inging
and
yo u
f e e l like th e
s o ng
is no t f inis h e d o r th e
s to ry's
no t co rre ct. Yo u f e e l like
yo u
can co rre ct th e
h armo ny, yo u
can co rre ct th e
me lo dy.
Yo u f e e l like th is is a
s o ng,
but
maybe
it's
to o s h o rt, maybe
it's no t co rre ct, s o me th ing
like th at. Th at's
wh y yo u
s tarte d to
h ave
s o me th ing yo u
call
co mp o s itio n."
Po we rf ul as th e s e s timuli
migh t be , Sh abalala do e s no t
imme diate ly p ro duce
f inis h e d
co mp o s itio ns .
Th e ide as ne e d to be wo rke d o n, f le s h e d o ut, re f ine d. And
th o ugh
th is wo rk can be carrie d o ut at
any time , Sh abalala attribute s
by
f ar th e
large s t
and mo s t
imp o rtant p art
o f it to
p ro ce s s e s
th at o ccur wh ile h e is
as le e p .
"Wh e n I'm
s le e p ing",
h e
s ays , "my s p irit
do e s th e wo rk. So me time s at
nigh t
wh e n I'm
s le e p ing,
I will dis co ve r
my
wif e
s h aking me -s ays , 'He y
wh at's
go ing
o n? Are
yo u s inging
no w?' So th at's
wh y
I
s ay:
Wh e n
my
f le s h is
s le e p ing,
it's
daytime
in
my s p irit."
He de s cribe s th is
s le e p time
wo rk as "a be autif ul
te ach ing
at
nigh t".
He
migh t
h ave labo ure d o ve r a
s o ng during
th e
day,
"but at
nigh t
wh e n
yo u re lax, yo u
f e e l like th e re 's
s o me bo dy
wh o is ne xt to
yo u, talking
to
yo u,
co rre cting yo u.
To me , it's
jus t
like a s ch o o l at
nigh t.
In
f act,
I'm
jus t
like
s o me bo dy
wh o h as an advis e r all th e time wh e n I th ink abo ut mus ic." If it's a
p articularly
dif f icult
s o ng,
th e ce le s tial ch o ir th at f irs t ins tructe d h im in 1964 will
re turn.
Th e y
will take
up
th e
s o ng-"I
can h e ar th e s o und o f
many p e o p le
s inging"-and
th e ir de mo ns tratio n will s h o w h im h o w to
p ro ce e d.
Wh e n h e
awake s ,
h e can re call th e dre am. Eith e r h e th e n make s no te s abo ut it,
o r if it is
vivid
e no ugh
h e
may
go
dire ctly
to h is
gro up
and te ach th e m wh at h e h as le arnt.
In an
o riginal ins igh t,
Sh abalala
s ugge s ts
th at o ne
way
o f
unde rs tanding
th e
dif f e re nce be twe e n
co mp o s ing
wh ile awake and
co mp o s ing
wh ile
as le e p -th e
f o rme r o f te n dif f icult, th e latte r
always e as y-is
to f o cus o n th e
bo dy:
a mus ical
p ro ble m,
h e s e e ms to
s ugge s t, migh t
be th e s o nic
image
o f s tre s s o r f rus tratio n
lo cke d into a te ns e , tire d
bo dy.
"Be caus e all th e time ,"
h e
s ays ,
"wh e n we h ave a
p ro ble m,
it's s tuck s o me wh e re in th e
bo dy.
I f e e l like I'm tire d. I do n't kno w
wh at's
go ing
o n. I've be e n
wo rking ve ry
h ard."
By co ntras t, during
dre amtime
co mp o s itio n, "yo u re lax, yo u
are no t tire d th at
yo u
are
wo rking
at
nigh t.
Yo u
re lax. Wh e n
yo u
wake
up yo ur bo dy's ve ry h ap p y.
Th e
p ro ble m
is s o lve d."
No t
s urp ris ingly,
Sh abalala h as co me to
de p e nd f undame ntally
o n h is mus ical
dre aming.
It h as be e n h is co ns tant
guide ,
and wh at h e calls h is "vis io n". "Once it
s to p s ",
h e
s ays ,
"I can't th ink th at I will
carry
o n."
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala 11
Wh e n, o r h o w
o f te n, do e s Sh abalala
co mp o s e ?
It is a
que s tio n
th at make s h im
laugh :
h e 's s ure th e re is n't a
day
wh e n h e do e s n't
co mp o s e . Inde e d, h e o f te n f inds
th at h e 's be e n
co mp o s ing
with o ut
re alizing
it. An ane cdo te make s h is
p o int.
Th e
p re vio us day,
wh ile
walking
to h is car ne ar th e
City Hall, h e dis co ve re d a
p o lice man
was
f o llo wing
h im.
Eve ntually
th e
p o lice man s to p p e d
h im: h e wante d
Sh abalala to kno w th at h e 'd
re co gnize d
h im
by
h is
s inging.
"I
s aid, 'No I'm no t
s inging.'
'Yo u we re
s inging!'
h e re minds me .
Said, 'Oh
ye s ,
I was
s inging-f ro m
my
car! I'm s till
s inging!"' ( In f act, h e admits to
s inging
s o much th at h is vo ice
ge ts tire d.)
Irre s p e ctive
o f th e
s o urce , imp uls e ,
o r
o ccas io n, in Sh abalala's
p ractice
wo rds
and
me lo dy
will no t
ne ce s s arily-o r
e ve n
typ ically-arrive to ge th e r,
and h e
co ns ide rs h ims e lf
lucky
wh e n
th e y
do .
So me th ing
h e
s e e s , f o r
ins tance , may
s ugge s t o nly me lo dy
and
h armo nie s ,
o r
o nly
wo rds . Wh ate ve r is
mis s ing
will th e n
h ave to
arrive , o r be
de vis e d, late r. Or e ve n be re dis co ve re d: Sh abalala
o ccas io nally
f inds
( s ay)
unus e d
lyrics ,
f ro m
ye ars p as t,
th at
s udde nly
s e e m a
p e rf e ct
f it f o r th e ne w
me lo dy. Cle arly
th e re are f acto rs in s uch a
s e que nce
th at
f all o uts ide th e re alm o f co ns cio us
ch o ice , but th is do e s n't me an Sh abalala h as no
p re f e re nce s .
It is
e as ie s t, h e
s ays ,
wh e n
co mp o s itio n be gins
with th e
lyrics .
If th e
me lo dy
co me s
f irs t, "it is
ve ry
h ard to
p ut
th e
lyrics
o n late r. If
yo u
h ave th e
me lo dy yo u
mus t be we ll
o rganize d
to
p ut
th e
lyrics
in th is
me lo dy,
be caus e
s o me time th e
lyrics de s tro y
th e
me lo dy."7
Sh abalala
co mp o s e s
e ach
p ie ce e ntire ly
o n h is
o wn, wo rking
it o ut "in
my
mind" and
s inging
all th e vario us ch o ral
p arts ( alto , te no r, bas s ). His o wn s o lo is tic
le ading p art, h o we ve r, h e tre ats
dif f e re ntly:
th is will be
imp ro vis e d,
o nce th e
gro up
h as le arne d th e
s o ng.
Almo s t
invariably,
th e las t
imp o rtant
de tail to be
co mp o s e d
is th e intricate and ch aracte ris tic
ch o re o grap h y
th at
no rmally e rup ts
in
th e
cyclical
f inal s e ctio n o f a
s o ng. ( Sh abalala te rms th is
cyclical
s e ctio n "th e
rh yth m".)
Wh e n th is dance s e ctio n is
p re s e nt
in Sh abalala's
co mp o s itio ns ,
h e
take s
s p e cial
care with it: af te r
all,
a
me aningf ul
match o f mus ic and dance
was ,
as we h ave
s e e n,
a re al co nce rn o f h is s ince h is
yo uth ,
and be came o ne o f th e
to p ics
addre s s e d in th e vis its o f h is ce le s tial ch o ir. In
any cas e , h e f inds th at th e
tas k o f
ch o re o grap h ing
th is s e ctio n co me s
e as ily
to h im.
Partly
th is is a matte r o f
s e lf -co nf ide nce : h e kno ws h e is an
o uts tanding
dance r. Th e me mbe rs o f h is
gro up
kno w th is to o , and als o kno w th at h e was e ve n
re garde d
as th e be s t dance r in th e
are a wh e re h e
gre w up . Th e y p ro udly re gard h im,
h e
s ays ,
as th e ir dance te ach e r.
Sh abalala
e mp h as ize s
th e
imp o rtance
o f th e dance s e ctio n in e ach
s o ng by
co ntras ting
it to th e
s ung
narrative th at
p re ce de s
it. And th e s imile h e us e s is
re markable , f o r it unco ve rs th e
de p th
to wh ich
is icath amiya,
e ve n f o r a wo rld
trave lle r s uch as
Jo s e p h Sh abalala, re mains imbue d with th e
image
and
e xp e rie nce
o f
migrant
labo ur. In h is
s imile ,
if th e narrative s e ctio n is like
go ing
to
wo rk, th e dance s e ctio n is like
re turning
h o me . "Fro m th e
be ginning yo u
are
7
In th e cas e o f th e
s o ng
th at Sh abalala
co mp o s e d
as a re s ult o f
my re que s t
th at we vide o h im
te ach ing
a ne w
s o ng
to h is
gro up ,
h e to o k th e dif f icult ro ute : h e
co mp o s e d th e
me lo dy f irs t. As a
re s ult, wh e n late r
de vis ing
th e
lyrics ,
as h e
p ut it, "I wro te and dis carde d
many th ings ".
12 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy, vo l.
( 1996)
s e rio us to te ll th e
p e o p le s o me th ing-yo u
mus t s tand s till and s e rio us to talk to
th e m. It f e e ls like wh e n
yo u
we re
vis iting, go ing away
f ro m h o me to wo rk
ve ry
h ard. It's
imp o rtant
to wo rk
ve ry
h ard. But th e
dancing
s e ctio n:
yo u
mo re
e njo y
to
be at h o me ! It's a
jo ying.
It's th e re wh e re
yo u
s h o w th e
p e o p le
h o w
h ap p y yo u
are . And th e n af te r th at
yo u
f inis h ."
Co mp o s ing
as
p ro lif ically
as h e
do e s ,
h o w do e s Sh abalala
"p re s e rve "
h is
inve ntio ns ? He canno t write We s te rn mus ic no tatio n: wh at
s te p s
do e s h e take ,
th e n, to s e cure h is
co mp o s itio nal
ide as
agains t
attritio n
th ro ugh me mo ry
lo s s ?
One o f h is me th o ds is to make co ntact with h is
gro up ,
o r with at le as t s o me o f
th e m, as s o o n as
p o s s ible ,
and
co nve y
th e ide as to th e m. Th is h as th e f urth e r
advantage
th at it als o re nde rs th e ide as mo re s e cure in h is o wn mind. Ano th e r
me th o d is to write do wn as much as h e can. In th e cas e o f th e
lyrics ,
th is
p re s e nts
no
dif f iculty
s ince Sh abalala is
co nve ntio nally
lite rate . His mus ical inve ntio ns are
ano th e r matte r, but f o r th e s e h e s o me time s us e s a
s imp le
ico nic me th o d to re mind
h ims e lf o f th e mo ve me nt and dire ctio n o f th e vo cal
p arts :
h e draws line s o n a
s h e e t o f
p ap e r. Incre as ingly, h o we ve r, s uch
te ch nique s
are
be ing s up e rs e de d by
mo de m
te ch no lo gy,
f o r
no wadays
Sh abalala mo s t o f te n
s imp ly
s witch e s o n h is
cas s e tte
tap e
re co rde r. Since
ins p iratio n
can s trike at th e o dde s t time s , h e trie s to
h ave th e mach ine with h im wh e re ve r h e
go e s .
Such as o n h is
f re que nt f ligh ts :
"Eve n in th e
ae ro p lane ,
I f e e l like th e re 's a
s o ng,
I
jus t
o p e n my tap e ,
I
tap e
th at
o ne ." Or in h is car: "So me time I'm
driving
th e car f ro m Clare mo nt to Durban,
I
jus t p ark as ide , go
at th e back,
I take
my tap e , ge t
in th e car, s tart th e car and I
s ing."
Or e ve n wh ile
re h e ars ing
with h is
gro up :
"Th e time wh e n
yo u
are
p ractis ing
an o ld
s o ng,
s o me time
yo u
f e e l like h e re 's a ne w
s o ng co ming,
and
th e n
yo u
mus t
tap e
th at. Yo u mus t re co rd th at."
Th e re was a time wh e n Sh abalala h ad no ne e d f o r
any
s uch aids .
"My
mind
was
ve ry,
ve ry s h arp
to re me mbe r," h e
s ays .
"I didn't ch e ck, I didn't write do wn
th ings , no th ing,
o nce it
go t
into
my
mind." Wh e n h e
s ays , laugh ing,
"I'm
ge tting
o ld
no w,"
h e kno ws it is
o nly p art
o f th e
e xp lanatio n.
Mo re to th e
p o int,
h e
admits , is th at th e mus ic h e write s h as
ch ange d. "Be f o re ,
I didn't write a
lo ng
s o ng.
It was a s h o rt
s o ng.
Ja-th e
s o ngs
are
ge tting lo nge r.
And th e
s o ngs
are
ge tting
mo re -wh at do
yo u call?-'me s s age '.
Ja. Th at's
wh y
I ne e d th e
p ap e r.
I
ne e d
s o me th ing."
And
co ns e que ntly
h e h as h undre ds o f audio cas s e tte s in h is
h o me , f ille d with
ide as , co mp o s itio nal e mbryo s ,
dif f e re nt ve rs io ns : th e s e
tap e s
are
amo ng
Sh abalala's mo s t
imp o rtant
"s ke tch bo o ks ".
3. So me s o cial and ae s th e tic is s ue s
Amo ng
th e
to p ics
addre s s e d in
my
dis cus s io ns with
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala we re th o s e
th at turne d o n is s ue s th at I s h all call s o cial and ae s th e tic. We did no t
ap p ro ach
th e s e unde r
any
s uch rubric, h o we ve r; my
de cis io n to
p re s e nt
s uch is s ue s unde r s o
abs tract and
ge ne ralizing
a title was made
s e le ctive ly,
af te r th e e ve nt. Far f ro m
wis h ing
to make
any
claim to e xh aus tive ne s s h e re , I
s imp ly p re s e nt
th re e is s ue s
th at be came
p ro mine nt
in o ur dis cus s io ns and th at Sh abalala s e e ms to ve s t with
s p e cial s ignif icance .
Ballantine : Jo s e p h Sh abalala 13
Th o ugh
it wo uld be unch aracte ris tic o f h im to s tate th e matte r s o
e xp licitly,
th e
f irs t is s ue be ars
up o n
Sh abalala's
( imp licit)
re as o ns f o r
co mp o s ing.
In o th e r
wo rds ,
with wh at
p urp o s e s
do e s h e s e nd h is
p ie ce s
into th e wo rld? At h e art,
Sh abalala is mo tivate d
by
a be lie f o f
dis arming s imp licity:
th e be lie f , as h e o nce
p ut
it to me ,
th at "mus ic is f o r
p e ace .
Wh e n
yo u s ing, yo u
f e e l like
yo u
want
p e o p le
to co me
to ge th e r
and lo ve e ach o th e r and s h are ide as ." And th is h as
always
drive n h im. He
re adily re f e rs , f o r ins tance , to h is
co mp o s itio n
"No math e mba", th e
s o ng
th at made th e album Amabuth o f amo us . Th e
s o ng's
title
is th e name o f a
girl,
and Sh abalala de s cribe s h e r as a
s ymbo l
o f
h o p e .
Wh e n h e
cre ate d th e
s o ng,
h e
s ays ,
"in
my
mind it was
jus t
like I'm
talking
abo ut So uth
Af rica. 'No math e mba':
h o p e . He y guys , yo u
mus t h ave
h o p e
to do
th ings -
co nf ide nce . But I talk abo ut th at be autif ul
girl.
I was in lo ve with h e r and s h e ran
away
f ro m me . No w I'm
calling
th at
girl.
Co me back, co me back, co me back
No math e mba. On
my way h o me , h e re 's No math e mba
s itting
do wn unde r a
willo w
tre e ,
like an
o rp h an.
It's a
p o e try
to
h e lp p e o p le
to co me
to ge th e r."8
"No math e mba" is an
e xamp le
o f a
s o ng
co nce ive d wh e n th e
ap arth e id re gime
was s till
s e cure ly
in
p o we r.
But
to day,
in th e "ne w" So uth Af rica, th e
urge ncy
Sh abalala f e e ls to re ach o ut
th ro ugh
h is mus ic h as no t diminis h e d. No r h as th e
dif f iculty
o f h is
tas k, living
as h e do e s in a
re gio n
wracke d
by unre mitting
inte rne cine warf are be twe e n
s up p o rte rs
o f Ch ie f
Mango s uth u
Buth e le zi's Inkath a
Fre e do m
Party ( IFP)
and th e Af rican Natio nal
Co ngre s s ( ANC)
le d
by
Ne ls o n
Mande la. Part o f th e
dif f iculty
is h o w to e ns ure th at h e is h e ard: th e s e arch f o r an
ap p lo p riate
mo de o f addre s s . He admits to
"th inking
abo ut ne w So uth Af rica" and
wanting
to
s ay th ings .
"But
p o lite ly.
I'm no t a
de s tro ye r.
I'm a
p e rs o n
wh o like s
to
imp re s s p e o p le
and le t th e m
try
to le arn
to ge th e r." Partly
be caus e o f th e ne w
co nte xt,
h e h as
re ce ntly
f o und
s o ngwriting "ve ry
dif f icult. I mus t be care f ul.
So me wo rds are
ve ry go o d,
but I dis co ve r o th e r wo rds are no t
go o d.
I take it o ut
and
p ut
in o th e r wo rds ." Fo r ins tance ,
h e f ace d
many
dif f icultie s in
p utting
to ge th e r
h is
as to nis h ing
re ce nt album, Th uth ukani
ngo xo lo :
Le t's
de ve lo p
in
p e ace .
"Th e re we re
many p ie ce s
in f ro nt o f me ", h e
s ays .
But h is
p ro ble m
was :
"Ho w to
bring
th e
p e o p le to ge th e r
to
f o rgive
e ach o th e r?
Th e y
are
killing
e ach
o th e r! Wh e n
co mp o s ing
th e album,
I trie d to
bring
th o s e
p ie ce s to ge th e r.
I
go t
into it as if s o me o ne was
as king
me to kill o ne o f
my
bro th e rs o r s is te rs and I s aid
no , ne ve r! Ne ve r! I do n't want to do th at! Wh e th e r a
p e rs o n
is black o r wh ite ,
h e
is
yo ur
bro th e r!" Th is
p o int
is addre s s e d mo s t
e xp licitly
in th e f irs t
s o ng
o n th e
album, "Kangivumanga":
8 In co nve rs atio n with Erlmann o n an e arlie r o ccas io n and in co nne ctio n with a dif f e re nt
p ro je ct,
Sh abalala made th e s ame
p o int us ing
o th e r wo rds . "Eve n
my lyrics ,
it's
jus t p re ach ing.
Ja. Wh e n
I am
talking
abo ut No math e mba, talking
abo ut th at
lady,
I was jus t e nco uraging
th e
p e o p le .
Ho w
can I
h e lp
th e
p e o p le
to lo ve e ach o th e r, th o s e wh o s o me time s us e d to
f igh t
e ach o th e r? And I
jus t
write th is
s o ng. No math e mba wh o we nt to
Jo h anne s burg. Th e man
go
to lo o k f o r h e r, and h e
ap o lo gize
to h e r, s aid,
co me back.
So me th ing
like th at, I
th o ugh t maybe
I am
go ing
to
bring
th e
p e o p le to ge th e r to f o rgive e ach o th e r" ( Erlmann 1996: 305).
14 Britis h Jo urnal
o f
Eth no mus ico lo gy
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
Ple as e no te wh e n I
s ay
Our Cre ato r I do no t
Me an
any p articular
race
Co lo ur o r cre e d I lo ve
My
bro th e rs and s is te rs
So me bo dy
was
be gging
me
To h ate o ne o f
my
bro th e rs and s is te rs
I s aid no no no ne ve r ne ve r ne ve r
Dif f e re nt co lo urs it me ans
no th ing
to me
Dif f e re nt
language s
it me ans
no th ing
to me
Dif f e re nt name s it me ans
no th ing
to me
To be s ure , th e
co mp o s itio nal
tas ks h e s e ts f o r h ims e lf in
trying
to make th e s e
s o rts o f
argume nts
are als o
be co ming
mo re dif f icult. His mo s t re ce nt album,
Ukuzala ukuze lula
( To
be ar ch ildre n is to e xte nd o ne 's
bo ne s ),
is a cas e in
p o int:
th e
re co rding
is an
unp re ce de nte d amalgam
o f
is icath amiya,
amah ubo
( p re co lo nial re ligio us s o ngs )
and
is ige kle ( we dding s o ngs ),
in wh ich
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo co mbine s with ne w male and
f e male
vo cal f o rce s .
Typ ically,
f o r
Sh abalala th e album is "like a
te ach ing":
h e wants "to s h o w
p e o p le
we 've lo s t
s o me th ing, s o me wh e re , s o me h o w". Wh at h e me ans
by
th is is
s ugge s te d by
h is
ch aracte rizatio n o f th e album as "a
ch alle nge
to e ach and
e ve ry p e rs o n:
th at we
mus t
re s p e ct
o ur culture and e ach o th e r".
With
go als
as
lo f ty
as th e s e , it is
cle arly imp o rtant
to Sh abalala th at h is
s o ngs
be unde rs to o d. Fo r th is re as o n h e will, wh e n h e th inks it
ap p ro p riate ,
s e le ct a
language
o th e r th an Zulu f o r h is
lyrics .
A cas e in
p o int
is th e we ll-kno wn "Wir
griis s e n
e uch alle ", re le as e d o n Ph ans i
e mgo dini
but
o riginally
writte n f o r
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo 's f irs t
trip
to
Ge rmany-in f act, th e ir f irs t o ve rs e as
to ur-in 1981.
( Sh abalala
wro te th e wo rds in
Englis h ,
th e n h ad th e m trans late d
into
Ge rman.)
Th e re are als o th e nume ro us
s o ngs
f o r wh ich
Englis h
is
( wh o lly
o r
p artly)
th e
language
o f ch o ice -f o r ins tance , "Th at's
wh y
I ch o o s e
yo u"
o n
Inala,
"Th e e arth is ne ve r s atis f ie d" and o th e rs o n Sh aka Zulu, and "Lo ve
yo ur
ne igh bo ur"
and o th e rs o n Scatte r th e
f ire s p re ad
th e mus ic. Mo re o ve r, e vide ntly
ins p ire d by
Ne ls o n Mande la's Go ve rnme nt o f Natio nal
Unity
and its
p o we rf ul
me s s age
o f inte rcultural re co nciliatio n, Sh abalala
s p e aks
o f a wis h to
co mp o s e
s o ngs
no t
o nly
in a
varie ty
o f
indige no us
So uth Af rican
language s
and in
Englis h ,
but als o in th e lo cal Indian
language s ( Hindi, Guje rati,
Tamil,
Te le gu
and
Urdu)
and in Af rikaans . "If
yo u
are a mus ician", h e
s ays , "yo u
lo ve all
p e o p le .
I f e e l I
can
gre e t
dif f e re nt
p e o p le
in th e ir o wn
language s ."
He is
de e p ly
bo th e re d wh e n h e
f e e ls a
s o ng
"is
go ing
o ve r th e
p e o p le 's
h e ads " ins te ad o f
go ing "s traigh t
to
th e m".
Po inting
to h is ch e s t, h e
s ays
"th e
s o ng
mus t be h e re to th e
p e o p le -to
f e e l
it, to be e mbrace d
by
it". If
go als
o f th is kind le ad h im at time s to
p rio ritize lyrics
and ve rbal co mmunicatio n o ve r s o und te xture , th e n th is is
p ate ntly
no
imp e dime nt
to h is audie nce s -e ve n
th o ugh
e arlie r is icath amiya co mp o s e rs
s e ldo m wo rke d
with mo re th an a
co up le
o f brie f narrative s tate me nts .
Inde e d,
as Erlmann h as
no te d, it is Sh abalala's re markable
ability
to build into h is
co mp o s itio ns lo ng
and
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala 15
co mp le x
narrative s tructure s th at acco unts , at le as t in
p art,
f o r h is
p o p ularity
( 1989: 49).
Th e s e co nd is s ue to wh ich I s h all draw atte ntio n in th is s e ctio n is th e de mand
Sh abalala
always
make s o f h ims e lf as a
co mp o s e r
to
try
to do
s o me th ing
ne w. At
o ne le ve l, th is me ans
no th ing
mo re th an th at h e
p e rce ive s
h is audie nce s to h ave an
ap p e tite
f o r ne w
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo
s o ngs ,
and th at th is is an
ap p e tite
h e
s e e ks to
s atis f y.
At ano th e r
le ve l, th o ugh ,
wh at is me ant h e re is th e
injunctio n
h e
p lace s
o n h ims e lf to be
o riginal,
to
s urp as s h ims e lf , to do wh at h as ne ve r be e n
ach ie ve d be f o re with in th e
is icath amiya s tyle .
So much
s o , th at if h e be lie ve d h e
was unable to do th is h e wo uld "th ink th at th is is
my
time to re s t no w". Inde e d, it
is h is s e ns e th at h e is
cap able
o f
o riginality
th at
ke e p s
h im
go ing. Ine vitably
th is
als o
p lace s
de mands o n h is
gro up ,
wh ich
th e y
h ave no t
always e as ily acce p te d.
Th e re was a time , h e re calls , wh e n all th at
th e y
wante d was to s tick to th e
e as y,
th e
f amiliar, th e traditio nal. "Th at's all. And I s aid no ,
I'm no t
go ing
to
s ing
if
yo u
talk like th at. I'm no t
go ing
to
carry
o n. I h ave
s o me th ing.
Our f ath e rs s aid we
mus t
h e lp
to
s p re ad,
to
de ve lo p .
No w we mus t
de ve lo p ."
He e nco unte rs s uch
re s is tance no
lo nge r. No wadays ,
h e
s ays ,
th e me mbe rs o f h is
gro up actually e njo y
th e
ch alle nge s
e ntaile d
by
th e ne w
s o ngs
h e
brings
to th e m. And as I h ad o ccas io n
to o bs e rve
mys e lf , th e y ce rtainly
e nte r
up o n
th e
le arning
and
re h e ars ing p ro ce s s
with th e utmo s t co mmitme nt and co nce ntratio n.
Give n th e
imp uls e
"to
de ve lo p ",
Sh abalala
ackno wle dge s
th at h is
ability
to do
s o is aide d
by
two re late d f acto rs . "I th ink it's be caus e o f
maybe ge tting o lde r",
h e
s ays ;
but als o ,
"I th ink it's be caus e o f
s e e ing many th ings
in dif f e re nt
p lace s ,
s o
yo u
f e e l like
yo u
h ave mo re
s to ry
to s h are with th e
p e o p le ."
In o th e r wo rds , "yo u
h ave mo re
e xp e rie nce .
Yo u h ave s e e n
many th ings
aro und th e wo rld and
yo u
lis te n to
yo ur
albums and
s aid, righ t
th is is
o kay.
I do n't ne e d th is
again.
I h ave
ano th e r
way." Ne ve rth e le s s , th o ugh
Sh abalala h as h ims e lf o f co urs e
acce p te d
th e
injunctio n
"to
de ve lo p "
as f undame ntal, h e admits to
f inding
it a burde n-o ne
th at h e
co mp are s
to th e
f e e ling
o f
be ing
at
s ch o o l,
wh e re th e
le arning
p ro ce s s
is
ne ve r
co mp le te ,
and wh e re no s o o ne r h as o ne re ach e d o ne
go al
th an o ne f ace s
ano th e r, us ually
mo re dif f icult. "Eve n to me it's
s o me th ing ve ry dif f icult,"
h e
s ays .
"I'm
always
in ano th e r s ch o o l. Finis h
th is , ano th e r clas s , ano th e r clas s
by
do ing
ne w
s o ngs .
Ja. It's
jus t
like wh e n
yo u
f inis h th e Standard One and
yo u
s o
p ro ud
th at
yo u p as s ,
and
yo u ge t
to Standard
Two , s o me th ing
ne w. And th e n af te r
th at
yo u
s aid
alrigh t,
no w I kno w
e ve ryth ing. Exce p t
no w
yo u
go
to Standard
Th re e . It's
jus t
like th at wh e n
yo u co mp o s e s o ngs . Trying
to
give p e o p le
s o me th ing dif f e re nt, yo ur o p inio n, yo ur h e art, yo ur
blo o d."
Wh e re h e no w f e e ls th is burde n mo s t
acute ly
is in th e
re co rding s tudio , with its
p rimary
co mmitme nt to
p ro ducing
a
p ro f itable co mmo dity,
and th e
p re s s ure s
and
co ns traints th at th is e ntails . Fo r th e
imp uls e
"to
de ve lo p "
h as als o re nde re d
Sh abalala's mus ic mo re
co mp le x:
it is no w mo re dif f icult to
re h e ars e ,
to
p e rf o rm
and to re co rd, and th e mus ic's o wn te nde ncie s are o f te n at o dds with th e
f o rmulaic
e xp e ctatio ns
o f th e re co rd
p ro duce rs .
In
ye ars go ne by,
h e
re calls ,
h e
wo uld take h is
gro up
to th e s tudio to re co rd an album and be f inis h e d in f ive
h o urs . No w
th e y
take a we e k-o r e ve n
lo nge r
if h e f e e ls
unh ap p y
with th e
way
it
16 Britis h Jo urnal
f
Eth no mus ico lo gy, vo l. 5 ( 1996)
is
go ing.
"If I f e e l like I'm no t
s atis f ie d," h e
s ays ,
"I mus t
s to p
th e s h o w. I mus t
as k
th e -maybe
th e
e ngine e ring
to
s to p
th e
re co rding.
Le t us
p o s tp o ne
th e
re co rding.
Like las t
ye ar
I
p o s tp o ne d
th e
re co rding.
I was no t
re ady.
Ja.
Many
p e o p le th e y s aid, yo u re ady
no w. I
s aid, no I'm no t
re ady.
Yo u f e e l it."
Th e album Th uth ukani
ngo xo lo :
Le t's
de ve lo p
in
p e ace
is a cas e in
p o int.
Sh abalala was
s up p o s e d
to re co rd th e album in 1994, but h is
co mp o s itio nal
inte ntio ns
initially p o s e d majo r dif f icultie s , and th e f irs t
atte mp t
to re co rd it
f aile d. Th e album was
e ve ntually
re co rde d in 1995. Sh abalala s o unds a no te o f
e xas p e ratio n
as h e re me mbe rs th e wh o le
e p is o de .
He re co unts th at h e h ad to wo rk
e xtre me ly h ard, e ve n
by
h is s tandards . "Th e
s o ngs
are much mo re dif f icult", h e
s ays .
"I've s e e n and
e xp e rie nce d many th ings ,
and I wante d to
p ut
th e s e
th ings
in
individual
s o ngs ,
to te ach th e
p e o p le .
Eve n th e mus ic is mo re dif f icult. But f o r th e
re co rding yo u
h ave to te ach th e
p e o p le
in
o nly
th re e minute s , yo u
h ave to te ll th e
f ull
s to ry
in
o nly
th re e minute s !" Time , th e n, was o ne o f th e
majo r p ro ble ms .
So me
s o ngs
we re to o
lo ng
and h ad to be s h o rte ne d, wh ile
many p ie ce s
h ad to be
o mitte d
alto ge th e r. Hap p ily,
much o f th e
p o we r
o f Sh abalala's
o riginal
co nce p tio ns
s e e ms to h ave s urvive d th e o rde al. Audie nce s h ave admire d th e
rich ne s s o f its
me anings ,
th e
range
o f its
e xp e rie nce ,
and th e h is to rical
de p th
and
allus ive ne s s o f its mus ical inve ntio n with in th e
is icath amiya
traditio n.
"Pe o p le
s ay", s ays Sh abalala, "th at I've take n an
e xamp le
f ro m th e
be ginning-f ro m
Amabuth o , and th e
p o we r
o f th at
e arly
album-and wo ve n th at s o und back into
th e
p re s e nt."
So f ar is Sh abalala f ro m
f e e ling
co mf o rtable with th e th re e - o r f o ur-minute
s o ng,
th at h e no w h as a wis h th at,
if it co uld be re alize d, wo uld abo lis h s uch
limitatio ns
alto ge th e r. Inde e d, s o
"p o lice d"
is h e
by
th e s e
indus try
s tandards th at
th e y
are
vis ibly
with h im f ro m th e f irs t re h e ars al o f a ne w
s o ng.
Eve n at th is
e arly
s tage
h e ch e cks th e
le ngth
o f th e
p ie ce agains t
th e clo ck, dis cus s e s th e matte r with
th e
gro up ,
h as th e m
s ing th ro ugh
th e
s o ng
with o ut
any re p e titio ns
at all. Th is is
e s s e ntial, h e
s ays ,
s o th at h e can de cide wh e re to
re p e at,
wh at to
e mp h as ize .
His
wis h , th e n, wo uld be to make an album
co ns is ting
o f a
s ingle ,
unbro ke n
s o ng.
He
we nt as f ar as
p ro p o s ing
th e ide a to h is
p ro duce r
at Gallo Mus ic Pro ductio ns . "I
s aid, can
yo u
allo w me to make an album
jus t s ing
no t
s to p p ing?
Jus t
s ing, jus t
s ing.
I can
give
dif f e re nt me lo die s -but no t
s to p , jus t s ing righ t th ro ugh .
Jus t to
te ll th e
p e o p le
a
s to ry."
But
e vide ntly
th e
re que s t
was co ns ide re d ridiculo us : "He
was
laugh ing
at me ! He was
jus t laugh ing
at me !"
Th e las t o f th e th re e is s ue s I s h all me ntio n in th is s e ctio n is th e
que s tio n
o f
imp ro vis atio n.
Th at
is , o f
imp ro vis atio n
as a
que s tio n:
Wh at is its
p lace
in h is
co mp o s itio ns ? Only
Sh abalala's s o lo
p art-as
le ade r-is
no rmally imp ro vis e d.
And h e maintains th at ne ith e r h e no r th e
gro up
kno w in advance th e de tails o f
wh at h e is
go ing
to do . Th e
o nly th ing
o f wh ich h e is ce rtain is th at h e will
imp ro vis e ,
and th e
ability
to do s o will co me f ro m an
ins p iratio nal
f o rce h e calls
"th e
s p irit". Be yo nd
th e are na o f h is o wn s o lo
p art-"I'm
th e
o nly
o ne wh o 's f re e
all th e time !" h e
s ays -Sh abalala p e rmits imp ro vis atio n
to th e me mbe rs o f h is
gro up
with in s trict limits and unde r
s p e cif ic
co nditio ns . Th e
o nly
e le me nts h e is
willing
to
p e rmit
th e m to add mo re o r le s s at will and e ve n f ro m an
e arly s tage
in
Ballantine : Jo s e p h
Sh abalala 17
th e re h e ars al
p ro ce s s ,
are th e idio matic e mbe llis h me nts -f amiliar to
anyo ne
wh o
h as lis te ne d to
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo -s uch as
grrrrr
and s h i-e s h e -e s h e .
Eve n h e re , th o ugh ,
h e will
during
a
p e rf o rmance
s o me time s
h umo ro us ly
e nco urage
th e m to
give
a little mo re
( o r
a little
le s s ) by ge s turing
in th e dire ctio n
o f th e be llie s o f o ne o r mo re o f h is
s inge rs ,
with a mo ve me nt o f h is h and th at
s ugge s ts
h e is
turning up ( o r do wn)
th e vo lume co ntro l o n an
amp lif ie r.
A little
mo re f re e do m is
grante d
to th e
gro up
wh e n
th e y
h ave
p e rf o rme d
a
s o ng many
time s and are
ve ry
f amiliar with it: Sh abalala th e n
p e rmits
th e m to intro duce
s ubtle variatio ns "be caus e
th e y
kno w
e xactly
wh e re
th e y
are ." Mo re
le e way ye t
is
allo we d to th e alto and te no r vo ice s , th o ugh again o nly
wh e n
th e y
kno w th e
s o ng
ve ry
we ll.
Th e y may
th e n s o me time s
vary
th e ir
p arts
a little , p ro vide d th e y
do n't
do s o
s imultane o us ly.
"Th e alto and th e te no r mus t 'talk' with th e ir
e ye s ,"
h e
e xp lains ,
"th e o ne
te lling
th e o th e r h e 's
go ing
to
imp ro vis e ,
s o th at wh ile th e o ne
imp ro vis e s
th e o th e r
s tays
f irm." In all th e s e cas e s , s uch libe rtie s are
unde rp inne d
by
a be lie f th at individual f re e do m and
e xp re s s io n
s h o uld no t
je o p ardize
th e
ide ntity
o r th e co h e re nce o f th e
gro up .
Sh abalala
e xp lains
th is
by citing
wh at h e
de s cribe s as a
s aying
with in bo th th e
gro up
and Zulu culture
ge ne rally.
Th e
s aying
is
me tap h o rical
wh e n
ap p lie d
o uts ide th e co nte xt o f
many
Zulu dance
traditio ns , including
th e
s tyle
us e d in
is icath amiya
its e lf : "If we 're
dancing
to ge th e r
in o ne line , and
yo u
want to
jump
o ut in
f ro nt, th e n do s o , but co me back
and
jo in
with us ."
4.
Re h e ars ing,
and mo re
In
p art
be caus e h e dire cts , p e rf o rms
and
imp ro vis e s
with h is o wn e ns e mble , f o r
Sh abalala th e cre ative
p ro ce s s
is
ce rtainly
no t re s tricte d to wo rk do ne o n h is o wn,
p rio r
to th e f irs t re h e ars al. On th e
co ntrary,
h o we ve r f e cund h is
p rivate daytime
and dre amtime cre ative
imaginatio n,
Sh abalala's
co mp o s itio nal p ro ce s s e s
mus t be
unde rs to o d to include als o th e
dynamic
and inte rre late d activitie s o f
te ach ing
th e
gro up
h is ne w
s o ngs , p ains taking
and
o ngo ing re h e ars als , and
p e rf o rmance ,
wh e th e r live o r in th e
re co rding
s tudio . No r do e s it e nd th e re :
p art
o f Sh abalala's
re markable s ucce s s as a
co mp o s e r
and
p e rf o rme r
re s ts o n h is
ability
to le ad, h o ld
to ge th e r
and wo rk
h armo nio us ly
with a
gro up
f ro m wh o m h e de mands
unre le ntingly h igh s tandards , wh ile at th e s ame time
e nduring
with th e m th e
rigo urs
bo th o f
f re que nt re co rdings
and o f natio nal and inte rnatio nal co nce rt to urs
f o r
many
mo nth s e ach
ye ar.
Sh abalala's no rmal re h e ars als with h is
gro up
take
p lace
in Durban o n
we e kdays , Mo ndays
to
Th urs days ,
f ro m 10 a.m. to 3 o r 4
p .m.; Fridays
are le f t
f re e f o r individual me mbe rs to trave l h o me to
s p e nd
time with th e ir f amilie s in
Ladys mith
and in Zululand. Additio nal re h e ars als
may
be s ch e dule d wh e n
ne ce s s ary.
Th e
le ngth
o f time
re quire d
to le arn a ne w
s o ng de p e nds large ly
o n its
dif f iculty,
but te nds to
vary
f ro m o ne
day
to o ne mo nth . And
p rio r
to
go ing
into
th e s tudio to re co rd an album o f
( typ ically)
te n ne w
s o ngs ,
Sh abalala will
no wadays us ually
re h e ars e with th e
gro up
f o r th re e mo nth s . Re h e ars als
always
be gin
and e nd with a
p raye r-o r
at le as t h ave do ne s o s ince 1971, wh e n h e was
18 Britis h Jo urnal
f
Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
taugh t
in o ne o f h is dre amtime vis io ns "th at th e be s t
th ing
to co mmunicate with
my s p irit
is to
p ray".
Th e
p raye r
its e lf als o came to h im in th at dre am: h e re calls
th at wh e n h e awo ke h e f o und th e wo rds writte n o n a
p ie ce
o f
p ap e r
at h is be ds ide ,
and co nclude d th at h e 'd writte n th e m th e re
during
th e dre am.
Wh e n
le arning
a ne w
s o ng, Ladys mith
Black Mambazo will s it
clo s e ly to ge th e r
in an arc f o rmatio n. Sh abalala s tands o ut, no t
o nly
be caus e h e is
cle arly le ading
th e
p ro ce e dings ,
but als o be caus e h e is th e
o nly
o ne to mo ve aro und, and th e
o nly
o ne with
anyth ing re s e mbling
a "s co re ": h e carrie s bo th a
p e n,
and a
large
no te bo o k in wh ich th e wo rds o f th e
s o ng
are writte n. He
co ns tantly
re f e rs to th is
no te bo o k, and s o me time s make s anno tatio ns . Th e o th e r me mbe rs o f th e
gro up , by
co ntras t, s imp ly
s it
atte ntive ly,
h ands
clas p e d
in th e ir
lap s , le arning aurally th o ugh
a
p ro ce s s
o f
re p e titio n
and me mo rizatio n. Sh abalala will re ad o ut th e wo rds and
be gin quie tly
to intro duce th e
p rincip al
me lo dic line s , but h e h as a cle ar s e ns e o f
wh e re -at th is
s tage -th e e mp h as is
mus t be
p lace d.
One
guiding p rincip le
is : "I
do n't want th e m to co nce ntrate to th e wo rds . I want th e m to co nce ntrate to th e
rh yth m
o f th e
s o ng.
Ho w
yo u mo ve ; h o w
yo u
bre ath e in, bre ath e o ut; h o w
yo u
e xp re s s yo urs e lf
to th e
s o ng."
Ano th e r
p rincip le
is th at h e
be gins by wo rking
with
th e bas s e s : "Once
yo u
wo rk with th e bas s e s , and
ge t
th e m th e re ,
th e re s t is e as ie r.
Yo u mus t make th e bas s e s lo ve th e
s o ng, ins p ire
th e m." Th e
h igh e r p arts may
th e n s tart to
"gue s s "
at th e inte nde d
h armo ny
and
try
to
jo in
in
( "o nce yo u be gin
th e
s o ng th e y
f o llo w
yo u-th at's
th e
way
o f traditio nal mus ic").
But h e
may
h ave
to
s ing
th e ir
p arts
f o r th e m, p articularly
if th e h armo nie s h e h as in mind are
unp re dictable :
"th e n
yo u s to p
th e m and te ll th e m,
I want
yo u
to
ch ange
h e re and
th e n
ge t
into th is
p art
h e re and co me do wn h e re and
s traigh t h e re , and
th e y s aid,
o kay."
As th e
gro up s lo wly
le arns th e
s o ng,
line
by line , s e ctio n
by s e ctio n,
Sh abalala
be gins
to mo ve aro und, co rre cting, p o lis h ing, s h ap ing
f ine r de tails ,
s e e king
wh e ne ve r
p o s s ible
to
clarif y
h is co mme nts -o r
de e p e n
th e
gro up 's
unde rs tanding
o f th e
lyrics -by
re co urs e to vivid
image s
and s to rie s .
Only
late r
will h e intro duce h is o wn
le ading p art,
and e ve n much late r th an th at will h e
intro duce th e dance
s te p s .
Th ro ugh o ut
th is mus ical
p ro ce s s ,
Sh abalala make s a
p o int
o f
be ing h igh ly
atte ntive to a s e t o f no n-mus ical
f acto rs -name ly,
th e
p h ys ical
and th e
p s ych o lo gical we ll-be ing
o f h is
s inge rs ,
wh ich h e s e e s as
be ing p re co nditio ns
wh ich mus t be me t if th e s h o rt-te rm and
lo ng-te rm
mus ical
go als
h e s e ts f o r h is
gro up
are to be re ach e d. "Be caus e I'm
trying
to
cap ture
th e ir
s p irit",
h e
s ays ;
and
adds th at h e
always
te lls h is
gro up ,
"if th is mus ic can h e al th e
p e o p le ,
it mus t h e al
yo u
f irs t." Th e ne e d f o r s uch atte ntio n is o f te n
gre ate s t
wh e n th e
gro up
is f ace d
with th e dif f icultie s
p re s e nte d by
a ne w
s o ng.
Sh abalala h as cle ar
s trate gie s
f o r
ke e p ing
h is
gro up re laxe d, building
th e ir co nf ide nce , and
avo iding
bo re do m
th ro ugh o ut
th e
p ro ce s s
o f
te ach ing
and
re h e ars ing
a ne w
co mp o s itio n-s trate gie s ,
in s h o rt, "to
cap ture
th e ir
s p irit".
Part o f h is me th o d is to us e h umo ur: re h e ars als
are
re gularly p unctuate d by
o utburs ts o f
laugh te r,
in
re s p o ns e
to h is s to rie s o r
inte rje ctio ns
o r
s imp ly be caus e ,
as h e
p uts it,
"I
laugh
s o me time s to
e nco urage
p e o p le
wh o are
trying
to o h ard".
Ballantine : Jo s e p h
Sh abalala 19
But in e s s e nce h is me th o d is to re inf o rce
gro up ide ntity by drawing
o n
co mmo n me mo rie s and a co lle ctive s e ns e o f th e rural h inte rland h is
s inge rs
s till
call "h o me ": "All th e time wh e n
yo u co mp o s e
a
s o ng yo u
mus t make th e
gro up
h ap p y
f irs t o f all. Talk to th e m, and
f unny
s to rie s . Re mind th e m o f back h o me .
Birds -th ro wing
a s tick to th e birds . And
maybe talking
abo ut
we ddings .
Be autif ul
girls . Alrigh t,
in o ur
days
as we
gre w up -take
th at f ro m back h o me .
And no w we are in ch urch . No w we are in
big
to wns -but we are s till in th e s ame
p lace ,
it's all e arth . No w we are h e re . We
s up p o s e d
to
give s o me th ing,
th e ide a
wh at we h ave , wh e re we co me f ro m. And th e n
yo u
le t th e m talk. Talk
e as y
s to rie s . Make th e m
e njo y.
And wh e n
yo u
make a
s o ng, yo u jus t
make a s h o rt
th ing.
Give a
rh yth m
and th e n
th e y
f e e l it and th e n
yo u give
ano th e r o ne , and th e n
s aid:
Alrigh t f o rge t
abo ut th at, h e re 's a dif f icult o ne .
Th e y
f e e l like : No ,
it can't
be dif f icult f o r us . Be caus e
th e y
we re
h ap p y!
And
yo u
s aid:
Righ t, yo u go ing
to
s ay
th is and
yo u go ing
to
s ay
th is and
yo u go ing
to
s ay
th is . I'm
go ing
to lis te n
and I'll f ind
my way.
And
th e y
s tarte d
s aying: Umm, th is o ne is dif f icult.
Okay
le t's
try. Ste p by s te p . Maybe o nly
th at
p art.
And
yo u
te ll th e m: To mo rro w I h ave
o th e r
p arts
to
p ut
o n th is -it wo uld be little bit dif f icult to mo rro w, o kay? Okay!"
With in th e
gro up ,
Sh abalala's ro le o f le ade r is
unque s tio ne d-o ne
migh t
e ve n
s ay
abs o lute . He is
cle arly
lo ve d and
re s p e cte d,
no t
o nly
f o r h is
e xtrao rdinary
mus ical abilitie s ,
but als o f o r th e
warmth , co mp as s io n
and
s tre ngth
o f h is
le ade rs h ip .
He
ligh ts
o n dif f e re nt
image s
wh e n
re f le cting
o n h is
re latio ns h ip
with
th e
gro up .
So me time s h e de s cribe s th is
re latio ns h ip
as
"jus t
like a te ach e r to th e m,
a te ach e r wh o 's
co ming
with
s o me th ing
ne w." At o th e r time s ,
th e s imile h as a
lo f tie r re s o nance : "Wh e n I'm
wo rking
with Black Mambazo , s o me time I f e e l like
I'm in ch urch , and re lax. Yo u s e e , th e re 's no
argume nt
in ch urch . Th at's
wh y
I'm
a p as to r!
[laugh s ]9
Th e re 's no
argume nt,
but th e re is a ch ance f o r
yo u
and f o r me
to s it do wn and f o r
yo u
to
p re s e nt
wh at
yo u
h ave . No w wh e n I'm with Black
Mambazo it's
jus t
like th at. Jus t like in ch urch ."
Se ns ing p e rh ap s
th at a ro le s o
ap p are ntly
auto cratic
migh t
ne e d s o me
jus tif icatio n,
Sh abalala invo ke s Zulu
traditio n. Th e re ,
h e
s ays , "yo u
mus t
re s p e ct
o ne
p e rs o n;
and all
yo ur th o ugh ts
mus t be
give n
th e n to h im. And
p ray
f o r h im to le ad
yo u.
Be caus e
yo u
as k h im to
do th at." And th e n, f o r adde d
s up p o rt,
h e re me mbe rs a Zulu
p ro ve rb
with its
ide ntical
Englis h co unte rp art: iningi liyabo na
ubube nde
( to o many
co o ks
s p o il
th e
bro th ).
Ne ve rth e le s s , Sh abalala do e s
p ro f e s s
to wis h th at th e me mbe rs o f h is
gro up
wo uld
p articip ate
in th e
co mp o s itio nal p ro ce s s :
th at
th e y
wo uld
bring ide as ,
wo uld
vo luntarily give
mo re f e e dback, and s o o n. Th is wo uld
h e lp h im, h e
s ays ;
and th e f act th at h is
s inge rs
do n't do th is , de s p ite
h is
e nco urage me nt,
le ave s h im
p uzzle d. Maybe ,
h e th inks , it is th e re s ult o f th e ir
be ing s h y,
o r o f th e ir
f inding
it
mus ically
to o dif f icult, o r
maybe th e y jus t
do n't h ave th e ide as , o r
maybe
"it's
like wh e n a
p e rs o n
is
do ing go o d th ings , yo u
f e e l th is
guy
is
o kay,
do n't dis turb
h im."
No rmally
h is
s inge rs give
f e e dback
o nly
wh e n as ke d
s p e cif ic que s tio ns ,
9
Sh abalala is an o rdaine d minis te r o f a de no minatio n kno wn as th e Ch urch o f Go d ( Th e mbe la
and Rade be 1993: 23.)
20 Brtis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
s uch as wh e th e r
th e y
like a
p articular mo dif icatio n, o r wh ich ve rs io n o f a
p h ras e
lie s be tte r o n th e
to ngue .
But s uch
inp ut
is limite d, and in no
way
alte rs th e f act
th at bo th h e and th e me mbe rs o f th e
gro up re gard
th e
s o ngs
as Sh abalala's
e xclus ive inte lle ctual
p ro p e rty.
Th e
ce ntrality
and
auth o rity
o f h is
p o s itio n
no twith s tanding,
Sh abalala's
re latio ns h ip
with h is
gro up
is clo s e , f rie ndly,
and
marke d
by gre at
e as e . An indicatio n o f th is is th e abs e nce o f de f e ns ive ne s s wh e n
h e is at f ault, f o r ins tance wh e n h e make s a mis take
during
a re h e ars al. Af te r
o bs e rving
h im
re h e ars e , I
s p o ke
to h im abo ut th is . "Eve n
mys e lf ,"
h e
e xp laine d,
"be caus e o f
many p arts ,
I s o me time s lo s t th e
way
and I s aid no , s o rry.
So me time I
to ld th e
guys
to be h e re , and I
ge tting
th e re and I
ge t
lo s t. And I co rre ct
mys e lf .
Said, s o rry yo u
we re
righ t,
I'm
wro ng."
Wh e n h e th inks o f th e f uture , Sh abalala re alize s th at th e time will co me wh e n
h e mus t s tand do wn and h and o ve r th e mantle o f
le ade rs h ip
to s o me o ne e ls e . He
h as no ide a wh o th is will be , th o ugh
h e is s ure th at a s ucce s s o r will co me f ro m
with in th e
gro up
its e lf . With th is in mind, h e h as
taugh t
and co ntinue s to te ach all
h is
s inge rs
to
s ing
th e s o lo
p arts
in
many
o f th e
gro up 's s o ngs .
But th e de cis io n
abo ut wh o take s o ve r will be f o r th e
gro up
its e lf to make . "I us e d to th ink th at
Albe rt Mazibuko [o ne o f th e
lo nge s t-s tanding
me mbe rs ] wo uld take o ve r," h e
s ays ,
"but no w with s o
many yo ung
o ne s in th e
gro up ,
e ve n Albe rt f e e ls to o o ld!
So I'll le ave it
up
to th e m.
Acco rding
to o ur traditio n, s ucce s s io n will take care o f
its e lf .
Pe o p le
will s it do wn and talk."
A ne w
s o ng
is
f ully
wo rke d o ut in Sh abalala's mind be f o re h e
be gins te ach ing
it to h is
gro up .
And s ince h e no w us e s a cas s e tte
tap e
re co rde r in th e
co mp o s itio n
p ro ce s s ,
o f te n
s inging
and
re co rding
all th e
p arts s e que ntially,
h e
co mmo nly
brings
th o s e
re co rdings
and h is walkman to th e re h e ars al.
Th e y s tay
in h is
p o cke t
and h e take s th e m o ut
o nly
wh e n
ne ce s s ary.
His
p urp o s e , th o ugh ,
is no t to
p lay
th e
re co rdings
to th e
gro up .
He h as o th e r o bje ctive s . Firs t, and
re s e mbling
th e us e
h e make s o f th e no te bo o k me ntio ne d e arlie r, h e
may
us e th e walkman like a
"s co re ", to re mind h ims e lf o f
de tails , h o lding
it clo s e to h is e ar wh ile th e
gro up
s ings . Se co ndly,
h e
may
us e it to re co rd o ne o r mo re ve rs io ns o f a
p articular
s e ctio n th at are
s ligh tly
dif f e re nt f ro m th e o ne
co mp o s e d
e arlie r. As h e
e xp lains :
"Of te n wh e n
yo u s ing alo ne , yo u're
co nvince d th at
yo u've
go t
th e
righ t ve rs io n,
but wh e n
yo u bring
th e
s o ng
to th e
guys -th at's
wh e n th e re 's
dange r!
Be caus e
yo u
dis co ve r ne w
th ings
wh e n all th e vo ice s are
s inging." By re co rding
s uch
alte rnative s ,
h e
give s
h ims e lf th e
o p p o rtunity
to
co mp are
th e dif f e re nt ve rs io ns
late r,
in
p rivate ,
and mo ve to wards a f inal de cis io n.
Particularly no wadays ,
wh e n h is
co mp o s itio ns
are
be co ming
much mo re
co mp le x,
Sh abalala's
s o ngs
s e ldo m ach ie ve a
p e rmane nt f ixity.
At no time is th is
mo re
uns e ttling
th an
during
s e s s io ns in th e
re co rding s tudio , wh e n th e
gro up
is
making
a ne w album.
Pre p aratio ns
f o r th e
re co rding
will h ave be e n
care f ully
p lanne d;
Sh abalala will h ave
co mp o s e d,
and re h e ars e d, mo re ne w
s o ngs
th an th e
te n o r twe lve h e kno ws h e will h ave
s p ace
f o r o n th e album. But wh e n th e
re co rdings be gin,
h e o f te n f inds h e wants to make
ch ange s . So me time s ,
s o me th ing
abo ut a
p ie ce may
bo th e r h im
during
th e
nigh t,
af te r a
re co rding
s e s s io n. Or an ide a
may
s trike h im wh ile th e
gro up
is in th e s tudio and th e
tap e
is
Ballantine : Jo s e p h
Sh abalala 21
running.
"At th at
ve ry
mo me nt!" h e
e xp lains , re calling
a re ce nt ins tance . "Wh ile
we we re
s itting
do wn I s aid, h o ld o n
guys ,
h e re 's ano th e r
th ing
came to
my
mind
righ t
no w. Le t us
ch ange
th is and
p ut
it like th is ." Wh ate ve r th e re as o n,
th e re s ult
will be a
de lay
in th e
re co rding
wh ile th e
gro up
re h e ars e s and
p e rf e cts
th e
alte ratio ns th e
co mp o s e r
wants to make .
5. Th e
co mp o s e r's
e ducatio nal
re s p o ns ibilitie s
We s aw e arlie r th at Sh abalala is co mmitte d to th e no tio n th at h is
co mp o s itio ns
s h o uld
go
o ut into th e wo rld and make a dif f e re nce . But unlike
many
o th e r
co mp o s e rs
with s imilar
inte ntio ns -many
o f th e m We s te rn
co mp o s e rs -h e
do e s
no t be lie ve th at th e te rrain o f h is
activity
and inf lue nce as a
co mp o s e r
is in
any
way
circums cribe d
by
th e mus ic h e inve nts , p e rf o rms
and re co rds . Rath e r, h e
h o lds th at h e mus t e xte nd h is wo rk as a
co mp o s e r
o nto o th e r te rrains , by s h aring
h is
co mp o s itio nal kno wle dge , ins igh t
and
e xp e rie nce . Princip al
be ne f iciarie s o f
s uch
s h aring
are o th e r
co mp o s e rs
in th e
is icath amiya traditio n,
but th is
activity
als o re ach e s mas kanda mus icians l? wh o s e wo rk is
ins p ire d by Ladys mith
Black
Mambazo , as we ll as vario us o th e r mus icians , as p iring mus icians , s tude nts and s o
o n.
Originally
f ro m a
de p re s s e d
and
imp o ve ris h e d
rural
backgro und,
Sh abalala is
o f co urs e no w no t
o nly f inancially af f lue nt, but is als o
inte rnatio nally
a
ce le brity
and
do me s tically
a cultural h e ro ; and
th o ugh
it wo uld be
gro te s que
to re duce h is
s o cial and mus ical co ns cie nce to th e s e f acto rs , h is f ame and s ucce s s do s e e m to
h ave
give n
a
p articular urge ncy
to th e
way
h e e mbrace s wh at h e f e e ls to be h is
bro adly
e ducatio nal
o bligatio ns
to s h are wh at h e kno ws abo ut
co mp o s ing.
Ce rtainly
h e is
s o ugh t
o ut wh e re ve r h e
go e s ,
and
by
mus icians o f dif f e re nt
p ro ve nance s , circums tance s , mus ical o r e ducatio nal
backgro unds ,
and
de gre e s
o f
s ucce s s . He is
cle arly
s truck
by
h o w e ve n f amo us and we ll-re co rde d
p o p ular
mus icians
ackno wle dge
h is inf lue nce , and h e cite s co mme nts to th is e f f e ct made
to h im
by,
f o r
ins tance ,
Paul Simo n and, le s s
o bvio us ly,
th e ce le brate d So uth
Af rican
s inge r,
P.J. Po we rs . Wh at mo s t mo ve s h im, th o ugh ,
is th e
ackno wle dge -
me nt and th e
ap p e al
f o r
guidance
h e re ce ive s all th e time f ro m
s truggling
mus icians in So uth Af rica. He
give s
an
e xamp le :
"Wh e n I
jus t
go h o me , p e o p le
jus t
co me and
gre e t
me .
Th e y s aid, wh y
do n't
yo u
write
s o me th ing
to s h o w th e
p e o p le
h o w to
co mp o s e ,
h o w to write
s o ngs ?"
So th at is wh at h e h as s tarte d to do . Since abo ut 1992,
Sh abalala h as
be gun
trying
to co ns o lidate and s ummarize , in writte n f o rm, th e
le arnings , ins igh ts
and
p rincip le s
h e be lie ve s
may
be o f mo s t
h e lp
to th e
co mp o s e rs
wh o s e e k h is
as s is tance . Th e s e anno tatio ns -bas e d o n
th o ugh ts
h e h as be e n
re f ining me ntally
f o r
many ye ars -are anyth ing
but abs tract. Rath e r, th e y
are bas e d o n wh at h e h as
10
Ro o te d in th e
p e rf o rmance p ractice s
o f th e traditio nal Zulu mus ical bo w ( umakh we yana),
mas kanda is a
s tyle de ve lo p e d mainly by
Zulu
migrant
wo rke rs . Th e s tyle
is as s o ciate d
p rimarily
with s o lo male
s inge rs
wh o
acco mp any
th e ms e lve s o n a re tune d guitar
o r co nce rtina; in re ce nt
ye ars
th e s e h ave o f te n le d to bands
wo rking
in th e s ame idio m. Since abo ut th e mid-1980s th e
s tyle
h as be ne f ite d f ro m a
re s urge nce
o f inte re s t, p ro ducing
a numbe r o f
o uts tanding re co rding
artis ts .
22 Britis h Jo urnal
f Eth no mus ico lo gy, vo l. 5 ( 1996)
h e ard, and o n th e co nve rs atio ns h e h as h ad, wh ile
mo ving aro und-p articularly
amo ng is icath amiya
ch o irs -in
re s p o ns e
to
re que s ts
f o r
h e lp ,
o r e ls e
s imp ly
o ut
o f inte re s t. And
th e y
are mo tivate d
by
f o ur
as s ump tio ns . Firs t, Sh abalala be lie ve s
th at wh at h e kno ws abo ut
co mp o s ing
can as s is t o th e rs : "I f e e l like I h ave
p o we r,
I
can
h e lp p e o p le -s o
le t me
h e lp ."
In ano th e r
way
o f
p utting th is , h e
s ays
h e f e e ls
th at h e mus t
h e lp :
and h e cite s an
admo nis h ing
Zulu
p ro ve rb-inyanga yaf a
ne zikwama
zayo -abo ut
"a do cto r wh o h ide s h is me dicine and die s with o ut
te lling p e o p le
wh at h e kno ws ".
Se co ndly,
h e h o lds th at
up
to at le as t a ce rtain
p o int, "p e o p le
kno w h o w to
co mp o s e .
Wh e n
yo u
talk to th e
p e o p le
abo ut
co mp o s itio n-I
talk to th e m all th e
time -yo u
dis co ve r th at
th e y jus t
ne e d
h e lp .
So I make lo ts o f
s ugge s tio ns , give
s o me
'ro ads igns ',
to
p e o p le
wh o
maybe
h ave
be autif ul vo ice s but are s tuck s o me wh e re ."
Th irdly,
h e h as a co nvictio n
( e nco un-
te re d e arlie r in th is
article )
th at th e be s t in Zulu mus ic mus t be co ns e rve d,
de ve lo p e d
and
p re s e nte d,
s ince "o ur mus ic was
be ing
lo o ke d do wn o n-
s o me th ing
was
mis s ing,
s o me wh e re ". And
f o urth ly,
h e be lie ve s it is
imp o rtant
to
dis p e l
th e
damaging
no tio n th at
o nly
"a
s p e cial magic"
co uld h ave e nable d
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo to be co me s o s ucce s s f ul. "So I
s ay
to s uch
p e o p le :
th e re 's no
magic!
It's a matte r o f
wo rking ve ry
h ard. I e ve n me ntio n s o me o f
my
s o ngs -th e re 's
no
magic
th e re . We are
p e o p le jus t
like
yo u.
Yo u mus t de dicate
yo urs e lf
to wh at
yo u
want to do ."
Fo r
Sh abalala, th e s e
writings
are
p rimarily
mne mo nics : h e us e s th e m, as
ap p ro p riate ,
to
p ro d
h is
me mo ry
and s tructure h is co mme nts wh e n h e is as ke d to
s p e ak
abo ut
co mp o s ing.
Th at is
wh y th e y
are
p re do minantly ap h o ris tic,
and
wh y,
de s p ite
th e ir
f re que nt p o e tic be auty
and
grace ,
h e h as no t
s o ugh t
to h ave th e m
p ublis h e d
in
p rinte d
f o rm.
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala h as
ge ne ro us ly give n
me acce s s to
th e s e
writings ,
and I h ave s e le cte d and h ad trans late d wh at s e e m to me to be th e
mo s t
inte re s ting
o f th e m. Bo th be caus e o f th e ir intrins ic
value , and f o r th e s ake o f
a f ulle r
p icture
o f Sh abalala th e
co mp o s e r,
I de vo te th e ne xt and f inal s e ctio n o f
th is article to a
p re s e ntatio n
o f th e s e s e le ctio ns .
6. Th e
co mp o s e r's writings :
a s e le ctio n
De s p ite
th e ir
ap h o ris tic
quality,
Sh abalala's
writings
co ve r a wide
range
o f is s ue s .
So me o f th e s e are
s imilar,
o r
ide ntical,
to is s ue s we
s p o ke
abo ut in o ur co nve rs a-
tio ns , but
many
dif f e r. One s h o uld no t, h o we ve r, h ave
e xp e cte d
th e co nve rs atio ns
and th e
writings
to co rre late in
any p re cis e way:
th e f o rme r we re
inve s tigative ,
e xp lo rato ry
and
dis curs ive , wh ile th e latte r are
s ingle -minde dly
didactic and
aime d at
co mp o s e rs
with e ducatio nal ne e ds at dif f e re nt le ve ls . As we s h all s e e ,
with in th e
writings
s o me is s ue s are addre s s e d
o nly o nce , s o me are take n
up
mo re
th an
o nce , wh ile a f e w re cur
f re que ntly.
Th e is s ue s to wh ich th e
writings
s e e m to
re turn mo s t o f te n, and wh ich th e re f o re
p e rh ap s migh t
be
re garde d
as th e co re , o r
mo s t
imp o rtant, is s ue s , co uld be s ummarize d as f o llo ws :
*
Th e
p o we r
o f mus ic: its
cap acity
to
h e al,
to illuminate .
Ballantine : Jo s e p h Sh abalala 23
*
Th e
s p iritual
s o urce s o f mus ic, wh ich f o r
co mp o s e rs
are als o th e
we lls p rings
o f
ins p iratio n:
th e co nne ctio n be twe e n mus ic and th e unco ns cio us , th e ance s tral, th e
divine , th e traditio nal, th e s o cial, th e natural.
*
Th e
imp o rtance
o f
re s p e ct:
a be lie f th at
co mp o s e rs
and mus icians
ge ne rally
mus t le arn to
re s p e ct
e ach o th e r, th e ms e lve s , th e ir audie nce s , th e ir
co mmunity,
and
th e rule s o f th e ir art.
*
Th e
ne ce s s ity
f o r e ach
co mp o s e r
to cultivate a
p e rs o nally
auth e ntic-an
o riginal-s tyle
o f
e xp re s s io n.
*
Th e be lie f th at, f o r
co mp o s e rs ,
th e
p ro ductio n
o f
p o p ular,
marke table mus ical
co mmo ditie s -as a
way
to f inancial s ucce s s -is a
go al
wo rth
s triving
f o r:
imp licitly, th e re f o re , th at th is
me rce nary go al
is no t at o dds with
any
o f th e
"h igh e r" p urp o s e s
o f mus ical
co mp o s itio n.
*
Th e
ne ce s s ity
f o r
co mp o s e rs
to cultivate s e lf -criticis m, and th e
ways
in wh ich
th is can be le arnt.
*
Th e
ne ce s s ity
f o r
co mp o s e rs
to cultivate de dicate d
p ractice
and
dis cip line .
Th e
writings
als o
s ugge s t
o ne f urth e r co re is s ue , but ne ve r s tate it
e xp licitly.
Rath e r, th is is s ue is in th e nature o f an
imp licit p rincip le
th at inf o rms
many
o f th e
writings -th o ugh
it is o ne th at Sh abalala do e s articulate in co nve rs atio n abo ut
th e m. It
may
be
p ut
as f o llo ws :
*
Mus ic is co ntinuo us with lif e its e lf , s o th at
by
le arning
to mas te r th e craf t o f
co mp o s itio n
in all its bre adth and
de p th
o ne le arns als o
many
e s s e ntial
p re ce p ts
f o r
living
a
go o d ( righ te o us , valuable )
lif e .
At a s o me wh at
h igh e r
le ve l o f
ge ne rality,
th e
writings
o f Sh abalala's I h ave
s e le cte d s e e m to me to
s p e ak
to a numbe r o f bro ad th e me s . I h ave inf e rre d th e s e
th e me s in o rde r to us e th e m as
h e adings ,
and
gro up
th e
writings
unde r th e m. Th e
th e me s , o r
h e adings ,
I dis ce rn are :
A.
Map p ing
th e f ie ld: Bas ic
p rincip le s
o f
co mp o s ing,
and o f
mus icians h ip . ( Eigh t
ap h o ris ms .)
B. Th e
making
o f a
co mp o s e r.
s o me
p ath s
and mo tivatio ns .
C. So urce s o f
ins p iratio n
f o r
co mp o s e rs :
1. Natural and
p e rs o nal
s o urce s .
2. Cultural s o urce s .
D. Practical advice to
co mp o s e rs :
1. So me
s trate gic
co ns ide ratio ns ( i.e . th e
marke tp lace ).
2. On th e ne e d f o r
auth e nticity.
E. A
p h ilo s o p h y
o f mus ic.
Finally,
in
p re s e nting
th e
writings ,
I us e th e
f o llo wing
co nve ntio ns .
My
p ro p o s e d h e adings
are in Ro man
typ e ;
unde r th e s e , Sh abalala's o wn
writings
are
p re s e nte d
in italics .11 Wh e re
e xp lanatio ns
s e e m
ne ce s s ary,
I us e
o nly
Sh abalala's
n
All trans latio ns are
by
Ellio t Zo ndi, De p artme nt
o f Zulu
Language
and Lite rature , Unive rs ity
o f Natal.
De s p ite
Sh abalala's minimal us e o f
p unctuatio n,
I h ave adde d p unctuatio n
to th e
24 Brtis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
o wn wo rds , quo ting
f ro m h is o wn
e xp licatio ns
as th e s e o ccurre d
during
o ur
dis cus s io ns o f h is
writings ;
th e s e are
inte rp o late d
in Ro man
typ e ,
in
quo tatio n
marks , inde nte d.
Th is article h as be e n an intro ductio n to th e cre ative
p ro ce s s e s
o f a
s ingle ,
but
majo r,
"traditio nal" Af rican
co mp o s e r. Fittingly th e n, th e las t wo rds in th e
s ubs tantive
bo dy
o f o ur
s tudy be lo ng e xclus ive ly
to th at
co mp o s e r
h ims e lf :
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala.
A. MAPPING THE FIELD: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSING,
AND OF MUSICIANSHIP. ( EIGHT APHORISMS.)12
1. Th e
way
a mus ician be h ave s /
Ukuzip h ath a
ko mculi
Th e mus ician be h ave s like a maide n
Wh o , it is s aid, mus t
re s p e ct
Wh e re s h e will no t
marry
Be caus e h e r
f uture
is a matte r
o f co nje cture
"I me ntio n th e
lady
be caus e in o ur traditio n a
yo ung lady le arns , s ay
f ro m h e r
grandmo th e r,
th at s h e is
go ing
to le arn to build h e r h o us e -but s h e do e s n't kno w
wh e n. Sh e is s o me o ne wh o trie s to
re s p e ct e ve ryo ne ,
be caus e s h e do e s n't kno w
wh e re to ch o o s e , s o f ar. No w wh e n
yo u
are
s inge r yo u
mus t
always
take care o f
yo urs e lf ,
and take care o f th e
p e o p le .
Do n't do bad
th ings .
Yo u mus t
s ing-be
h ap p y-f o r
th e
p e o p le .
So I've trie d to
co mp are
th is to a
lady.
As a
s inge r,
if
yo u
want to do
s o me th ing go o d
f o r th e
p e o p le , yo u
mus t
re s p e ct
all o f th e m. And to
re s p e ct
th e
p e o p le , yo u
mus t
re s p e ct yo urs e lf .
Eve n wh e n
yo u're alo ne , yo u're
with th e
p e o p le . So re s p e ct yo urs e lf , jus t
like a
lady
wo uld."
2. Th e re cruite d
( s o ldie r)
/ Os e buth iwe ( is o s h a)
Th e mus ician do e s no t criticis e o th e rs
But criticis e s
h ims e lf
in a s ubtle
way
With th e aim
o f imp ro ving h ims e lf
"Pe o p le
as ke d me : h o w do
yo u co mp o s e ,
h o w do
yo u s ucce e d, h o w do
yo u
manage
to make th e me mbe rs o f
yo ur gro up
lo ve e ach o th e r s o
th e y s tay to ge th e r
f o r
many ye ars ?
I
s ay
it's like
be ing
a
s o ldie r-yo u
mus t h ave laws , yo u
mus t
f o llo w
yo ur
o wn co mmandme nts . A s o ldie r mus t
re s p e ct
h is
gro up ;
h e mus t
p o ur
h is
s p irit
into th e
gro up .
It's no us e
criticizing: yo u
mus t criticize
yo urs e lf , try
to
imp ro ve yo urs e lf . Acco rding
to o ur traditio n,
if as a
bo y yo u're
ch o s e n to be
amo ng
th e warrio rs , th e re 's a law
ap p ro p riate
to th at
s tage . Similarly,
if
yo u
ch o o s e
yo urs e lf
to be a mus ician, yo u
mus t kno w th e law, th e
way
to wo rk
to ge th e r
as mus icians ."
trans latio ns wh e re th is s e e me d to aid
clarity. Sp ace p re clude s
th e inclus io n o f th e f ull
o riginal
Zulu te xt o f Sh abalala's
writings ,
but a
co p y
can be h ad
by writing
to me .
12
Writings
date d 19
January
1991.
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h Sh abalala 25
3. To
o p e n
th e
way
/ Ukuvula indle la
Th e mus ician live s
by p raye r
Praye r
o ve rco me s all
th ings
Praye r
is lo ve
"Th e me th o d to
'o p e n
th e
way'
is
p raye r. Eve ry p e rs o n
kno ws h o w to
p ray.
Th is is
th e
way
to s ucce s s . Als o , ano th e r
way
to s ucce e d is to
lo ve -co mmunicating
with
o th e r
p e o p le
with lo ve . Lo ve and
p raye r
are ne e de d f o r s ucce s s -in
s inging
as in
e ve ryth ing
e ls e ."
4. Ho w do I s ucce e d? /
Ngingap h ume le la kanjani?
Practis ing dilige ntly
Pe rs e ve rance
brings
s ucce s s
Ke e p ing
time is th e e s s e nce
o f
s ucce s s
5. Skill / Ikh o no
Skill is a
gif t. If
th e re is
s o me bo dy
wh o h as s kill
amo ng yo u,
s ucce s s co me s
quickly. If
th e re is no ne , yo u
s e arch
f o r
h im and
ide ntif y
h im
by
ce rtain
th ings
h e
do e s . Like
f o o tballe rs lo o king f o r
a
go al-s co re r
o r
go al-ke e p e r,
we mus icians
ne e d
s o me bo dy
with a
s h arp e ar, a
co mp o s e r
wh o is
go ing
to
f ind
a
s o ng.
All th is
me ans s kill.
6. Structure / Is akh iwo
Making
a
s o ng
nice is a de vice
f o r making p e o p le
lis te n to
yo u
and ch o o s e
f o r
th e ms e lve s wh e th e r
th e y
are
go ing
to
buy
it.
If
it is nice but
th e y
do no t
buy it,
it
wo uld be be caus e
th e y
h ave it and will no t
buy
it twice . Do n't
as kf o rf ailure
and
do no t
ap o lo gis e f o r
it.
"Th e las t s e nte nce me ans do n't be
dis co urage d.
It's an
atte mp t
to
e nco urage
p e o p le ."
7. Wh e n do e s th e
s o ng
co me ? I
If ika
nini
ingo ma
Eve n wh e n
yo u
are
s le e p ing
th e
s o ng may co me , but make s ure it is
yo urs . Bring
o ut wh at is in
yo u,
le ave wh at
be lo ngs
to o th e rs . Le arn to
give p e o p le yo ur
o wn
mus ic
( yo ur vie w),
no t imitatio n; true , a bird builds its ne s t with
f e ath e rs f ro m
ano th e r bird, but it
give s
birth to its o wn ch ildre n.
"Th e
s o ng
can co me
any
time . So me time s
yo u
wake
up s inging s o me th ing-but
is
it
re ally yo urs ?
Or can
yo u ch ange
it into
s o me th ing
o f
yo ur
o wn blo o d? I do n't
re co mme nd imitatio n. Of co urs e , th e
be ginning
o f
le arning
is to imitate
s o me bo dy.
But af te r th at we want to h e ar
yo u.
Yo u can take an
e xamp le
f ro m s o me o ne -but
26 Britis h Jo urnal
f
Eth no mus ico lo gy, vo l. 5 ( 1996)
th e n do
yo ur
o wn
th ing.
Wh e n
yo u jus t re p e at, p e o p le
will
ge t
bo re d.
Try
rath e r to
do
s o me th ing
ne w.
Try
to le ad th e
p e o p le
and s h o w th e m th e
way. Pe o p le
h ave
p ro ble ms : try
to h ave a h andke rch ie f to
wip e
th e ir te ars , try
to
e nco urage
th e m.
Th at's wh at we call a
gif t."
8.
Marke ting
/
Ukudayis a
Do e s th e mus ic e xclaim at th e
righ t p lace ?
Do e s it
drag
and s tre tch in th e
righ t
p lace ?
Do e s re s t co me in th e
righ t p lace ?
Are th e s tructure and th e
arrange me nt
go o d?
Do th e wo rds us e d "h armo nis e " ?
"Each wo rd mus t h ave a
me aning-yo ur
me aning. Pe o p le
will as k wh at
yo u
me an.
Yo u mus t be able to te ll th e
p e o p le ."
B. THE MAKING OF A COMPOSER: SOME PATHS AND
MOTIVATIONS.13
Wh e re do e s mus ic co me
f ro m?
Ho w is it initiate d
[co mp o s e d]?
/ Umculo
uve lap h i
kuqalwa kanjani
"He re I
e xp lain
f ro m th e
be ginning,
f ro m imitatio n o f o th e rs ."
1. Imitatio n /
Ukulingis a
"Firs t o f all
yo u
imitate -it's
o kay.
Th at's th e
way
to le arn. Imitate . Yo u
jus t
imitate until th e re 's
s o me th ing
built in
yo ur h e art,
in
yo ur
mind."
2.
Fo llo wing
an
e xamp le
I Ukuth ath a is ibo ne lo
"Ne xt, f o llo w an
e xamp le -but
do wh at
yo u
want to do ."
3. Fro m a
me s s age yo u
wis h to
co nve y
I Ukuba no daba
o f una
luzwakale
"... s uch as
wanting
to
p rais e
o r criticize . Th ink wh at
yo u
want to s h are with th e
p e o p le .
Yo u mus t h ave a
s to ry
to s h are with th e
p e o p le -to warn, to te ach h o w to
lo ve , h o w to wo rk in
h armo ny.
Or to te ll th e
p e o p le
abo ut co ws , cattle , go ats .
Th at's
yo ur co mp o s itio n.
Yo u mus t te ll th e
p e o p le
h o w to take care o f th e s e
go ats .
Ho w to take care o f th is co w. Ho w to take care o f
yo ur
car. Ho w to drive . Th at's
th e
way
to
co mp o s e .
Th at's th e
way
I te ach
p e o p le
h o w to
co mp o s e ."
'3
Writings
date d 9 March 1993.
Ballantine : Jo s e p h Sh abalala 27
4. Fro m a
s tro ng
de s ire
( like
a
dis e as e )
/ Ukuvuke lwa
yiwo
umculo
( nje nge s if o )
"So me th ing
th at's in
yo u,
and
yo u
can't
h e lp
it
co ming
o ut-like wh e n
yo u're
co ugh ing."
5. Lo ve
o f
mus ic ( it h as
ap p e ale d
to th e
e ar)
/ Uth ando Iwawo
( indle be
iwuth andile )
"Lo ving
mus ic can
p ro duce
a ne w
s o ng."
6. De s ire
f o r [e nvy o f ]
f ame -a go o d th ing
/ Ukuth anda udumo
( ukuh awuke la)
into e nh le
"Th is to o can
p ro duce
a ne w
s o ng."
7. So th at I
may
be ch o s e n as a lo ve r
( o f f e ring
o ne 's
vo ice )
/ Kh o na
ngizo qo nywa
( is u lo kuba unike le
nge p h imbo )
"Th e
p e o p le
us e d to te ll me th at th e
girls
lo ve us be caus e we 're mus icians . And
th e y
wo uld
s ay, p le as e
le t me
jo in yo u!
So de s ire f o r
girls
can als o le ad to mus ic!"
8.
Wh iling away
time
( o ne way o f training o ne s e lf )
I Ukuch ith a
is izungu
"Fo r ins tance , s o me time s I do n't talk
s e rio us ly
to th e
guys
in
my gro up ,
but th is
can h ide a s e rio us
p urp o s e -like
mus ical
training."
9. To e as e th e mind
( wis do m)
/
Ukup h o lis a igqo ndo ( ukuh lakanip h a)
"I lo ve th at! Th e mus ic I
s ing
s timulate s
my
mind. Mus ic take s all
yo ur mind, yo ur
h ands , yo ur e ye s -e ve ryth ing.
Eve n if
yo u're angry.
If
yo u
f e e l like
yo u're
s tuck
s o me wh e re , mus ic can
bring
a
ligh t
to
yo ur
mind."
10. To
o p e n
th e
way
/ Ukuh lah la indle la
"Mus ic can
o p e n
th e
way-to
h ave f rie nds , to
go
to o th e r
p lace s . Als o , th e de s ire
to
o p e n
th e
way
can
bring
mus ic."
28 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
C. SOURCES OF INSPIRATION FOR COMPOSERS:
1. Natural and
p e rs o nal
s o urce s .'4
Wh e re do e s th e mus ic co me
f ro m?
I
Uve lap h i
umculo
"All
alo ng,
th e s e are , o r we re , my
s e cre ts :
my
tale nts ."
1. Th e
blo wing o f
th e wind I/
Ukuvunguza ko mo ya
"Wind make s a s o und
th ro ugh
th e tre e s o r th e wire s -and th is can
give yo u
an
ide a f o r a
s o ng."
2. Th e ch atte r
o f
birds / Ukuxo xa
kwe zinyo ni
"Th e
way
th e birds
s ing
to e ach o th e r in dif f e re nt vo ice s . Th e s e
th ings
can
give
yo u
an ide a f o r a
s o ng
if
yo u
do n't h ave an ide a."
3. Th unde r / Ukuduma kwe zulu
"Same
th ing."
4. Th e
rumbling o f wate rf alls
/ Ukuh uba
kwe zimp o p h o ma
"Wh e n
yo u
s it ne xt to wh e re th e f alls are
making
a no is e , it's like a
ch o ir-yo u
can
ge t
clue s f ro m th at and
co mp o s e
a
s o ng."
5.
Quie t
in wh ich yo u
f e e l yo ur
blo o d
running up
and do wn
( f lo wing)
/ Ukuth i
cwaka uzwe
igazi
lakh o le h la
le nyuka ( lige le za)
"In a
quie t p lace yo u
can h e ar th e be at o f
yo ur h e art, th e blo o d in
yo ur
ve ins . Th e
s p irit
is
s o me th ing
in
yo u-it's de e p
in
yo u,
it's no t f ro m o uts ide . Th at's
wh y
I
s ay
it's
imp o rtant yo u
s it
yo urs e lf
do wn in a
quie t p lace
to lis te n to
yo ur
blo o d: h o w to
s e cure a
s o ng
f ro m th e be at o f
yo ur
h e art. Th at
way yo u
can
ge t
a ne w
s o ng,
s o me th ing
th at is a bit dif f e re nt f ro m o th e r
s o ngs ."
6. Sad
th o ugh ts
/
Umcabango
wo s izi
"Wh e n
yo u're
s ad
yo u'll try
to co mf o rt
yo urs e lf .
Wh e n I'm s ad I
try
to co mf o rt
mys e lf by co mp o s ing
a
s o ng,
and I kno w th at th is
s o ng
will co mf o rt all th o s e s ad
p e o p le ."
14
Writings
date d
9 March 1993.
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h Sh abalala 29
7.
Ange r brings
abo ut
s o ng ( e xamp le :
"Nko s i
yamakh o s i" ["King o f Kings "])
I
Ukuth ukuth e la kuvus a
ingo ma ( is ibo ne lo
Nko s i
yamakh o s i)
"I was
angry
to s e e o ur mus ic unde rrate d. But I s aid
maybe
Go d is
angry
with us ,
Go d
p le as e h e lp
us . So th e
s o ng
'Nko s i
yamakh o s i'
15
is an
e xamp le
o f o ne o f
my
s o ngs
th at came f ro m
be ing angry.
Oth e r
p e o p le ,
wh e n
th e y're angry, th e y
do bad
th ings .
But wh e n I'm
angry,
I
re gard
it as a
te ach ing:
and I
s ay,
le t me
try
to
co mf o rt all th o s e
angry p e o p le ,
and
mys e lf
to o ."
8.
Jo y brings
abo ut
s o ng
/
Ukujabula
kuvus a
ingo ma
9. Th e
do ubtf ul f o rtune s o f
trave l
( "Wir gris s e n"16)
/ Ukuh amba kuzala induna
( Wir grus s e n)
"Trave lling
aro und
give s
ide as . Yo u can co me back with a
go o d s o ng."
10.
Eve ryth ing
is a
gif t
/ Ko nke
kuyis ip h o
"Th is me ans ,
if
yo u s ucce e d, yo u
mus t be h umble . Do n't th ink
yo u're
be tte r th an
o th e r
p e o p le .
It's
jus t
a
gif t
f ro m Go d."
C. SOURCES OF INSPIRATION FOR COMPOSERS:
2. Cultural s o urce s .17
Wh at are th e
typ e s o f s o ngs ?
/ Zinh lo bo ni
izingo ma
"So me time s , I've dis co ve re d, yo u ge t s tuck-maybe
th e
me lo dy
is to o s imilar to
o th e r me lo die s . Like o nce I as ke d th e le ade r o f th e
King
Star Bro th e rs ,'8 'Wh at
abo ut s o me ne w
s o ngs ?'
He s aid h e was s tuck. So I wro te th e s e
th ings
to
h e lp
h im
and
p e o p le
like h im. He re I'm
s aying
th at all th e s e dif f e re nt
s o ngs
o r s o unds
[lis te d be lo w]
can
h e lp yo u, give yo u ide as , be us e d to
ge ne rate
ne w
s o ngs .
So
by
th inking
abo ut th e wide
varie ty
o f traditio nal
s o ngs
and s o unds , yo u
can
co mp o s e
s o me th ing
ne w and dif f e re nt."
5
On Amabuth o .
16
Sh abalala's re f e re nce , as an
e xamp le ,
is to th e
s o ng
"Wir
griis s e n
e uch alle "
( o n
Ph ans i
e mgo dimn),
me ntio ne d e arlie r in th is article .
17
Writings
date d 10
July
1992.
18
A we ll-kno wn
is icath amiya gro up ,
f ro m Stande rto n in th e
p ro vince
o f
Mp umalanga,
wh o s e
f ame was at its
p e ak
in th e late 1960s and e arly 1970s .
30 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5
( 1996)
1. Wo rk
s o ngs
/
Izingo ma
zo ms e be nzi
2.
We dding s o ngs
/
Izingo ma
zo ms h ado
3.
So ngs f o r th re s h ing
co rn I Ezo kubh ula amabe le
4.
So ngs f o r warding o f f
birds I Ezo kulinda amabe le
"Th e s e are
s o ngs
to ch as e th e birds
away,
be caus e
th e y're e ating
th e
s o rgh um."
5.
So ng f o r
birds
( "Ko riko ri ko ri")
I Iculo
le zinyo ni ( ko ri
ko ri
ko ri)
"Pe o p le
wh o
gre w up
o n th e f arm kno w th is
s o ng.
'Ko riko ri ko ri' is th e name o f
th e
s o ng yo u s ing
to th e bird in its ne s t, walking aro und, until th e
s o ng p uts
th e
bird to
s le e p .
Th e n
yo u
catch th e bird!"
[s ings ]
6.
So ngs f o r girls de live ring
a
p re s e nt o f
be ads / Iculo le zinto mbi zih ambis a
iqabane ( we lamle
lami
we ma)
"On th e f arm, girls
co me
to ge th e r
to talk abo ut
making diamo nd-p atte rn be ads ,
and
giving
th e m. Th e re are
s p e cial s o ngs
f o r
girls de live ring
a
p re s e nt
o f diamo nd-
p atte rn
be ads to a
yo ung man-s o ngs
to make it
e as y
to walk to h is h o me ."
7.
So ngs f o r ro ad-making
I Amaculo o kumba
umgwaqo
8.
So ngs f o r
lif ting h e avy th ings
I Iculo lo kuth ath a izinto e zinzima
( s andia nge la)
"Like th e
s o ngs
f o r ro ad
making,
th e s e are
typ e s
o f wo rk
s o ngs ."
9.
Murmuring
s o und
f o r driving
o xe n
( ye
h h e h h e
...yi)
/
Imvunge yo kulima
ukus h aye la
izinkabi
ye
h h e h h e
yi
"Fro m s uch a s o und [de mo ns trate s ] yo u
can draw ide as to make a
s o ng."
10.
Murmuring
s o und
f o r bringing
o xe n
to ge th e r
to be
ins p anne d ( wo yi wo yi)
I
Imvunge yo kuh langanis a
izinkabi zizo bo s h e lwa
( wo yi wo yi)
"I h ave us e d th at
p articular
s o und
[de mo ns trate s ]
in
my s o ngs ."
11. Lullabie s / Imilo lo ze lo
yo kuth ulis a
umntwana
Ballantine : Jo s e p h Sh abalala 31
12.
Calling
ch icke ns / Ukubiza izinkukh u
"Wh e n we call th e f o wls at h o me we
s ay '[de mo ns trate s clicking s o und]'. Maybe
yo u can do
s o me th ing
with th at: take an ide a f ro m it."
D. PRACTICAL ADVICE TO COMPOSERS:
1. So me
s trate gic
co ns ide ratio ns ( i.e .
th e
marke tp lace ).19
Wh at s h o uld be
ke p t
in mind wh e n
building f o r
th e marke t /
Okuf ane le
kube
s e mqo ndwe ni
uma s akh a indali
"Wh e n th e
s p irit
te lls
yo u
to do
s o me th ing,
it's
jus t
like th e
p e o p le
are
as king yo u
que s tio ns .
As
th o ugh yo u
h ave many p e o p le
in f ro nt o f
yo u.
Th is is ano th e r
gif t-
we can't
e xp lain
it. Wh e n
yo u co mp o s e , yo u
f e e l like th e audie nce is th e re , and
criticizing-but th e y
are n't th e re ."
1. Do th e vo ice s ble nd? /
Ah lange ne yini amap h imbo ?
2. Wh o is th e
s ubje ct o f
th e
s o ng?
/ Iculo lakh o ulakh e la bani?
3. Do th e
p e o p le
like h im? I
Bayamth anda yini
abantu?
4. Wh at is th e
me aning o f yo ur s o ng?
/ Ith ini
yo na ingo ma yakh o ?
5. Is it co ns tructive o r de s tructive ? /
Iyakh a
no ma
iyach ith a?
6. Do e s it e mbarras s th e
p ublic?
/
Anip h o xi yini ump h akath i?
7. Do
yo u dis grace yo urs e lve s ?
/
Anizip h o xi yini
nina
uqo bo ?
8. Wh o is th e
targe te d buye r f o r
th is
s o ng?
/
Uf una lith e ngwe
ubani le liculo ?
"I
always
talk to th e
p e o p le abo ut, wh e n
yo u co mp o s e
a
s o ng yo u
mus t kno w wh at
is th is f o r, wh at is th is
s o ng
f o r? Wh o are
yo u talking
to ?"
9. Le t us lis te n to th e
s o ng
"Nqo nqo th a
mf ana s inge ne " ["Kno ck,
bo y,
th at we
may e nte r"].
I/ Ke s ilale le
ingo ma
e th i
nqo nqo th a
mf anas inge ne .
"'Nqo nqo th a
mf ana
s inge ne '
is th e title o f o ne o f
my s o ngs
o n o ne o f th e
ve ry
f irs t
albums , Amabuth o . It de als with
'kno cking',
and s tre s s e s
s inging nice ly-be caus e
th at's th e
o nly way
to
ge t
a ch ance to re co rd, to
ge t
th e
p e o p le
to
acce p t yo u.
Th e
s o ng
was
co mp o s e d
wh e n we we re
h aving dif f iculty ge tting
o nto Radio Zulu.
19
Writings
date d 1993.
32 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy, vo l. 5 ( 1996)
Wh e n a
p e rs o n
wants to e nte r
yo ur h o us e , h e will
p rais e yo u
and
yo u
will we lco me
h im. So in th is
s o ng,
I am
as king
s o me o ne
amo ng
us to kno ck and to s alute ,
be caus e we want to e nte r Radio Zulu-we me ntio n th e name s o f th e
p ro duce r
and
th e radio anno unce r. To
s ing be autif ully:
th at is h o w to 'kno ck"'.
10. Sh o w
re s p e ct
f o r s kill. I
Hlo nip h ani
amakh o no .
D. PRACTICAL ADVICE TO COMPOSERS:
2. On th e ne e d f o r
auth e nticity.
Ho w is a
s o ng co mp o s e d?
/ Lakh iwa
kanjani
iculo
Wh e n
yo u
h ave
p ut
th e wo rds
to ge th e r,
ch e ck th e m
care f ully.
Lo o k
f o r
th e s o und
th at h as no t be e n h e ard. I kno w it is
dif f icult.
Lis te n to th e
be llo wing
o r th e
lo wing
o f
cattle :
th e y
do n't be llo w in th e s ame
way.
Ho w do th e calve s lo w? Ho w do th e
co ws lo w? Ho w do th e o xe n be llo w? Ho w do e s th e bull be llo w? Ho w do e s a
go at
ble at? Ho w do e s a cat me w? Ho w do e s a cro w cro w, and h o w do e s it co mmuni-
cate with a h e n? Th e re are
many birds -th e y
do no t
s ing
in th e s ame
way.
Th e re
is a tune wh e n th unde r crackle s
( and
at o th e r time s it
rumble s );
th e
s h e e p
make s
its o wn s o und; th e h e n cackle s
( "ge ge ke ge ge ke ").
Wh e n
yo u p ut
nature
to ge th e r
and mo ve
yo ur
mind to wards h uman
be ings ,
o r
f o cus yo ur
mind's
e ye
o n th e m,
s p e ak
to th e m and as k th e m wh at tune o r s o und
th e y
want
f ro m yo u.
Do
yo u
kno w
wh at will
h ap p e n?
Yo u will be alarme d as
th o ugh
th e
p e o p le
are in
f act s tanding
in
f ro nt o f yo u:
o ld and
yo ung,
th e rich and th e
p o o r s e e ming
to be
s aying,
"Go
away f ro m
h e re
p o o rly gif te d o ne , th e
guine a f o wl
do e s no t
cry
th at
way."
"Yo u can criticize
yo urs e lf
wh e n
yo u're co mp o s ing
a
s o ng,
be f o re
yo u ge t
to th e
p e rf o rmance s tage .
If
yo u're s tuck, th ink abo ut th e birds , th e co ws , th e
cats -th e y
h ave dif f e re nt s o unds . Ch e ck th at th e s o und is th e
righ t
o ne . Ge t th e
righ t
o ne .
Th e re are
many
s o unds ."
Th e n
yo u ch ange
and be llo w like a bull, and
yo u'll
h e ar th e m
s ay,
"If
yo u
h ad
h e rde d cattle
yo u
wo uld co me
th ro ugh we ll,
but it is cle ar
yo u
are
do ing
it
f ro m
h e ars ay."
Yo u
ch ange again
and
s ing
like a ro ad
lark, yo u ch ange
and
s ing
like a
warble r, yo u ch ange
and
s ing
like a
Cap e canary.
Th e
way
th e do ve co o s
"zigidi
zikh ulu" at th is
p o int,
make s th e rich
glance
backwards and th ink
quickly.
He re is
ano th e r bird:
"s iye ts h wale ni"
.2 Th is bird
s ings
as
th o ugh
it is
s h y
o r as
th o ugh
it
20
"Zigigi
zikh ulu" and
"Siye ts h wale ni"
are traditio nal
o no mato p o e ic
bird name s , bas e d
up o n
th e ir calls . A name f o r a do ve , zigidi
zikh ulu
lite rally
me ans "millio ns are
big
numbe rs ".
Symbo lically, th o ugh ,
Sh abalala
s ays
th e call is unde rs to o d as a re f e re nce to
p e o p le
o f
h igh rank,
e xp e rie nce
o r we alth . He
e xp lains
th is as a
co ns e que nce
o f th e
p ro ud ap p e arance
o f th e bird, th e
"big
s o und" it make s , and th e
me aning
o f
zigidi
zikh ulu-s o th at, as h e
s ays ,
"th e bird is
p rais ing
its e lf : 'I'm th e be s t o ne , and th e
e xp e rie nce d
o ne '." Th e lite ral
me aning
o f
s iye ts h wale ni
is "we
are
go ing
to th e be e r
p arty".
Ballantine : Jo s e p h Sh abalala 33
is
p e e p ing
unde r its
armp its ( I
me an wh e n it rais e s its
wings
and
s ings
"s iye ts h wale ni").
Go
de e p ,
th ink
care f ully be f o re
th e
p e o p le
co me to
yo u-ye t
in
yo ur imaginatio n th e y
are
alre ady s tanding
in
f ro nt o f yo u.
Th e re is a bird calle d
th e
wo o dp e cke r
be caus e it s tarts
building
f o r its e lf , digging
with its be ak, making
a h o le in a tre e
f o r
its h o me . Wh e re is
yo ur
h o me ?
"Jus t as th e
wo o dp e cke r
is a
ve ry s tro ng
bird be caus e it
digs
it o wn h o me , s o I'm
s aying
th at if
yo u're
a
co mp o s e r, try
to h ave th e
s tre ngth
to f ind
yo ur
o wn h o me :
yo ur
o wn
s tyle ."
He re is ano th e r
be autif ul
vo ice : h o w do e s a
do nke y bray?
So me
p e o p le
do no t
kno w wh at a
do nke y is , th e y
call it "ido nki". Like me , I was
p uzzle d
wh e n I h e ard
"wimuwe ", wh e re as
th e y
me ant "imbube " o r "wimbube "21. Bro th e r and s is te r:
th e traditio nal o ne s are in th e
s p irit,
and th at is
wh y
I
s ay yo u
mus t
bring
th e
p e o p le be f o re yo u
in
s p irit
and make th e m
p re s e nt,
to
give yo u ide as , to criticis e
yo u be f o re yo u ge t
to th e ir re al
p re s e nce .
Wh e n
yo u
arrive
th e y
will
s ay,
"Th is
bo y
h as a ne w s tick", and
yo u
will h e ar th e m
wis h ing yo u
s ucce s s . At th is
p o int
th e y
will be
vis ualis ing
th e
p ro ble m co nf ro nting yo u. Drawing
o xe n
naturally
re quire s
a
tre mbling vo ice , like th at us e d in
ululating.
"So me
p e o p le s ay,
I'm
re ady
no w be caus e I s o und like Mah latini:22 I can re co rd.
My
ans we r is ,
if
yo u
s o und like Mah latini, th e n th at's no t
yo u: p e o p le
will h e ar
th at, and will ch as e
yo u away: th e y
wo n't like th at.
Th e y'll
h e ar it do e s n't s o und
righ t-Mah latini
do e s n't s o und like th at.
Try
to f ind
yo urs e lf ,
like th e s e birds .
Th e y're
all birds , but
th e y're do ing
dif f e re nt s o unds . Animals h ave dif f e re nt
s o unds . Find
yo ur
o wn s o und. Criticize
yo urs e lf .
Th e
do nke y
mus t s o und like a
do nke y-no t
like a bull. If
yo u're
no t Mah latini, th e n do n't
try
to s o und like
Mah latini. If
yo u're
no t Paul Simo n, do n't s o und like Paul Simo n. If
yo u're Jo s e p h
Sh abalala, th e n
co mp o s e
and
s ing
like
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala. Th e
p e o p le
want to h e ar
yo u,
no t
s o me bo dy
e ls e . We are h e re to lis te n to
yo u!
So
yo u
mus t h ave th is
co nve rs atio n in
yo ur
mind with
yo ur
audie nce : wh e n
yo u're co mp o s ing, yo u
mus t
f e e l like
yo u
are
talking
to th e
p e o p le ,
th at
th e y're
in f ro nt o f
yo u.
He ar wh at
th e y
s ay!
In
yo ur
mind
yo u
mus t h ave a vis io n o f th e
p e o p le , criticizing yo u.
He ar th e
p e o p le
in
yo ur mind, te lling yo u
th at
yo u're
trying
to s o und like a bull but
yo u
are n't
s ucce e ding.
So
carry
o n
p ractis ing,
do n't be in a rus h to
go
o n
s tage
o r
re co rd. I'm
urging co mp o s e rs
to criticis e th e ms e lve s -to te ach th e ms e lve s ."
21
A re f e re nce to nume ro us
( mainly Ame rican) adap tatio ns
o f "Mbube ", th e clas s ic 1939
is icath amiya re co rding by
So lo mo n Linda's
Original Eve ning
Birds . Th e
adap tatio ns
te nde d to
"mis h e ar" th e wo rd mbube
( lio n)-o r
wimbube , as th e
Eve ning
Birds
s ang
it-and to re nde r it as
wimo we h
( s p e lt
wimuwe
by Sh abalala). Pro bably th e be s t kno wn-and
ce rtainly th e e arlie s t-o f
th e re co rde d
adap tatio ns
was "Wimo we h "
by
th e We ave rs .
=
Mah latini is no w an almo s t
le ge ndary f igure .
One o f th e f irs t mus icians to
gain
re co gnitio n
as a
p e rf o rme r
o f th e
p o p ular
ne o -traditio nal idio m kno wn as
mbaqanga,
h e is
to day almo s t ce rtainly
its mo s t f amo us o f
e xp o ne nt.
34 Britis h Jo urnal o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
E. A PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC.23
Exp laining
mus ic / Ukuch aza
ngalo mculo e
"He re I
mainly
me an
my
mus ic. Th e s e are
e s p e cially
to
h e lp
o th e r
co mp o s e rs ."
1. It e nte rs th e blo o d be caus e it co me s
f ro m
th e blo o d /
Unge na e gazini ngo ba
up h uma e gazini
"Wh e n
yo ur
mus ic co me s f ro m
yo ur
blo o d to o th e r
p e o p le 's blo o d, it
give s
th e m
f re e do m."
2. It caus e s s udde n
ins p iratio n
and
brings jo y
/ Us us a
us inga
ule th a
injabulo
"Yo ur
co mp o s itio n
mus t be writte n in s uch a
way
th at it
e nco urage s p e o p le ,
make s
th e m
h ap p y."
3. It to uch e s th e ro o ts and co nne cts th e unco nne cte d / Uth inta
izimp ande
uxh umanis e o kwah luke ne
"Th is is
de e p e r.
We talk abo ut
th ings
th at we re th e re be f o re , but no w th e re are
cracks . I s aw th e re we re cracks , s o I de cide d to
de ve lo p
o ur mus ic to ce me nt th e
cracks , to co nne ct th e unco nne cte d."
4. It is made
by de s ign
to
bring h o p e
and
p e ace
/ We nziwe
nge nh lo s o ukubuyis a
ith e mba no kuth ula
5. It make s
up
th e mind and
s h arp e ns
it /
Uyavus e le la inqo ndo ip h ap h ame
6. It
brings
luck and a
go o d
lif e
/ Ule th a inh lanh ila ne nh lala kah le
"Th is co nce rns s ucce s s . Mus ic e nable s
yo u
to e arn
s o me th ing."
7. It re vive s
h is to ry
/ Uvus a imilando
2
Writings
date d 1992.
4
So me o f th is
"e xp lanatio n" cle arly
h as an
auto bio grap h ical dime ns io n, acco unte d f o r-as
Sh abalala h ims e lf
p o ints o ut-by
th e f act, o nce
again,
th at h e us e s th e s e
writings
as
te ach ing
aids wh e n
as s is ting
o th e r
co mp o s e rs .
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h Sh abalala 35
"Mus ic make s
yo u
re s e arch . I
go
back to
my
mo th e r and
grandf ath e r
and as k
many
th ings .
I've be e n
go ing aro und, do ing
re s e arch . Mus ic take s me back h o me . Mus ic
brings
back th e
p as t,
make s th e
p as t
live
again-and
s o ce me nts th e cracks .'"
8. It caus e s an unco ntro llable
imp uls e
s o th at th e wo me n
ululate , th e o ld me n
p e rf o rm
a mo ck war dance and
s ay:
To be ar ch ildre n is to e xte nd o ne 's bo ne s
/ Uvus a
us inga
kukikize o mame
kugiye
amakh e h la aze as h o ath i ukuzala
ukuze lula amath ambo
"Wh e n Paul Simo n o r Mich ae l Jacks o n
s ing, p e o p le
s cre am and dance . He re ,
wo me n ululate f ro m e xcite me nt, and o ld me n
le ap up
and do wn. Th e
p h ras e
'to
be ar ch ildre n is to e xte nd o ne 's bo ne s ' is dif f icult to
e xp lain.
It's a
s aying.
If
yo u
h ave ch ild, yo u
's tre tch '
yo urs e lf .
Wh e n
p e o p le
h e ar mus ic, th e y may s ay
th e s e
wo rds to
p rais e
th e mus ician, and h is mo th e r and f ath e r."26
9. It is s tudie d
s cie ntif ically f ro m
th e
de p th o f s ch o lars h ip
/
Uf undwe ngo buciko
e mf lh lakalwe ni yo buch we p h e s h e 27
"Th is is
my
's e cre t'. As I've to ld
yo u be f o re , lo ng ago
wh e n I was
le arning
th is
mus ic it was
jus t
as
th o ugh
I was in a s ch o o l
by mys e lf .
So h e re I'm
trying
to
e xp lain
to th e
p e o p le
th at
yo u
can s it do wn with
yo ur mind, s p irit, f le s h , and
yo u'll
co me
up
with
s o me th ing-like
I le arne d th is mus ic f ro m
my
dre am in 1964. So
h e re I'm
re f e rring
to
my dre am, and
p rais ing my
dre am te ach e r."
z5
Sh abalala h as in f act
de ve lo p e d
a
th re e -p age
re s e arch
que s tio nnaire , co mp ris ing
30
que s tio ns
o n vario us
as p e cts
o f th e
h is to ry
and th e
co nte mp o rary p ractice s
o f Zulu mus ic and dance . He
h o p e s
to us e th e s e
que s tio ns
in a numbe r o f
ways ,
but
e s p e cially
o ve r th e radio ( wh e re lis te ne rs
will
p h o ne
in with th e ir ans we rs ) and at
gath e rings .
He be lie ve s th e
que s tio ns
will s timulate
dis cus s io n, h igh ligh t dis cre p ancie s ,
re co ve r s o me o f wh at h as be e n lo s t; and th at o ut o f th is
"big
de bate " will
e me rge
a co h e re nt
bo dy
o f mate rial th at can be us e d f o r e ducatio nal
p urp o s e s .
Cle arly,
as h e wo uld s e e it, th is is ano th e r
way
f o r mus ic to "ce me nt th e cracks ."
2
Th e idio m "to be ar ch ildre n is to e xte nd o ne 's bo ne s " is
co ngratulato ry, s ignalling
th e be lie f
th at ch ildre n
p o te ntially
e xte nd th e ir
p are nts ' cap abilitie s . Me to nymically,
th e
yo unge r "bo ne s "
o f th e ch ildre n
may
o ne
day
e nh ance th e live s o f th e ir o lde r-bo ne d
p are nts .
27
In th is
ap h o ris m, and h is
glo s s up o n it, I unde rs tand Sh abalala to be
ap p ro p riating
th e
dis co urs e s o f s cie nce and o f
s ch o lars h ip ,
in o rde r to make a
p o int
abo ut th e
de e p validity-th e
"truth "-o f wh at h e le ame d
during
h is e ducatio nal dre ams . Give n th e f act th at mo s t o f th e
as p iring co mp o s e rs
th at Sh abalala as s is ts are
unlike ly
e ve r to h ave an
o p p o rtunity
to
s tudy
th e ir
craf t in a f o rmal e ducatio nal
s e tting,
th is
ap h o ris m
is a
p o ignant e xh o rtatio n to th e m to f o llo w h is
e xamp le ,
and to le arn th e ir craf t, as h e did, in th e s o litude o f dre amtime
s tudy.
36 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
10. 25
que s tio ns
we re ans we re d: th e s e we re as ke d
by
24 me n ( re d marro we d)
/
Kwap h e ndulwa
imibuzo e wu
th we ntif ayif i
25 ibuzwa amado da awu
th we ntif o
24
( e zimnkants h u
bo vu)28
"I kne w abo ut mus ic; but th e
que s tio ns
we re a
way
o f
te s ting
wh e th e r th is man-
Sh abalala-was f it to le ad
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo , o r wh e th e r th e re s h o uld be
ano th e r le ade r. Th e
que s tio ne rs
we re o ld, gre y h aire d, e xp e rie nce d,
wis e -h e nce
're d marro we d'."
11. It is
p re s e nte d
to th e
co mmunity th ro ugh s tre ngth
and
s e lf le s s ne s s
/ We th ulwa
e mp h akath ini ngamandla
nango kuzinike la
"Wo rk, p ractice , s we at, de dicatio n: th at is th e
way
I
de ve lo p e d my co mp o s itio ns
and
my
mus ic. And I'm
s ugge s ting
th at th is is th e
way
f o r o th e rs to f o llo w as
we ll."
12. It is th e
p ro p e rty o f
th e wh o le natio n /
Uyif a
le s izwe s o nkana
"Eve n
th o ugh
I
co mp o s e d my mus ic, it
be lo ngs
to
e ve ryo ne ."
13. Wh e n I
e xp e rie nce
th is s udde n unco ntro llable
imp uls e ,
I
always s ay: "Hap p y
are
yo u
th at s aw Sh aka th e unbe atable o ne , No dume h le zi s o n
o f Me nzi, th e
Zulu h e ro wh o s e
dancing
s tirre d th e ce ntre
o f
e mo tio ns
o f
h is
f ath e r
Se nzagakh o na"
I Uma
ngis ukwa us inga ngiye ngith i uyade la
we na o wabo na
uSh aka
kas h aye ki
uNo dume h le zi kaMe nzi
iqh awe
laka Zulu
e laqida
kwanyakaza
izibilini
zikayis a
uSe nza
nqakh o , uyibinda
we na we Nko s i
"Wh e n I'm
s inging, my
mind
go e s
back to Sh aka's
day,
and I'm
h ap p y
f o r th o s e
p e o p le
wh o kne w h im and to uch e d h im. Th e re f e re nce is to a h is to rical e ve nt.
Wh e n
kings
vis it e ach o th e r, a
gro up
is
bro ugh t to ge th e r
to
s ing.
One
day
Sh aka
was
dancing
and
s inging
in s uch a
gro up ,
and h is f ath e r
Se n7agakh o na
as ke d abo ut
o ne
yo ung
man in
p articular,
wh o m h e didn't kno w to be h is s o n: h e was s truck
by
Sh aka's e xce lle nt
s inging
and
dancing.
I o f te n f e e l th at
my s p irit
is
go ing
back to
th o s e
days .
It's a
way
to co mf o rt
mys e lf ,
to
give mys e lf s tre ngth .
And
by s aying
th o s e wo rds
['Hap p y
are
yo u
th at s aw Sh aka ...', e tc.],
I am als o
p rais ing.
'No dume h le zi s o n o f Me nzi' is Sh aka's
p rais e
name ."
:2
Th is re f e rs , o f co urs e , to th e dre am in wh ich Sh abalala was
inte rro gate d by
a circle o f e lde rs .
Th is
ap h o ris m
f o llo ws
lo gically
f ro m th e
p re vio us
o ne . Bo th are
auto bio grap h ical,
but wh e re th e
f o rme r
e mp h as ize d
le arning,
th e latte r s tre s s e s th e
imp o rtance
o f f itne s s f o r o ne 's ro le
by making
re f e re nce to Sh abalala's "ce rtif icatio n"
ce re mo ny:
h is dre amtime ritual o f inductio n, o r
"graduatio n".
"Re d marro we d" is an
e p ith e t ap p lie d
to o ld
p e o p le ,
bas e d o n th e
p e rce p tio n
th at
bo ne -marro w re dde ns with
age .
Ballantine :
Jo s e p h
Sh abaala 37
7. In co nclus io n
I h ave s ke tch e d an
e th no grap h y
o f th e cre ative
p ro ce dure s
o f a
s ingle
Af rican
co mp o s e r.
In
do ing s o ,
I h ave als o
give n
an
inkling
o f th e kinds o f
ins igh ts
to
wh ich co nve rs atio ns o f th e s o rt I h ave h ad with
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala can le ad. Such
ins igh ts
are
imp o rtant
f o r at le as t th re e crucial and re late d re as o ns -e ach o f wh ich
s ugge s ts
f urth e r re s e arch
p e rs p e ctive s . Firs t,
and mo s t
o bvio us ly,
th e s e
ins igh ts
unde rmine th e
ide o lo gy
th at in Af rica mus ic is
co mp o s e d by
a s o rt o f f o lk
co lle ctive ,
rath e r th an
by individuals ;
in
f act,
s uch
ins igh ts
ins tantiate th is
ide o lo gy's o p p o s ite . Se co nd, th e s e
ins igh ts
are th e
e th no grap h ic
raw mate rial
th ro ugh
wh ich we can
be gin
to
gain
a
de e p e r unde rs tanding
o f th e cre ative
mus ical
p ro ce s s
its e lf . Or
p e rh ap s
we s h o uld
s ay
cre ative mus ical
p ro ce s s e s -
s ince we h ave no
righ t s imp ly
to as s ume th at th e
p ro ce s s
o f mus ic cre atio n is
anyth ing
o th e r th an
multip le , f racture d,
and dif f e re nt f ro m
p lace
to
p lace ,
time to
time , culture to culture . And th is le ads to
my
th ird re as o n.
Inquirie s
o f th is kind
can
h e lp
f o cus atte ntio n o n
dif f e re nce -no t o nly
in th e s e ns e th at th e
p ro ce s s
o f
mus ical cre atio n
may
dif f e r be twe e n
culture s ,
but als o in th e s e ns e th at individual
co mp o s e rs
in a
s ingle
culture
may dif f e re ntly
us e co mmo n s o cial de te rminants
and co mmo n s o cial re s o urce s .
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala wo uld be th e f irs t to re s is t
any s ugge s tio n th at,
as a
co mp o s e r,
h e is
unique .
Of
co urs e ,
h e wo uld no t
de ny
th at h e is th e
p articular
cre ato r o f a
bo dy
o f
co mp o s itio ns
th at
go
unde r h is name . But h e wo uld
argue
vigo ro us ly agains t
th e
"o th e ring" p e rce p tio n
o f
co mp o s itio n
in Af rica as a
quas i-
mys tical p h e no me no n,
in wh ich th e co ns cio us ne s s o f individuals
p lays
no
f o rmative o r ide ntif iable
p art.
"In f act",
s ays Sh abalala, "e ve ryth ing
was
co mp o s e d. Way back, p e o p le
didn't write do wn th at th is
s o ng
was
co mp o s e d by
s o -and-s o . But th e s e
co mp o s e rs
are kno wn. We h ave
p e o p le
h e re wh o can te ll
yo u
e ve ryth ing. Eve ry p ie ce
o f mus ic h as
s o me bo dy
wh o
co mp o s e d
it."
If , th e n, Af rica is a co ntine nt rich in
mus ic, it is als o o ne rich in
co mp o s e rs ,
wh o s e mo me nt to be
name d,
kno wn and unde rs to o d is no w
lo ng
o ve rdue .
REFERENCES
Be rglund,
Axe l-Ivar ( 1989) [1975] Zulu
th o ugh t-p atte rns
and
s ymbo lis m.
Indiana
Unive rs ity
Pre s s .
Be rline r, Paul ( 1978) Th e s o ul o f mbira.
Unive rs ity
o f Calif o rnia Pre s s .
( 1994) Th inking
jazz:
th e
inf inite
art
o f imp ro vis atio n. Unive rs ity
o f
Ch icago
Pre s s .
Blacking,
Jo h n ( 1982) "So me
p rincip le s
o f
co mp o s itio n
in th e
indige no us
mus ics o f So uth e rn
Af rica". In J. P. Malan
( e d.) So uth
Af rican mus ic
e ncyclo p e dia,
Vo l. 2, p p .
294-301.
Cap e
To wn: Oxf o rd
Unive rs ity
Pre s s .
( 1985)
"A f als e trail f o r th e arts ? "Multicultural' mus ic e ducatio n and th e de nial o f
individual
cre ativity."
In Malco lm Ro s s
( e d.) Th e ae s th e tic in e ducatio n, p p .
1-27. Oxf o rd:
Pe rgamo n
Pre s s .
( 1989) "Ch alle nging
th e
myth
o f 'e th nic mus ic': f irs t
p e rf o rmance s
o f a ne w
s o ng
in an
Af rican o ral traditio n, 1961." Ye arbo o k
f o r Traditio nal Mus ic 21: 17-24.
Erlmann, Ve it ( 1989)
"A co nve rs atio n with
Jo s e p h
Sh abalala o f
Ladys mith Black Mambazo :
as p e cts
o f Af rican
p e rf o rme rs '
lif e s to rie s ." Th e Wo rld
o f Mus ic 31.9: 31-58.
( 1996) Nigh ts o ng: p e rf o rmance , p o we r,
and
p ractice
in So uth
Af rica. Unive rs ity
o f
Ch icago
Pre s s .
38 Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy,
vo l. 5 ( 1996)
Flo yd, Malco lm, e d. ( in p re s s ) Co mp o s ing
th e mus ic o f Af rica: co mp o s itio n, inte rp re tatio n
and
rp alizatio n. Alde rs h o t, UK:
As h gate .
Je dre j,
M. C., and Ro s alind Sh aw, e d. ( 1992) Dre aming, re ligio n
and
s o cie ty
in
Af rica.
Ne w
Yo rk: Brill.
Mulle r, Caro l ( 1994)
'"Nazante
s o ng, dance , and dre ams : th e s acralizatio n o f time , s p ace ,
and th e
f e male
bo dy
in So uth Af rica". Ph .D. dis s e rtatio n, Ne w Yo rk
Unive rs ity.
Ne ttl, Bruno ( 1956) Mus ic in
p rimitive
culture . Harvard
Unive rs ity
Pre s s .
( 1983) Th e
s tudy o f
e th no mus ico lo gy:
twe nty-nine
is s ue s and co nce p ts . Unive rs ity
o f
Illino is Pre s s .
Nke tia, J. H. Kwabe na ( 1975) Th e mus ic
o f
Af rica. Lo ndo n: Go llancz.
Smith , Ge o f f & Smith , Nico la Walke r ( 1995) Ne w vo ice s : Ame rican
co mp o s e rs
talk abo ut th e ir
mus ic. Po rtland: Amade us Pre s s .
Sundkle r, Be ngt ( 1976)
Zulu Zio n and s o me Swazi Zio nis ts .
Cap e
To wn: Oxf o rd Unive rs ity
Pre s s .
Te dlo ck, Barbara, e d. ( 1987) Dre aming: anth ro p o lo gical
and
p s ych o lo gical inte rp re tatio ns .
Cambridge Unive rs ity
Pre s s .
Th e mbe la, Ale x J. & Rade be , Edmund P. M. ( 1993)
Th e
lif e
and wo rks o f Jo s e p h
Sh abalala and
th e
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo .
Pie te nnaritzburg:
Re ach Out Publis h e rs .
Trace y, Hugh ( 1970) Ch o p i
mus icians : th e ir mus ic, p o e try,
and ins trume nts . Oxf o rd
Unive rs ity
Pre s s .
DISCOGRAPHY
Ladys mith
Black Mambazo ( 1973) Amabuth o . Mo te lla BL14.
( 1981)
Ph ans i
e mgo dini.
Mo te lla BL321.
( 1985)
Inala. Mo te lla BL531.
( 1989) Sh aka Zulu. Wame r Bro s 25582; Gallo HUL40157.
( 1990) Scatte r th e
f ire s p re ad
th e mus ic. Wame r Bro s 26125; Gallo HUL40222.
( 1995) Th uth ukani
ngo xo lo :
Le t's
de ve lo p
in
p e ace .
Gallo CDGMP 40641.
( 1996) Ukuza la ( To be ar ch ildre n is to e xte nd o ne 's bo ne s ). Gallo .
So lo mo n Linda's
Original Eve ning
Birds ( 1939) "Mbube ". Gallo GE829.
Th e We ave rs ( 1951) "Wimo we h ". De cca.
Ch ris to p h e r
Ballantine is th e L. G. Jo e l Pro f e s s o r o f Mus ic at th e
Unive rs ity
o f Natal,
in Durban, So uth Af rica, and a Fe llo w o f th e
Unive rs ity
o f Natal.
Lo ng
co nce rne d with
th e
me aning
o f mus ic and th e f o rce s th at
s h ap e it, h e h as
p ublis h e d wide ly
in th e f ie lds
o f
mus ico lo gy, e th no mus ico lo gy,
and
p o p ular
mus ic s tudie s .
Amo ng
h is bo o ks are
Mus ic and its s o cial
me anings ( Ne w Yo rk/Lo ndo n: Go rdo n & Bre ach , 1984) and
Marabi
nigh ts : e arly
So uth
Af rican jazz
and vaude ville
( Jo h anne s burg:
Ravan Pre s s ,
1993)-th e
latte r re vie we d in th e Britis h Jo urnal
o f Eth no mus ico lo gy
4
( 1995).
He is o n
th e e dito rial bo ards o f s e ve ral
le ading
inte rnatio nal mus ic
jo urnals .
Addre s s :
De p artme nt
o f Mus ic, Unive rs ity
o f Natal, Durban 4041, So uth Af rica. E-mail:
<ballanti@mtb.und.ac.za>