History of Articulators Based on Geometric Theories of Mandibular Movement: Part I Edgar N. Starcke, DDS S INCE AS early as the 1860s, dental scientists and inventors investigated the nature of man- dibular movement for the purpose of reproducing these movements in an articulator. Simple hinge articulators became commonplace, but by the turn of the 20 th century, the natural variability of the condylar paths, both between individuals and from side to side in the same individual, had be- gun to be recognized and appreciated as impor- tant determinants of mandibular movement. Un- doubtedly, the investigators interpretations of what they observed varied greatly. This is demon- strable in the features of their articulators. From the inspired to the near-genius and from the ridic- ulous to the sublime, these articulators simply reected what was perceived to be the anatomic and kinesthetic characteristics of mandibular movement. Despite differences in investigators perception and application of mandibular move- ment, the complexity of articulators began to evolve as a result of the important work of such scientists as W.E. Walker, Alfred Gysi, and George Snow. By 1910, most inventors had become more systematic in their attempts to reproduce the individual natu- ral movements of the mandible. 1 The Condylar (or Anatomic) School of Articulator Design In a broad sense, the school of articulator design that emphasizes condylar guidance and rotation centers can be called the condylar, or anatomic, school. During the early 20 th century, articulators with adjustable condylar guides were becoming more popular; or at least so it seemed on the surface. However, undercurrents brought about by intense competition in the marketplace and den- tists demands for simplicity, generated a trend toward average value instruments. 1 The most noteworthy example is the Gysi Simplex articula- tor, 2 which, incidentally, caused quite a reaction from Gysis critics when introduced in 1912 (Fig 1). 3 * The Geometric (or Nonanatomic) School of Articulator Design By about 1900, a second major school of articulator design, the geometric, or nonanatomic, school, was emerging. This approach embodied principles contrary to the condylar school and proved to be both trend-setting and a source of controversy.
The geometric school denied the existence of con-
dylar axes and disregarded the condylar paths as inuences on occlusion, instead contending that the articulation of the teeth guides the mandible dur- ing mastication. The condylar paths need only be in accord with the plane of occlusion. Critics of the geometric school believed that this view was invalid for 2 primary reasons: (1) It did not take into Correspondence to: Edgar N. Starcke, DDS, Clinical Professor, De- partment of Prosthodontics, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Dental Branch, 6516 M.D. Anderson Boulevard, P.O. Box 20068, Houston, TX 77225. E-mail: estarcke@mail.db.uth.tmc.edu Copyright 2002 by The American College of Prosthodontists 1059-941X/02/1102-0012$35.00/0 doi:10.1053/jpro.2002.124356 *Gysi was tireless in his resolve to promote his Sim- plex articulator, of course, with a little help from his friends. A booklet titled The Happy Average Way was published for practitioners of general dentistry in about 1912. It was endorsed by George Wood Clapp, the editor of Dental Digest, and promoted Gysis average complete denture technique, which included his Simplex articula- tor.
By 1918, several theories of occlusion existed along
with articulators designed to promote them. According to James E. House, since the principles of these theories varied so widely, it was decided that in the best interest of the profession, a study club would be created, limited to 50 men dedicated to testing their ideas on each other in a workshop setting. Their goal was to narrow the eld of articulator design to one acceptable articulator for the improvement of prosthodontics. This was one of the primary reasons that, in August 1919, the National Soci- ety of Denture Prosthetics was organized. 4 134 Journal of Prosthodontics, Vol 11, No 2 ( June), 2002: pp 134-146 consideration individual variations (i.e., there was the notion that one size ts all), and (2) no provision was made for the BalkwillBennett move- ment. Articulators designed to reect geometric theo- ries feature some type of mechanism that allows the mandible to move around a single central radial axis generally located above and/or posterior to the occlusal plane. Traditionally, these devices have been called arbitrary and single rotation center articulators. These terms are not ade- quately descriptive, however, because they are sim- ply too vague and ambiguous. For example, to stretch a point, the simple hinge articulators might also be considered single rotation center articu- lators, 4 and they certainly can be considered arbi- trary. (Incidentally, it appears that over the years, the popularity of simple hinge devices has never waned.) The inventors most frequently associated with the geometric school of mandibular movement and articulator design are George S. Monson (for his spherical theory) and Rupert E. Hall (for his conical theory). It was earlier investigators, how- ever, who laid the basic foundations on which the principles of the various geometric theories were built. William G.A. Bonwill and Francis H. Balkwill, who were contemporaries although oceans apart, were perhaps the earliest investigators to apply geometric principles to articulation, mandibular movement, and the design of articulators. In 1864, Bonwill introduced his equilateral triangle the- ory, establishing the size of the mandible as 10 cm from condyle to condyle and from each condyle to the incisor point. Bonwill believed that articulation of the teeth guides the mandible during function, but that the centers of the condyles are also the centers of lateral rotation for the mandibles open- ing and closing movements. 5 Balkwill presented his observations on mandib- ular movement in 1866. When describing the open- ing motion, he theorized that the articulating posterior outline of the condyle of the lower jaw appears formed of parts of two circles, the inner and larger forming part of an independent smaller circle. The condyle articulates with the glenoid cavity so as to allow a single hinge-like motion and a forward and backward motion. While there is only a slight lateral motion, both sides move on the radii of the same circle. The combined motion of both circles will give the [rotating] side nearly a simple lateral action, while the [orbiting] side will move forward and downward. 6 In 1890, anatomist Ferdinand Graf von Spee of Kiel, Germany (Fig 2) called attention to the relationship between the curved arrangements of the occlusal planes of natural teeth and the corre- sponding curves of the condylar paths. 7 As re- ported by Gysi, von Spee described the forward movement of the mandible (as viewed in the sagit- tal plane) in this manner: Figure 1. The rst and fac- ing pages of The Happy Aver- age Way. Probably published by the Dental Digest in about 1912, this booklet was in- tended to enable the general practitioner to provide ef- cient denture service with- out the need for scientic equipment. The Gysi Adapt- able articulator (left) would be the ideal instrument, but the Simplex would sufce in 80% of the cases. The booklet advertised the services of the I.J. Dresch Laboratories of Toledo, OH, and the illustra- tions were provided by the Dental Digest, G.W. Clapp, ed- itor. It was not copyrighted. 135 The total visible contact of the molar masticatory surfaces lies on the same arc of a circle. The posterior continuation of this arc touches the most anterior point of the condyle. Accordingly, the points of the mandible that glide in contact along the upper part of the skull are lying on the same cylindrical surface. The location of the axis of that cylin- ders curvature is at the level of the horizontal mid-orbital plane. The steeper the path of the condyles, the more pronounced the tooth curve would be, because both have the same radius. 8 This was later to be known as the curve of Spee. The Spherical Theory: Should the Credit Go to Christensen or Monson? There was never a raging controversy over who originated the spherical theory. On the contrary, most authors have traditionally awarded that dis- tinction to George Monson. However, there were some early discussions on this issue, and even into the late 1940s, there was some question as to who actually originated the spherical theory of mandib- ular movement. 9 Rupert Halls historical review of the work of various investigators on mandibular movement led him to believe that Carl Christensen had developed Figure 2. Ferdinand Graf von Spee (18551937). (Re- printed by permission of ADA Publishing, a division of ADA Business Enterprises, Inc. Copyright 1980, Amer- ican Dental Association.) Figure 3. Sagittal view of the mandible. The concentric arcs demonstrate the nature of the protrusive movement of the mandible. The short black line represents the joint path. Christensen believed that the path of the condyle never differs much from a straight line. (Re- printed from Christensen. 11 ) Figure 4. A lateral view of the skull with a schematic drawing of dentures in centric occlusion and in protru- sion. This illustrates the intraoral method for recording the condylar inclination, or Christensens phenomenon. Christensens Rational articulator is based on this prin- ciple. (Reprinted from Christensen. 11 ) 136 the spherical theory. 10 Christensens claim to fame, of course, was his practical technique for register- ing positional relations of the mandible. He was the rst to describe an intraoral method for recording a static protrusive record to determine the condylar inclination, and he produced an adjustable condylar guide articulator, the Rational articulator, to pro- mote this technique. 11,12 Fromhis description of the technique came what Ulf Posselt coined Chris- tensens phenomenon, or the posterior separation of the occlusion rims that occurs when the mandi- ble moves from a centric to a protrusive position. 13 In the late 1890s, Christensen discovered what was, until then, the largely unknown work of von Spee on the displacement path of the jaw. 7 He believed that Spee should be credited with pointing out the importantand simpletruth that the path of the condyle during the bite movement must be in conformity with the bite-path. 12 Christensen de- veloped his method of recording the condylar incli- nations for his Rational articulator as an exten- sion of Spees principle, that is, harmonizing the articulation of the teeth with the movements of the condyles. 14 Christensen was well aware that in Spees view, the nature of the temporomandibular joint during movement was of more a mechanical than an anatomic character and that his observations may not hold true in all cases. He pointed out that Spee himself admitted that there seemed to be a discrepancy between his hypothesis and the accepted conception of anatomic conditions. But Christensen proposed that during movement of the mandible in individuals with natural teeth, while the teeth remain in sliding contact, the condyles can only move downward and forward 4 to 5 mm, with a maximum distance of 12 mm. Therefore, he believed that the small distance and direction that the condyles traveled while the teeth remained in contact was of utmost impor- tance for dentures to function properly. Chris- tensen believed that, as von Spee indicated, if the articulation-path and the joint-path were similar, then whether the articulation-path is straight or curved, the joint-path must be par- allel to it (Fig 3). 11 In this gure, both paths are shown to conform to concentric arcs with a com- mon center. Christensen considered the condy- lar path curves to have innite radii and, for all practical purposes for setting denture teeth, to be a straight line. His articulator was based on this principle (Fig 4). 11 Figure 5. Christensens Rational articulator with plaster casts and wax occlusion rims mounted in the centric position. The plaster blocks, mounted for the simulated functional generated path procedure, would look similar to this. (Reprinted from Christensen. 11 ) Figure 6. (A) Christensens Rational articulator with the condylar guides set at a high inclination. The maxil- lary and mandibular plaster blocks have been manually ground in and the surfaces have obtained spherical shapes. (Reprinted from Christensen. 12 ) (B) Vulcanite rubber stints with wax occlusion rims on casts of badly worn natural teeth. The spherical contours of the rims were formed as a result of the subject moving his man- dible freely and as far as capable while maintaining contact of the rims with moderate pressure. (Reprinted from Christensen. 12 ) 137 Christensens Spherical Theory Carl Christensen pursued Spees ideas further but adopted different concepts of the nature of man- dibular movement. By the early 1900s, he had stud- ied the work of other investigators and had made his own observations on mandibular movement and occlusal wear patterns of natural teeth. Christensens new spherical hypothesis was based on the conclusions that he had reached regarding the factors that determine the nature of the occlusal plane and the relationship betweenthe occlusal plane, tooth articulation, and condylar paths. Preferring to use the root word bite rather than the terms artic- ulation and occlusion, Christensen claimed that the only way to prove that his theories were correct was to observe the bite-movement (articulation) phenomenon itself.
But, he explained, it must be
remembered that the minute details of [these move- ments]. . .in the living individual. . .are still a closed book to us, and. . .are hardly suitable as the real basis for [debate]. 12 Christensen held that it is the ideal jaw-path during bite movement of the edentulous mouth (related to the construction of complete den- tures) that should be determined, not the accidental, more or less normal bite-path of the mouth with natural teeth. 12 Christensen did not fully understand the nature of the lateral movements of the mandible, but he concluded that the mandible must make lateral movements similar to the forward movements and that only a spherical surface arrangement of the occlusal plane would allow continuous tooth contact during all excursions of the mandible. These spher- ical surfaces differ for each individual, ranging from an almost-plane surface with an innite radius to a highly curved surface with a radius of 4 to 5 inches. Christensen offered 2 of his several practical experiments to conrm that the principles of his spherical theory were correct. The rst experiment, a laboratory demonstration, used his Rational articulator to manually simulate functionally gen- erated path occluding surfaces on maxillary and mandibular rims. To simulate occlusion rims, Christensen mounted plaster blocks in his articula- tor (Fig 5). He then set the condylar guides at an especially high oblique position. Maintaining rm hand pressure on both bows of the articulator and using the guiding mechanism of the instrument, he functionally articulated the blocks to grind them in to balancing surfaces in all directions of the moving bite. The worn surfaces now showed per- fect contact through all movements and obtained the shape of spherical surfaces, the mandibular surface concave upward and the maxillary surface convex downward (Fig 6A). 12 Christensen claimed to conrm this indirect proof by another experiment that he carried out with a living subject, a man whose natural teeth were severely abraded. The subjects plane of occlu- sion was slightly curved but was not smooth. Chris- tensen constructed vulcanite rubber stints to cover the teeth, and over the stints he placed wax occlu- sion rims of a few millimeters thickness. After lubricating the rims with soap, the subject was asked to move his mandible in all possible direc- tions, holding the rims together with moderate pressure. Although not as dramatic, the outcome was the samethe occlusal surfaces of the wax rims obtained a spherical shape (Fig 6B and C). 12 A Frank-ly Discouraging Word In 1908, Bernard Frank of Amsterdam, took aim at von Spee and Christensen, harshly criticizing their work on mandibular movement and admonishing any inventors who had claimed that their so-called anatomic articulators could imitate the joint mechanism. 15 Frank conducted experiments that he believed produced conclusive evidence that Spees ndings were inaccurate. He said that von Spee had stated emphatically that the sagittal oc- clusion curve of man has a radius of 6 to 7 cm, and claimed that his own experiments showed that this was the case in only 27% of the measurements. 15 Frank also contended that Christensen did not prove the validity of his Rational articulator. Us- ing cross-sections of dentulous mandibular casts, Frank demonstrated that there were vast differ- ences among individuals in the curvatures of the occlusal planes. Moreover, by cutting cross-sections of each cast at the positions of the premolars and
In his 1905 paper, Christensen chose to avoid the use
of the terms articulation and occlusion, but instead, chose the word bite as a general term meaning all the forms of contact in which both rows of teeth may meet. He went into detail dening his bite-related terms and his arguments for preferring their use; but his basic reason was simply because experience has taught me that neither articulation nor occlusion [are under- stood by] the great majority of dentists when a thorough explanation of the subject is attempted. 11 138 molars, he showed that the radius of each of the 5 pairs of teeth would be different (Fig 7). Using Christensens Rational articulator, Frank repeated his simulated functionally generated path experiment using blocks made of a pumicestone mixture (Fig 8). The curved occlusal surfaces gener- ated on Franks blocks were remarkably more compli- cated than the spherical surface reported by Chris- tensen. Furthermore, Frank suggested that it was evident that the directions of the natural masticating surfaces differ so greatly from those obtained by re- peating the experiment of Christensen that this ex- periment entirely fails to prove the correctness of the [Christensen] articulator. 15 Bernard Franks rhetoric was that of a man with a mission: to let the world know that it is utterly impossible to solve the problems of articulation by means of articulators. In the milieu of this early- 20th century dentist, it is doubtful that he found many colleagues to argue with that statement. In- deed, there are those today who would wholeheart- edly agree with him. Clearly, Frank expressed some legitimate con- cerns. He understood the concepts of the facebow, Figure 7. Cross-sections of mandibular dentulous casts of different individuals demonstrating how Frank calculated the differences betweenthe lateral occlusal plane curvature variations (as viewed inthe frontal plane.) Lines were drawntouching the highest points of the respective pairs of teeth. Points a and b identify the midpoint of the occlusal surfaces. The lines intersect at point c. Frank identied points a, b,and c as the inter-occlusal surface angle. At points a and b, perpendicular lines were drawn that intersected at point d, representing the common center of rotation of each pair of teeth. Frank noted that each tooth had a circle of occlusal contact, 1 with radius r and 1 with radius r. None of the radii constructed for the occlusal circles of each tooth pair ever appeared to be equal. (Reprinted from Turner. 14 ) Figure 8. Cross-sections of the mandibular casts of oc- clusal rims that Frank gener- ated by repeating Christen- sens simulated functionally generated path experiment. Frank made 5 transverse sec- tions at the proper posi- tions of the posterior teeth. He noted 10 different slop- ing surfaces, 5 for each side, and pointed out numerous discrepancies between Chris- tensens ndings and his. (Re- printed with permission. 15 ) 139 the third point of reference, and the variability of the intercondylar distance. Christensen had not addressed these issues in his work. On the other hand, Franks choice of analysis to challenge Chris- tensens theories could be described as comparing apples and oranges. Even though the spherical theory implies multidirectional movement, Chris- tensen primarily studied the movement of the man- dible in the anteroposterior direction (as observed in the sagittal plane) after the work of Spee, whereas Franks observations were in the frontal plane. Christensen also made it quite clear that the Figure 9. George S. Monson, DDS (18691933). (Re- printed by permission of ADA Publishing, a division of ADA Business Enterprises, Inc. 16 Copyright 1933, American Dental Association.) Figure 10. George Monson demonstrated his spherical theory for the rst time on this Bonwill articulator. The casts were mounted in the articulator according to Bonwills equilateral tri- angle and with the spheri- cal occlusion guide. (Re- printed from Washburn. 17 ) Figure 11. Dr. Monson making measurements on a human mandible to demonstrate that from the 4-inch common center, the divider touches the incisal edges and the condyles. (Reprinted from Washburn. 17 ) 140 ideal occlusal curve would be considered only for the edentulous mouth in the context of construct- ing complete dentures. 12 So what did Frank conclude from his own exper- iments with curves of occlusion and from his obser- vations of the known articulators of his day? What he said was this: An anatomical articulator is good for nothing. Life cannot be imitated. It would seem then, that we must give up forever any idea of being able to construct a mechanical joint articulator that will enable us to construct a physiologically articu- lating denture for each individual case. 15 Clearly, he was ahead of his time. Monsons Spherical Theory and Articulator Conducting experiments on mandibular movement during the same period as Carl Christensen was George Monson, of St. Paul, MN(Fig 9). 16 H.B. Wash- burn (also of St. Paul, MN), writing on the history of occlusal concepts, reported that Monson had con- ceived the spherical theory. Washburnalso considered it signicant that Christensen and Monson, so close in ideas, knew nothing of each others work. 17 Washburn reported that in 1898, speaking to a group at Mankato, MN, Monson presented for the rst time a method for setting denture teeth, using Bonwills equilateral triangle conforming to the surface of a sphere. Monson had been a student and close friend of Bonwill for many years, but the time came when he could no longer strictly follow all of Bonwills teachings. Nevertheless, this rst demon- stration of his spherical theory was performed with a Bonwill articulator, and the casts were mounted according to Bonwills instructions. However, the teeth were set to conform to a wire spherical occlusal guide constructed by Monson (Fig 10). 17 Through further studies, Monson concluded that prenatally, mandibles ideally tend to develop as equi- lateral triangles and, if the various interfering factors can be controlled during development, that the teeth also would conform to a sphere. 18 To verify this hy- pothesis, Monson conducted experiments with both a human mandible and with casts of the mandibular dentition of highly developed individuals. By highly Figure 12. L.A. Weinbergs schematic illustration of the 3-dimensional relationships of the components of Monsons theory. Lines projected fromthe apices (A, B, and C) of Bonwills triangle intersect at point D, forming a spherical pyramid. Monsons 8-inch diameter sphere touches the apices of the triangle, and point D is the center of rotation or radius of the sphere. Weinberg pointed out that a relationship betweenBonwills triangle and Balkwills angle. Monsons theory requires a condylar inclination of close to 35 degrees and a Balkwill angle of 15.5 degrees. These angles do not correspond to those average angles found by Gysi (30-degree condylar inclination) and by Balkwill (26-degree Balkwill angle) (Reprinted with permission. 22 ) 141 developed, he meant a personwithanideal mandible and dentition that had not been disturbed at some point by disease, trauma, or developmental anomaly. Monson afxed a metal rod to the center of the occlusal surface of each posterior tooth, projecting the rod upward and parallel to the long axis of the tooth. These rods represented the radial lines of force of the teeth. When all of the rods were in place, Monson Figure 13. A frontal view of the mandible illustrating the relationship of the 8-inch- diameter sphere with the transverse plane of occlusion that Monson claimed must be the same as the antero- posterior plane for balanced occlusion to be achieved. The radial lines of force of 4-inch length converge forming the radial point at the apex from which the radius of occlusion of each tooth is determined. (Reprinted from Monson. 20 ) Figure 14. A posterior view of the mandible, illustrating the application of the radial lines to the condyles. The center of the condyles are shown conforming to the sur- face of the sphere, giving the same radial dimensions from the centers of the condyles to the apex as from the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. This also illustrates Monsons concept that this radial center is the center for the entire muscular action be- cause the angles of the mandible conform to lines centering at apex A. (Re- printed from Monson. 20 ) 142 found that they intersected at a common point or center. On the human mandible (Fig 11), he discov- ered that when measuring from this common center, a dividing caliper not only touched the incisal edges of the anterior teeth and the buccal and lingual cusps of the posterior teeth, but also bisected both of the condyles. This, then, was the origin of Monsons spherical theory. It was based on the concept that the man- dibular teeth move over the occlusal surfaces of the maxillary teeth, as over the external surface of a segment of an 8-inch sphere, and that the radius (or common center) of the sphere is located in the region of the crista galli. Because of the way in which the mandible develops, Monson further be- lieved that it would be logical to adapt Bonwills 4-inch equilateral triangle to the surface of the 8-inch sphere, because geometrically, such a spher- ical-based triangle would also be a segment of the 8-inch sphere, and the apex of a pyramid erected on Figure 15. Monsons Man- dibulo-Maxillary instrument. Point A is the radial center of the instrument from which the occlusal surfaces of the teeth are determined. Point B is the position of the con- dylar hinge mechanism for the instrument. The teeth are arranged to conform to the 8-inch sphere at C. Slot D controls anteroposterior movement. The slot is con- centric with the outer surface of the sphere. Jackscrews E are used to adjust the posi- tion of the lower cast to the center if required. This in- strument was manufactured by M.F. Patterson Supply Co., St Paul, MN. (Reprinted from Campbell. 21 ) Figure 16. A sagittal view demonstrating the relation- ships of the 8-inch diameter sphere to Monsons articula- tor and to the anteroposte- rior plane of occlusion. (Re- printed from Monson. 20 ) 143 the triangular base would be coincident with the common center of rotation, that is, the 4-inch ra- dius of the sphere (Figs 12, 13, and 14). Initially, the spherical theory involved the articulation of natural teeth in the highly developed individual and the conviction that these principles apply to the eden- tulous mandible with highly developed ridges. 18 Monson soon realized, however (and was quick to point out), that most patients encountered are not highly developed, because at some point in life an unbalanced condition replaced an earlier balance as a result of some disturbing inuence. In these individuals, the radius of the sphere may be greater or smaller than 4 inches and may not always be in the same location. Thus Monson provided a mechanism in his instrument and in the method for mounting casts whereby the re- lationship of the patients occlusal plane and condyles to the patients center is the same on the articulator as in the patient. 17 In 1923,
Monson was issued a patent for his
articulator. 19 The Mandibulo-Maxillary In- strument, as Monson named it, was based on his spherical theory (Figs 15 and 16). The instrument had 2 rotational axes, spherical and condylar. The condylar axis feature was, of course, one of convenience but was also de- signed for a facebow transfer method used for the unbalanced [oral] conditions encoun- tered in most patients. Both Washburn 17 and R.G. Keyworth 23 described their methods for using Monsons articulator in complete denture construction; both versions included a similar facebow transfer technique (Figs 17 and 18). In summarizing the principles of Monsons in- strument, Washburn stated that it incorporated Monsons spherical principle and combined the Bonwill triangle with Walker and Gysis condyle movements. In addition, the instrument included Gysis idea that the forward and lateral movements must be combined and that the plane of occlusion conforms to the curve of Spee. 17 Returning to the Original Question So, who should receive credit for the spherical the- ory, Carl Christensen or George Monson? The an- swer may never be denitely known, because the exact date when and by whom the spherical idea was conceived may be too close to call. Is this answer important? Probably not. Because they were working independently at about the same time, either one of these men could have actually been the rst. In any event, it is George Monson who should and probably will be remembered for pro- mulgating the spherical theory and for his convic- tion that its principles were sound.
James House states that Monson had applied for the
articulator patent in 1918 and had presented and defended his spherical principles and his Mandibulo-Maxillary In- strument surprisingly well before his peers at the annual session of the National Society of Denture Prosthetists about 2 years later. Monson was very much in the center of the spirited dental controversy [over the various theories of mandibular movement and articulator design] because his idea of a single rotation center was an easy target. 4 Figure 17. A schematic drawing illustrating the theo- retical mechanics of transfer- ring wax rims fromthe patient to the instrument. (Reprinted from Washburn. 17 ) 144 Figure 18. (A) After a centric rela- tion record is made, the rims are fastened together and transferred to the instrument with a facebow. (B) After the occlusion rims are re- lated to the condylar axis with the facebow, the lower cast is adjusted by placing one end of the open cal- ipers in the radial center of the ar- ticulator and touching the free end of the calipers to the incisor point on the lower wax rim. (C) A caliper is used to project the spherical curve to the occlusal surface of the mandibular wax rim as a guide for setting the teeth. (Reprinted by permission of ADA Publishing, a di- vision of ADA Business Enterprises, Inc. 23 Copyright 1929, American Dental Association.) 145 Carl Christensen was a practical clinician who devised a useful intraoral procedure to record the individual condylar paths for the purpose of setting the adjustable condyle con- trols of his articulator. Christensen was curious about the nature of mandibular movement and, through his experiments, recognized the spher- ical curvature of the occlusal plane and its relationship with the curvature of the condylar paths. However, Christensen believed that be- cause of the innite radius of the sphere, for all practical purposes, the condyle paths would be a straight line. He did not promote his spheri- cal theory, but he will always be associated with his method for making a protrusive intraoral record and for Christensens phenomenon. George Monson, on the other hand, believed that his spherical principles produced the ideal occlusion in the highest-developed type of indi- vidual and accordingly, the best-balanced articial dentures must conform to a spherical base. 20 Mon- sons articulator and technique based on his spher- ical theory attracted a number of devoted followers. Even today, many of his principles persist as a part of the dental landscape. More on the history of articulators based on geometric theories of occlusion will appear in the next issue of The Journal of Prosthodontics. References 1. 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English trans- lation, Niedenbach MA, Holtz M, Hitchcock HP: The gliding path of the mandible along the skull. J Am Dent Assoc 1980;100:670-675 8. Gysi A: The problem of articulation (Part II). Dent Cosmos 1910;52:148-169 9. Lufkin AW (ed): A History of Dentistry (ed 2). Philadelphia. PA, Lea and Febiger, 1948, p 292 10. Hall RE: An analysis of the work and ideas of investigators and authors of relations and movements of the mandible. J Amer Dent Assoc 1929;16:1642-1693 11. Christensen C: A rational articulator. Ashs Q Circular 1901;18:409-420 12. Christensen C: The problem of the bite. Dent Cosmos 1905;47:1184-1195 13. Posselt U (ed): Physiology of Occlusion and Rehabilitation. Philadelphia, PA, Davis, 1962, pp 42-43 14. Turner CR (ed): The American Textbook of Prosthetic Dentistry (ed 3). Philadelphia, PA, Lea Brothers, 1907, p 414 15. Frank B: An investigation on articulation and experiments with C. Christensens articulator. Brit Dent J 1908;29:289- 295 16. Cruttenden LM: Obituary of George S. Monson. J Am Dent Assoc 1933;20:1285-1287 17. Washburn HB: History and evolution of the study of occlu- sion. Dent Cosmos 1925;67:331-342 18. Washburn HB: The application of the Monson spherical principle to full dentures. J Am Dent Assoc 1927;14:648-654 19. Monson GB: Dental Articulator. US Patent No. 1,457,385. June 5, 1923 20. Monson GB: Occlusion as applied to crown and bridge-work. J Nat Dent Assoc 1920;7:339-413 21. Campbell DD (ed): Full Denture Prosthesis. St. Louis, MO, Mosby, 1924, p 355 22. Weinberg LA: An evaluation of basic articulators and their concepts. Part II: Arbitrary, positional, semiadjustable ar- ticulators. J Prosthet Dent 1963;13:645-663 23. Keyworth RG: Monson technic for full denture construction. J Am Dent Assoc 1929; 16:130-162 146