Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
3
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
Translated and Annotated by Ian Bruce.
34

THE MATHEMATICAL
PRINCIPLES OF
NATURAL
PHILOSOPHY

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. 3
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
35

DEFINITIONS.

DEFINITION I

The quantity of matter is a measure of the same arising jointly from the density and
magnitude [volume].
AIR with the density doubled, in a volume also doubled, shall be quadrupled; in triple
the volume, six times as great. You understand the same about snow and powders with
the condensing from melting or by compression. And the account of all bodies is the
same which are condensed in different ways by whatever causes. Here meanwhile I have
no account of a medium, if which there were, freely pervading the interstitia of the parts
[of the body]. But I understand this quantity everywhere in what follows under the name
of the body or of the mass. That becomes known through the weight of any body: for the
proportion to the weight is to be found through experiments with the most accurate of
pendulums set up, as will be shown later.

DEFINITION II.

The quantity of motion is a measure of the same arising from the velocity and quantity of
matter jointly.

The whole motion is the sum of the motions within the single parts ; and therefore in a
body twice as great, with equal velocity, it is doubled, & with the velocity doubled four
times as great.

DEFINITION III.

The innate force of matter is the resisting force, by which each individual body, however
great it is in itself, persists in its state either of rest or of moving uniformly straight
forwards.

This innate [or vis insita ] force is proportional always to its body, and nor does it
differ at all from the inertia of the mass, unless in the required manner of being
considered. From the inertia of matter it arises, that each body may be disturbed with
difficulty either from its state of rest or from its state of motion. From which the vis insita
will be possible also to be called by a most significant name the vis inertiae [force of
inertia]. Truly the body exercises this force only in the change made of its state by some
other force impressed on itself ; and the exercise is under that difference with respect to
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
36
resistance and impetus: Resistance: in as much as the body is resisting a change in its
state by the force acting; Impetus: in as much as the same body, with the force of
resistance requiring to concede to the obstacle, tries to change the state of this obstacle.
One commonly attributes resistance to states of rest and impetus to states of movement :
but motion and rest, as they are considered commonly, are distinguished only in turn
from each other; nor are [bodies] truly at rest which may be regarded commonly as being
in a state of rest.

[The use of the word directum , direct or straight forward rather than straight line, as is
given in texts on mechanics removes a circular argument from the definition, as the body
can only so move in the absence of forces, and cannot be part of the definition as well as
a consequence; and there are of course no lines drawn in space, although we could in
principle detect deviations of motion along a given direction. Clearly, this was Newton's
original meaning, where he uses the word directum, and his thoughts on the
predominance of Mechanics over Geometry are set out in the Preface to the first edition. ]

DEFINITION IV.

The impressed force is the action exercised on the body, to changing the state either of
rest or of motion uniform in direction.

This force is in position only during the action, nor remains in the body after the action.
For the body may persevere in any new state by the force of inertia only. Moreover the
impressed force is of diverse origins, as from a blow, from pressure, or from the
centripetal force.

DEFINITION V.

It is the centripetal force, by which bodies are drawn, impelled, or tend in some manner
from all sides towards some point, as towards a centre.

Gravity is [a force] of this kind, by which bodies tend towards the centre of the earth ;
the magnetic force, by which iron seeks a loadstone; and that force, whatever it may be,
by which the planets are drawn perpetually from rectilinear motion, and are forced to
revolve along curved lines. A stone rotating in a sling is trying to depart from the turning
hand; and in its attempt has stretched the sling, and with that the more the faster it
revolves, and it flies off as soon as it is released. I call the force contrary to that
endeavour the centripetal force, by which the sling continually pulls the stone back to the
hand and keeps it in orbit, as it is directed to the hand or the centre of the orbit. And the
account is the same of all bodies, which are driven in a circle. All these are trying to
recede from the centre of the orbit; and unless some other force shall be present trying the
opposite to this, by which they may be confined and retained in the orbits, and each thus I
call centripetal, they will depart with a uniform motion in straight lines. A projectile, if it
were abandoned by the force of gravity, would not be deflected towards the earth, but
would go in a straight line to the heavens; and that with a uniform motion, but only if the
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
37
air resistance may be removed. By its gravity it is drawn from the rectilinear course and
always is deflected to the earth, and that more or less for its gravity and with the velocity
of the motion. So that the smaller were the gravity for a quantity of matter or the greater
the velocity with which it was projected, by that the less will it deviate from a rectilinear
course and the further it will go on. If a leaden sphere is projected from the peak of some
mountain with a given velocity along a horizontal line by the force of gunpowder, it may
go on in a curved line for a distance of two miles, before it falls to earth : since here with
the velocity doubled it may go on twice as far as it were, and with ten times the velocity
ten times as far as it were: but only if the resistance of the air is removed. And by
increasing the velocity it may be possible to increase the distance to any desired distance
in which it is projected, and the curvature of the line that it may describe be lessened ,
thus so that it may fall only according to a distance of ten or thirty or ninety degrees ; or
also so that it may encircle the whole earth or finally depart into the heavens, and from
the departing speed to go on indefinitely. And by the same account, by which the
projectile may be turned by the force of gravity in obit and may be able to encircle the
whole earth, also the moon is able, either by the force of gravity, but only it shall be of
gravity, or some other force , by which it may be acted on, always to be drawn back from
a rectilinear course towards the earth, and to be turning in its orbit : and without such a
force the moon would not be able to be retained in its orbit. This force, if it should be just
a little less, would not be enough to turn the moon from a rectilinear course : if just a little
greater, would turn the moon more and it would be led from its orbit towards the earth.
Certainly it is required, that it shall be of a just magnitude : and it is required of
mathematicians to find the force, by which a body will be able to be retained carefully in
some given orbit ; and in turn to find the curved path, in which a body departing from
some given place with a given velocity may be deflected by a given force. Moreover the
magnitude of this centripetal force is of three kinds, absolute, accelerative, and motive.

[ Newton uses some of his later dynamical ideas to refine the centripetal force acting on a
body under the influence of a large mass into three parts: the absolute force, which
depends primarily on the magnitudes of the large mass and small mass, e.g. if the
centripetal force were produced on a body near the sun, or near the earth, all else being
equal; the accelerative force is simply the acceleration due to gravity on a small mass at
some location: the force of gravity on a unit mass (i.e. g) ; by motive force Newton means
the rate of change
( ) d mv
dt
of the quantity of motion mv or momentum, which in turn he
calls simply motion.]

DEFINITION VI.

The absolute magnitude of a centripetal force is a measure of the same, greater or less,
for the effectiveness of the cause of propagating that from the centre into the orbital
regions.

st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
38
So that the magnetic force for the size of the loadstone either extends more in one
loadstone of greater strength, or lesser in another.

DEFINITION VII.

The accelerative magnitude of the centripetal force is the measure of this proportional to
velocity, that it generates in a given time.

As the strength of the same loadstone is greater in a smaller distance, smaller in
greater : or the force of gravity is greater in valleys, less at the tops of high mountains,
and small still (as it will become apparent afterwards) at greater distances from the globe
of the earth ; but at equal distances it is the same on all sides, because therefore all
falling bodies (heavy or light, large or small) with the air resistance removed, accelerate
equally.

DEFINITION VIII.

The motive magnitude of the centripetal force is the measure of this, proportional to the
motion, which it generates in a given time.

As the weight is greater in a greater body, less in a smaller ; and in the same body
greater near the earth, less in the heavens. This magnitude is the centripetency or the
propensity of the whole body to move towards the centre, and (as thus I have said) the
weight; and it becomes known always by that force equal and opposite to itself, by
which the descent of the body can be impeded.
And the magnitudes of these forces for the sake of brevity can be called the motive,
accelerative, and absolute forces, and for the sake of being distinct refer to bodies
attracted towards the centre, to the locations of these [moving] bodies, and to the centre
of the forces: there is no doubt that the motive force for a body, as the attempt of the
whole towards the centre [of the attracting body] is composed from the attempts of all the
parts ; and the accelerative force at the position of the body, as a certain effectiveness,
spread out in the orbit from the centre through the individual locations to the bodies
towards moving the bodies which are in these places ; but the absolute force towards the
centre, as being provided by some cause, without which the motive forces may not be
propagated through the regions in the revolution; or for that cause there shall be some
central body (such is the loadstone at the centre of the magnetic force, or the earth from
the centre of the force of gravity) or some other [cause] which may not be apparent. The
concept here is only mathematical : For I do not consider the causes and physical seats of
the forces.
Therefore the accelerative force is to the motive force as the velocity is to the motion.
For the quantity of the motion arises from the velocity and also from the quantity of
matter; the motive force arises from the accelerative force taken jointly with the same
quantity of matter. For the sum of the actions of the accelerative force on the individual
particles of the body is the whole motive force [i.e. the weight]. From which next to the
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
39
surface of the earth, where the accelerative gravity or the gravitating force is the same in
all bodies, the motive gravity or weight is as the body : but if it may ascend to regions
were the accelerative weight shall be less, the weight equally may be diminished, and it
will be always as the body and accelerative gravity jointly. Thus in regions were the
accelerative gravity is twice as small, the weight of the body small by two or three times
will be four or six times as small. Again I name attraction and impulses, in the same
sense, accelerative and motive forces. But for these words attraction, impulse, or of any
propensity towards the centre, I use indifferently and interchangeably among themselves;
these forces are required only to be considered from the mathematical point of view and
not physically. From which the reader may be warned, lest by words of this kind he may
think me to define somewhere either a kind or manner of action or a physical account, or
to attribute truly real forces to the centres (which are mathematical points); if perhaps I
have said to draw from the centre or to be forces of the centres.

Scholium.

Up to this stage it has been considered to explain a few notable words, and in the
following in what sense they shall be required to be understood. Time, space, position
and motion, are on the whole the most notable. Yet it is required to note that ordinary
people may not conceive these quantities otherwise than from the relation they bear to
perception. And thence certain prejudices may arise, with which removed it will be
agreed to distinguish between the absolute and the relative, the true and the apparent, the
mathematical and the common usage.

l. Absolute time, true and mathematical, flows equably in itself and by its nature
without a relation to anything external, and by another name is called duration. Relative,
apparent, and common time is some sensible external measure of duration you please
(whether with accurate or with unequal intervals) which commonly is used in place of
true time; as in the hour, day, month, year.

II. Absolute space, by its own nature without relation to anything external, always
remains similar and immovable: relative [space] is some mobile measure or dimension of
this [absolute] space, which is defined by its position to bodies according to our senses,
and by ordinary people is taken for an unmoving space: as in the dimension of a space
either underground, in the air, or in the heavens, defined by its situation relative to the
earth. Absolute and relative spaces are likewise in kind and magnitude; but they do not
always endure in the same position. For if the earth may move, for example, the space of
our air, because relative to and with respect to the earth it always remains the same, now
there will be one part of absolute space into which the air moves, now another part of
this; and thus always it will be moving absolutely.

llI. The position [or place] is a part of space which a body occupies, and for that
reason it is either an absolute or relative space. A part of space, I say, not the situation of
[places within] the body, nor of the surrounding surface. For there are always equal
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
40
positions[within] equal solid shapes; but not so surfaces as most are unequal on account
of dissimilarities of the figures;
[for a surface is liable to change, due to air resistance, etc.]
Truly positions may not have a magnitude on speaking properly, nor are they [to be
considered] as places rather than as affectations of places [i.e. the position is not a
physical property of the body, but rather an indication of where the body is situated at
some time in space]. The whole motion is the same as the sum of the motions of the parts,
that is, the translation of all from its place is the same as the sum of the translations of the
parts from their places ; and thus the place of the whole is the same as the sum of all the
parts of the places and therefore both inside and with the whole body.

IV. An absolute motion is the translation of a body from one absolute place into
another absolute place, a relative [motion] from a relative [place] into a relative [place].
Thus in a ship which is carried along in full sail, the relative position of the body is that
region of the ship in which the body moves about, or the part of the whole cavity of the
ship [hold] which the body fills up, and which thus is moving together with the ship : and
relative quiet is the state of being of the body in that same ship or in the part of the hold.
But the persistence of the body is true rest in the same part of space in which the ship is
not moving, in which the ship itself together with the hold and all the contents may be
moving. From which if the earth truly is at rest, the body which relatively at rest in the
ship, truly will be moving and absolutely with that velocity by which the ship is moving
on the earth. If the earth also is moving; there is the true and absolute motion of the body,
partially from the motion of the ship truly in an unmoving space, partially from the
motion of the ship relative to the earth: and if the body is moving relatively in the ship,
the true motion of this arises, partially from the true motion of the earth in motionless
space, partially from the relative motion both of the ship on the earth as well as of the
body in the ship ; and from these relative motions the motion of the body relative to the
earth arises. So that if that part of the earth, where the ship is moving, truly is moving to
the east with a speed of 10010 parts; and by the wind in the sails the ship is carried to the
west with a velocity of ten parts ; moreover a sailor may be walking on the ship towards
the east with a velocity of one part : truly the sailor will be moving and absolutely in the
immobile space with a velocity of 10001 to the east, and relative to the earth towards the
east with a speed of nine parts.
Absolute time is distinguished from relative time in astronomy by the common
equation of time. For the natural days are unequal, which commonly may be taken as
equal for the measure of time. Astronomers correct this inequality, so that they measure
the motion of the heavens from the truer time. It is possible, that there shall be no
uniform motion, by which the time may be measured accurately. All motions are able to
be accelerated and retarded, but the flow of absolute time is unable to change. The
duration or the perseverance of the existence of things is the same, either the movement
shall be fast or slow or none at all: hence this is distinguished by merit from the
sensibilities of their measurement, and from the same [the passage of time] is deduced
through an astronomical equation. But a need prevails for phenomena in the
determination of this equation, at some stage through an experiment with pendulum
clocks, then also by the eclipses of a satellite of J upiter.
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
41
As the order of the parts of time is unchangeable, thus too the parts of space. These
could be moved from their own places (as thus I may say), and they will be moved away
from each other [i.e. out of sequence]. For the times and the spaces are themselves of this
[kind] and as if the places of all things: in time according to an order of successions, and
in space according to an order of positions, to be put in place everywhere. Concerning the
essence of these things, it is that they shall regarded as places : and it is absurd to move
the first places. These therefore are absolute places ; and only the translations from these
places are absolute motions.
In truth since these parts of space are unable to be seen, and to be distinguished from
each other by our senses; we use in turn perceptible measures of these. For we define all
places from the positions and distances of things from some body, which we regard as
fixed : and then also we may consider all motion with respect to the aforementioned
place, as far as we may conceive bodies to be transferred from the same. Thus in
exchange of absolute places and motions we make use of relative ones ; not to be an
inconvenience in human affairs : but required to be abstracted from the senses in [natural]
philosophical matters. And indeed it can happen, that actually no body may be at rest, to
which the position and motion may be referred to.
But rest and motion, both absolute and relative, are distinguished in turn from each
other by their properties, causes and effects. The property of rest is, that bodies truly at
rest are at rest among themselves. And thus since it shall be possible, that some body in
the regions of fixed [stars], or far beyond, may remain absolutely at rest ; moreover it is
impossible to know in turn from the situation of bodies in our regions, whether or not
any of these given at a remote position may serve [to determine true rest in the absolute
space for local bodies]; true rest cannot be defined from the situation of these bodies
between themselves.
A property of motion is, that the parts which maintain given positions to the whole,
share in the motion of the whole. For all the rotating parts are trying to recede from the
axis of the motion, and the impetus of the forwards motion arises from the impetus of the
individual parts taken together. Therefore with the motion for circulating bodies [e.g.
planets], they do move in circles [i.e. orbits] in which they are relatively at rest. And
therefore true and absolute motion cannot be defined by a translation from the vicinity of
such bodies, which [otherwise] may be regarded as being in a state of rest. For external
bodies [introduced by way of example] must not only seem as being in a state of rest, but
also truly to be at rest. Otherwise everything included also participates in the true orbiting
motion, besides a translation from the vicinity of the orbiting body ; and with that
translation taken away they are not truly at rest, but they may be seen only at rest in this
manner. For the orbiting bodies are to the included, as the total exterior part to the interior
part, or as a shell to the kernel. But with the shell moving also the kernel is moving, or a
part of the whole, without a translation from the vicinity of the shell.
The relation to the preceding property is this, because in the place moved a single
location is moved : and thus a body, which is moved with the place moved, also shares
the motion of its place. Therefore all [relative] motions, which are made from moved
places, are only parts of both the whole and absolute motions, and every whole motion is
composed from the motion of the body from its first place, and from the motion of this
place from its own place in turn, and thus henceforth ; until at last it may arrive at a
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
42
stationary place, as in the example of the sailor mentioned above. From which whole and
absolute motions can be defined only from unmoved places: and therefore above I have
referred to these as immovable places, and relative places to be moveable places. But
they are not immovable places, unless all the given positions may serve in turn from
infinity to infinity ; and so always they remain immovable, and I call the space which
they constitute immovable.

The causes, by which true and relative motions can be distinguished from each other
in turn, are the forces impressed on bodies according to the motion required to be
generated. True motion neither can be generated nor changed, other than by forces
impressed on the motion of the body itself: but relative motion can be generated and
changed without forces being impressed on this body. For it suffices that they be
impressed on other bodies alone to which the motion shall be relative, so that with these
yielding, that relation may be changed from which it consisted, of rest or relative motion.
On the contrary true motion always is changed from the forces impressed on a moving
body ; but the relative motion from these forces is not changed by necessity. For if the
same forces thus may be impressed on other bodies also, for which a relation is made,
thus so that the relative situation will be conserved on which the relative motion is
founded. Therefore all relative motion can be changed where the true may be conserved,
and to be conserved where the true may be changed ; and therefore true motion in
relations of this kind are considered the least.
The effects, by which absolute and relative motions are to be distinguished from each
other, are the forces of receding from the axis of circular motion. For none of these forces
in circular motion are in mere relative motion, but are in a true [circular] motion greater
from true absolute motion for a quantity of motion. If a vessel may hang from a long
thread, and always is turned in a circle, while the thread becomes very stiff, then it may
be filled with water, and together with the water remains at rest; then by another force it
is set in motion suddenly in the opposite sense and with the thread loosening itself, it
may persevere a long time in this motion; the surface of the water from the beginning was
flat, just before the motion of the vessel: But after the vessel, with the force impressed a
little on the water, has the effect that this too begins to rotate sensibly; itself to recede a
little from the middle, and to ascend the sides of the vessel, adopting a concave figure, (as
I have itself tested) and by moving faster from the motion it will rise always more and
more, while the revolutions by being required to be completed in the same times with the
vessel, it may come to relative rest with the same vessel. Here the ascent indicates an
attempt to recede from the axis of the motion, and by such an attempt it becomes known,
and the true and absolute circular motion of the water is measured, and this generally is
contrary to the relative motion. In the beginning, when the motion of the water was a
maximum relative to the vessel, that motion did not incite any attempt to recede from the
axis: the water did not seek circumference by requiring to ascend the sides of the vessel,
but remained flat, and therefore the true circular motion had not yet begun. Truly later,
when the relative motion had decreased, the ascent of this to the sides of the vessel
indicated an attempt of receding from the axis; and this trial showed this true circular
motion always increasing, and finally made a maximum when the water remained at rest
relative to the vessel. Whereby this trial does not depend on the translation of the water
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
43
with respect to orbiting bodies, and therefore true circular motion cannot be defined by
such translations. Truly the circular motion of each revolving body is unique,
corresponding to a singular and adequate effort to be performed : but relative motions are
for innumerable and varied external relations ; and corresponding to a relation, generally
they are lacking in true effects, unless in as much as they share in that true and single
motion. And by those who wish, within a system of these [rotational motions], our
heavens [i.e. local space] to revolve in a circle below the heavens of the fixed stars [i.e.
distant interstellar space], and the planets to defer with it ; the individual parts of the
heavens, and the planets which truly are moving, which indeed within their nearby
heavens [i.e. the local part of space relative to themselves] are relatively at rest, truly are
moving. For they change their positions in turn (as otherwise the system truly passes into
rest) and together with the deferred heavens they participate in the motion of these, and
so that the parts of the revolving total are trying to recede from the axes of these.
Relative quantities are not therefore these quantities themselves, the names of which
they bear, but those perceptible measures (true or mistaken) of them which are used by
ordinary people in place of the measured quantities. [Thus, a length is related to a
standard length, etc.] But if the significances of words are required to be defined from the
use; these measures perceptible [to the senses] are to be particularly understood by these
names : Time, Space, Location and Motion ; and the discourse will be contrary to custom
and purely mathematical, if measured quantities here are understood. [Here Newton is
expressing the fact that he uses such quantities in our sense as abstract variables, rather
than as mere units for measuring the amounts of physical quantities, as one might use in
arithmetic.] Hence they carry the strength of holy scriptures, which may be interpreted
there by these names regarding measured quantities. Nor do they corrupt mathematics or
[natural] philosophy any less, who combine true quantities with the relations of these and
with common measures.
Indeed it is most difficult to know the true motion of bodies and actually to
discriminate from apparent motion ; therefore because the parts of that immobile space,
in which bodies truly are moving, do not meet the senses. Yet the cause is not yet quite
desperate. For arguments are able to be chosen, partially from apparent motions which
are the differences of true motions, partially from forces which are the causes and effects
of true motions. So that if two globes, to be connected in turn at a given distance from the
intervening thread, may be revolving about the common centre of gravity; the exertion of
the globes to recede from the axis of the motion might become known from the tension in
the thread, and thence the quantity of the circular motion can be computed. Then if any
forces acting equally likewise may be impressed mutually on the faces of the globes to
increase or diminish the circular motion, the increase or decrease in the circular motion
may become known from the increase or decrease in the tension of the thread ; and
thence finally the faces of the globes on which the impressed forces must be impressed,
so that the motion may be increased maximally; that is, the faces to the rear, or which are
following in the circular motion. But with the faces which are following known, and with
the opposite faces which precede, the determination of the motion may be known. In this
manner both the quantity and the determination of the motion of this circle may be found
in a vacuum however great, where nothing may stand out externally and perceptibly by
which the globes may be able to be brought together [in comparison]. If now bodies may
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
44
be put in place in that space with a long distance maintained between themselves, such as
the fixed stars are in regions of the heavens : indeed it may not be possible to know from
the relative translation of the globes among the bodies, whether from these or those a
motion may be required to be given. But if attention is turned to the string, and the
tension of that itself is taken to be as the required motion of the globes ; it is possible to
conclude that the motion is that of the globes, and [the distant] bodies to be at rest ; &
then finally from the translation of the globes among the bodies, the determination of this
motion can be deduced. But the true motion from these causes, are to be deduced from
the effects and from the apparent differences, or on the contrary from the motions or
forces, either true or apparent, the causes and effects of these to be found, will be taught
in greater detail in the following. For towards this end I have composed the following
treatise.

st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
45

AXIOMS,

OR

THE LAWS OF MOTION.

LAW I.

Every body perseveres either in its state of resting or of moving uniformly in a direction,
unless that is compelled to change its state by impressed forces.

PRojectiles persevere in their motion, unless in as much as they may be retarded by the
resistance of the air, and they are impelled downwards by the force of gravity. A child's
spinning top, the parts of which by requiring to stick together always, withdraw
themselves from circular motion, does not stop rotating, unless perhaps it may be slowed
down by the air. But the greater bodies of the planets and comets preserve both their
progressive and circular motions for a long time made in spaces with less resistance .

LAW II.

The change of motion is proportional to the [magnitude of the] impressed motive force,
and to be made along the right line by which that force is impressed.

If a force may generate some motion ; twice the force will double it, three times
triples, if it were impressed either once at the same time, or successively and gradually.
And this motion (because it is determined always in the same direction generated by the
same force) if the body were moving before, either is added to the motion of that in the
same direction, or in the contrary direction is taken away, or the oblique is added to the
oblique, and where from that each successive determination is composed.

st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
46

LAW III.

To an action there is always an equal and contrary reaction : or the actions of two bodies
between themselves are always mutually equal and directed in opposite directions.

Anything pressing or pulling another, by that is pressed or pulled just as much. If
anyone presses a stone with a finger, the finger of this person is pressed by the stone. If a
horse pulls a stone tied to a rope, and also the horse (as thus I may say) is drawn back
equally by the stone: for the rope stretched the same on both sided requiring itself to be
loosened will draw upon the horse towards the stone, and the stone towards the horse;
and yet it may impede the progress of the one as much as it advances the progress of the
other. If some body striking another body will have changed the latter's motion in some
manner by the former's force, the same change too will be undergone in turn on its own
motion in the contrary direction by the force of the other (on account of the mutual
pressing together). By these actions equal changes are made, not of the velocities but of
the motions ; obviously in bodies not impeded otherwise. For changes of the velocity,
are made likewise in the contrary parts, because the motions are changed equally, they
are inversely proportional with the bodies [i.e. with their masses]. This law is obtained
with attractions also, as will be approved in a nearby scholium.

COROLLARY I.

A body with forces added together describes the diagonal of the parallelogram in the
same time, in which the separate sides are described.

If the body in a given time, by the force alone M impressed
at the place A, may be carried with a uniform motion from A
to B; and by the single force N impressed at the same place,
may be carried from A to C: the parallelogram ABDC may be
completed, and by each force that body may be carried in the
same time on the diagonal from A to D. For because the force
N acts along the line AC parallel to BD itself, this force by law II will not at all change
the velocity required to approach that line BD generated by the other force. Therefore the
body approaches the line BD in the same time, whether the force N may be impressed or
not ; and thus at the end of the time it may be found somewhere on that line BD. By the
same argument at the end of the same time the body will be found somewhere on the line
CD, and on that account it is necessary to be found at the concurrence D of each of the
lines. Moreover it will go in rectilinear motion from A to D by law I.

st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
47

COROLLARY II.

And hence the composition of the force directed along AD is
apparent from any oblique forces AB and BD, and in turn
the resolution of any force directed along AD into any
oblique forces AB and BD. Which composition and
resolution indeed is confirmed abundantly from mechanics.

So that if from the centre of some wheel O the unequal radii OM, ON emerge , the
weights A and P may be sustained by the threads MA, NP, and the forces of the weights
are required towards moving the wheel: Through the centre O a right line KOL is drawn,
meeting the threads perpendicularly at K and L, and with the centre O, and OL the
greater of the intervals OK, OL, a circle is described
meeting the thread MA in D: and AC shall be
parallel to the right line made OD , and the
perpendicular DC. Because it is of no importance,
whether the points of the threads K, L, D shall be
fastened or not to the plane of the wheel; the
weights will prevail the same, and if they may be
suspended from the points K and L or D and L. But
the total force of the weight A is set out by the line
AD, and this is resolved into the forces AC, CD, of
which AC by pulling [drawing in the original text]
the radius OD directly from the centre provides no
force to the required wheel movement ; but the other forceDC, by pulling on the radius
DO perpendicularly, accomplishes the same, as if it pulls the radius OL the equal of OD
itself; and that is, the same weight P, but only if that weight shall be to the weight A as
the force DC to the force DA, that is (on account of the similar triangles ADC, DOK,) as
OK to OD or OL. Therefore the weights A and P, which are inversely as the radii OK and
OL placed in line, will exert the same influence, and thus remain in equilibrium : which is
the most noticeable property of scales, levers, and of a wheel and axle. If either weight
shall be greater than in this ratio, the force of this will be so much greater requiring the
wheel to rotate.
But if a weight p, equal to the weight P, is suspended partly by the thread Np, and
partly by resting on the oblique plane pG : [the forces] pH and NH are acting, the former
perpendicular to the horizontal, the latter perpendicular to the plane pG; and if the force
of the weight p acting downwards, is set out by the line pH, this can be resolved into the
forces pN, HN. If some plane pQ shall be perpendicular to pN, cutting the other plane pG
in a line parallel to the horizontal [here we have to think in 3 dimensions]; and the weight
p lies only on the planes pQ, pG ; that it may press on these planes by these forces pN,
HN, without doubt the plane pQ perpendicularly by the force pN, and the plane pG by the
force HN. And thus if the plane pQ may be removed, so that the weight may stretch the
thread ; because now the thread in turn by being required to sustain the weight, performs
the function of the plane removed, may be extended by that same force pN, which before
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
48
acted on the plane. From which, the tension of this oblique thread will be to the tension of
the thread of the other perpendicular PN, as pN to pH. And thus if the weight p shall be to
the weight A in a ratio, which is composed from the reciprocal ratio of the minimum
distances of their threads pN, AM from the centre of the wheel, and in the direct ratio
pH to pN; the same weights likewise will prevail for the wheel being moved, and thus
mutually will sustain each other, as any test can prove.
But the weight p, pressing on these two oblique planes, can be compared to a wedge
making a split between the internal surfaces: and thence the forces of the wedge and of
the hammer become known: seeing that since the force by which the weight p presses
hard on the plane pQ to the force, by which the same either by its weight or impelled by
the blow of the hammer acting along the line pH in the plane, shall be as pN to pH; and
to the force, by which it presses hard on the other plane pG, as pN to NH. But also the
force of a screw can be deduced by a similar division of the forces; obviously which
wedge is pushed against by a lever. Therefore the uses of this corollary appear to be the
widest, and by extending widely the truth of this prevails; since from now with what has
been said, all mechanical devices may depend on explanations shown in different ways
by authors. And from these indeed we may derive easily the forces of machines, which
from wheels, revolving cylinders, pulleys, levers, stretched cords and weights directly or
obliquely ascending, and with the rest from the powers of mechanics are accustomed to
be assembled, and as also the forces of tendons requiring the bones of animals to be
moved.
[The diagram has been altered a little, as in the original the oblique angle appears to be
90
0
. Note that Newton pays a little attention here to statics and simple machines.]

COROLLARY III.

The quantity of motion which is deduced by taking the sum of the motions of the
contributing factors in the same direction and the difference of the contributing factors in
the opposite direction , may not change from the action of bodies among themselves.

And indeed the action and the contrary reaction to that are equal by law III, and thus
by law II bring about equal changes in the motions towards the contrary directions.
Therefore if the motions are made in the same direction; whatever is added to the motion
of the departing body, is taken from the motion of the following body thus, so that the
sum may remain the same as before. If the bodies may get in each other's way, an equal
among will be taken from the motion of each, and thus the difference of the contributing
factors of the motions in the opposite directions will remain the same.
So that if a spherical body A shall be three times greater than a spherical body B, and it
may have two parts of velocity ; and B may follow on the same right line with a velocity
of ten parts, and thus the motion of A shall be to the motion of B itself, as 6 to 10 : the
motion from these may be put to be of 6 parts and of 10 parts, and the sum will be of 16
parts. Therefore in the meeting of the bodies, if the body A may gain a motion of 3, 4, or
5 parts, the body B will lose just as many parts, and thus the body A will go on after the
reflection with 9, 10 or 11 parts, and B with 7, 6, or 5 parts, with the same sum of the
parts present as before. If the body A may gain 9, 10, 11, or 12, and thus may move past
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
49
the meeting with 15, 16, 17, or 18 parts ; the body B, by losing as many parts as A may
gain, may be progressing with one part, with 9 parts lost, or it may be at rest with the 10
parts of its motion missing, or with one part it may be moving backwards with one part
more (as thus I may say) missing from its motion, or it may be moving backwards with
two parts on account of subtracting 12 parts of the motion forwards. And thus the sum of
the motions in the same direction 15 1 + or 16 0 + , and the differences in the opposite
directions 17 1 and 18 2 will be always 16 parts, as before the meeting and the
reflection. But with the motions known with which bodies go on after the reflection, the
velocities of which may be found, on putting that to be to the velocity before the
reflection, as the motion after is to the motion before. So that in the final case, where the
motion of the body A were of six parts before reflection and of eight parts afterwards, and
the velocity of two parts before the reflection; the velocity of six parts after the reflection
may be found, on being required to say, that the motion of 6 parts before the reflection to
the 18 parts afterwards, thus of 2 parts of velocity before the reflection to 6 parts of
velocity afterwards.
But if bodies are incident between themselves mutually obliquely either non spherical
or with differing rectilinear motions, and the motions of these may be required after
reflection ; the position of the plane in which the meeting bodies are touching at the point
of concurrence is required to be known: then the motion of each body (by Corol.II) is
required to be separated into two parts, one perpendicular to this plane, the other parallel
to the same : but the parallel motions, therefore because the bodies act in turn between
themselves along a line perpendicular to this plane, are required to have retained the same
motion before and after the reflection, and the changes in the perpendicular motions thus
required are to be attributed equally in opposite directions, so that both the sum of the
acting together and the difference of the contrary may remain the same as before. From
reflections of this kind also circular motions are accustomed to arise about their own
centres. But I will not consider these cases in the following, and it would be exceedingly
long to consider showing all this here.

COROLLARY IV.

The common centre of gravity of two or more bodies, from the actions of the bodies
between themselves, does not change its state either of motion or of rest ; and therefore
the common centre of gravity of all bodies in the mutual actions between themselves (with
external actions and impediments excluded) either is at rest or is moving uniformly in
direction.

For if two points may be progressing with a uniform motion in right lines, and the
distances of these is divided in a give ratio, the dividing point either is at rest or it is
progressing uniformly in the right line. This is shown later in a corollary to lemma XXIII
of this work, if the motion of the points is made in the same plane ; and by the same
account can be demonstrated, if these motions are not made in the same plane. Hence if
some bodies are moving uniformly in right lines, the common centre of gravity of any
two either is at rest or progresses uniformly in a right line; because the line joining the
centres of these bodies therefore is required to be progressing uniformly in right lines, it
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
50
is divided by this common centre in a given ratio. And similarly the common centre of
these two and of any third either is at rest or progressing uniformly in a right line ;
because the distances between the common centre of the two bodies and of the third body
from that therefore is divided in a given ratio . In the same manner also the common
centre of these three and of some fourth body either is at rest or is moving uniformly in a
straight line; because from that the distance between the common centre of the three and
the centre of the fourth body therefore is divided in a given ratio, and thus ad infinitum.
Therefore in a system of bodies, which in the interactions among themselves in turn and
in general are free from all extrinsic forces, and therefore singly are moving uniformly in
individual right lines, the common centre of gravity of all either is at rest or is moving in
a direction uniformly.
Again in a system of two bodies acting on each other in turn, since the distances of the
centres of each from the common centre of gravity shall be reciprocally as the bodies [i.e.
the masses of the bodies]; the relative motions of the bodies from the same shall be
equally between themselves either approaching to that centre or receding from the same.
Hence that centre, from the equal changes of the motions made in opposite directions,
and thus from the actions of these bodies between themselves, neither will move forwards
nor be retarded nor suffers a change in its state as far as motion or rest is concerned. But
in a system of several bodies, because the common centre of gravity of any two bodies
acting mutually between themselves on account of that action allows no change at all in
its state ; and of the remaining , the action from which does not hinder these, the common
centre of gravity thence suffers nothing; but the distance of these two centres of gravity is
divided by the common centre of all the bodies into parts to which the total [masses] of
the bodies are reciprocally proportional ; and thus with the state of their moving or
resting maintained from these two centres, the common centre of all also maintains its
own state: because it is evident that common centre of all on account of the actions of
two bodies between themselves at no time changes its own state as far as motion and rest
are concerned. But in such a system all the actions of the bodies between each other, are
either between two bodies, or between the actions of two composite bodies ; and
therefore at no time do they adopt a change of everything from the common centre in the
state of this of motion or rest. Whereby since that centre where the bodies do not act
among themselves in turn, either is at rest, or is progressing uniformly in some right
motion, will go on the same, without the opposition of bodies, without actions between
themselves, either to be at rest or always to be progressing uniformly in a direction ;
unless it may be disturbed from that state by some external forces. Therefore it is the
same law of a system of many bodies, which of a solitary body, as far as persevering in a
state of motion or of rest. Indeed the progressive motion either of a solitary body or of a
system of bodies must always be considered from the motion of the centre of gravity.

COROLLARY V.

The motions of bodies between themselves included in a given space are the same,
whether that space be at rest, or the same may be moving in a direction without circular
motion.

st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
51
For the differences of the motions given in the same direction , and the sums to be
given in the opposite directions, are the same initially in each case (by hypothesis), and
with these sums or differences the collisions and impulses arise with which the bodies
strike each other. Therefore by law II the effects of the collisions are equal in each case ;
and therefore the motion between themselves in one case will remain equal to the
motions between themselves in another case. The same may be proven clearly by an
experiment. All motions between bodies occur in the same way on a ship, whither that is
at rest or is moving uniformly in a direction.

COROLLARY VI.

If bodies may be moving in some manner among themselves, and from the forces with
equal accelerations may be impressed to move along parallel lines ; all will go on to
move in the same manner between themselves, and if by these forces they are not to be
disturbed.

For these forces equally (for the quantities of the bodies required to be moved) and by
acting along parallel lines, all the bodies will be moved equally (as far as velocity is
concerned) by law II, and thus at no time will the positions and motions of these between
each other be changed.

Scholium.

Thus far I have treated the fundamentals with the usual mathematics and confirmed
many times by experiment. By the first two laws and from the first two corollaries
Galileo found the fall of weights to be in the duplicate ration of the time, and the motion
of projectiles to be in a parabola; by agreeing with experiment, unless as far as the those
motions are retarded a little by the resistance of the air. With a body falling uniform
gravity, by acting equally in equal small intervals of time, will impress equal forces on
that body, and generates equal velocities: and in the total time the total force impressed
and the total velocity it generates is proportional to the time. And the distances described
in the proportional times, are as the velocities and times taken together ; that is in the
duplicate ratio of the times. And with the body projected up uniform gravity impresses
forces and velocities taken proportional to the times ; and the times required to rise the
greatest heights are as the velocities required to be taken away, and these heights are as
the velocities and the times taken together or, in the duplicate ratio of the velocities.
[Duplicate ratio means of course, as the square.] And the
motion arising of a body projected along some right line is
composed from the motion arising from gravity. So that if the
body A by its motion of projection only in a given time can
describe the right line A B and from its motion only of
requiring to fall, can describe the height AC in the same time:
the parallelogram ABDC may be completed, and that body will
be found at the end of the time at the place D from the
composed motion ; and the curved line AED, which that body
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
52
describes, will be a parabola which the right line AB touches at A, and the ordinate BD of
which is as AB squared. The demonstrations of the times of oscillations of pendulums
will depend on the same laws and corollaries, from the daily experience with clocks.
From the very same, and with the third law Sir Christopher Wren, Dr. John Wallis and
Christian Huygens, easily the principle outstanding geometers of the age, have
discovered separately the rules of hard bodies colliding and rebounding, and almost at the
same time they communicated the same with the Royal Society, among themselves (as
regards these laws) everything is in agreement: and indeed first Wallis, then Wren and
Huygens produced the discovery. But the truth has been established by Wren in person
before the Royal Society through an experiment with pendulums : which also the most
illustrious Mariotte soon deemed worthy to explain in a whole book. Truly, so that this
experiment may agree to the precision with theories, and account is required to be had,
both of the resistance of the air, as well as of the elasticity of the colliding bodies.
The spherical bodies A, B may hang
from parallel threads and with AC, BD
equal from the centres C, D. From these
centres and intervals the bisected
semicircles EAF, GBH are described, with
radii CA, DB. The body A may be drawn to
some point R of the arc EAF, and thence
may be released (with the body B taken
aside), and after one oscillation it may
return to the point V. RV is the retardation from the air resistance. ST is made the fourth
part of RV placed in the middle, thus evidently so that R S and TV are equal, and R S to
ST shall be as 3 to 2. And thus ST will show the retardation in falling from S to A
approximately. [A rule gained from experience perhaps for light damping.]
Body B may be restored to its place B. Body A may fall from the point S, and the
velocity of that at the place of reflection A will be without so great a sensible error, and as
if it had fallen from the location T in a vacuum. Therefore this velocity is set out by the
chord of the arc TA. For the velocity of the pendulum at the lowest point is as the chord
of the arc, that it has described on falling, the proposition is well known from geometry.
After the reflection the body A may arrive at the location s, and the body B at the location
k. The body B may be taken away and the position v may be found ; from which if the
body A may be sent off and after one oscillation may return to the location r, let st be the
fourth part of that rv placed in the middle, thus so that it may be considered that rs and tv
are equal ; and the velocity may be set out by the chord of the arc tA, that the body A had
approximately after the reflection at the place A. For t will be that true and correct place,
to which the body A, with the resistance of the air removed, ought to be able to rise. The
location k to which the body B has risen is required to be corrected by a similar method,
and requiring to find the location l, to which that body ought to ascend in a vacuum. With
this done it is possible to test everything, in the same way as if we were placed in a
vacuum. Yet the body A will be required to adopt (as thus I may say) the chord TA of the
arc, which shows the velocity of this, so that the motion may be had approximately at the
place A before the reflection ; then the chord tA of the arc, so that the motion of this may
be had approximately at the place A after the reflection. And thus the body B will be
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
53
required to adopt the chord of the arc Bl, so that the approximate motion of this may be
had after the reflection. And by a similar method, where the bodies are sent off at the
same time from two different locations, the motions of each are required to be found both
before, as well as after the reflection ; and then finally the motions among themselves are
to be brought together and the effect of the reflection deduced. In this manner with the
matter requiring to be tested with ten feet pendulums, and that with bodies both unequal
as well as equal, and by arranging so that bodies may concur from the greatest intervals,
such as 8, 12, or 16 feet ; I have found [the text has reperi or you find in the singular
command mode, which has been taken as a misprint, rather than repperi which has been
adopted for translation] always within an error of 3 inches in the measurement, where the
bodies themselves were meeting each other directly, equal changes were obtained in the
contrary parts of the motions for the bodies, and thus the actions and reactions always to
be equal. So that if the body A were incident on body B at rest with 9 parts of motion, and
with 7 parts removed it went on with 2 parts after the reflection ; body B was rebounding
with these 7 parts. If the bodies were going against each other, A with 12 parts and B with
6, and A was returning with 2 parts ; B was returning with 8, each with the removal of 14
parts. From the motion of A 12 parts are removed and nothing remains: 2 other parts are
taken away , and there is made a motion of 2 parts in the opposite direction: and thus
from the motion of the body B of 6 parts by requiring 14 parts to be taken away, 8 parts
are made in the opposite direction. But if the bodies were going in the same direction, A
faster with 14 parts, and B slower with 5 parts, and after the reflection A was going on
with 5 parts ; B was going on with 14 parts, with the translation made of 9 parts from A
to B. And thus for the rest. From arunning together and collision of bodies at no time
does the quantity of motion change, which is deduced from the sum of the motions acting
in the same directions or from the differences in contrary directions. For the error of an
inch or two I may attribute to the difficulty required in performing the individual
measurements accurately enough. It was with difficulty, not only that the pendulums thus
be dropped at the same time, so that the bodies could strike each other at the lowest
position A B; but also the locations s, k to be noted, to which the bodies were ascending
after the collision. But the unequal density of the parts of the pendulous bodies, and the
construction from other causes of irregularity, were leading to errors.
Again lest anyone may object to the rule requiring approval which this experiment has
found, to presuppose the bodies either to be completely hard, or perhaps perfectly elastic,
none are to be found of this kind in natural compositions ; because I add now experiments
described which succeed equally with soft or hard bodies, without doubt by no means
depending on the condition of hardness. For if that rule is required to be extended to
bodies which are not perfectly hard, the reflection is to be diminished only in a certain
proportion to the magnitude of the elastic force. In the theory of Wren and Huygens
absolutely hard bodies return with the speed of the encounter. Most surely that will be
proven with perfectly elastic bodies. In imperfectly elastic bodies the return speed is
required to be diminished likewise with the elastic force ; therefore because that elastic
force, (unless where the parts of bodies are struck by their coming together, or extended a
little as if they suffer under a hammer,) and certainly shall be required to be determined
(as much as I know) and may be made so that bodies may return with a relative velocity
in turn, which shall be in a given ratio to the relative velocity of approach. This I have
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
54
tested thus with balls of wool closely piled together and strongly constricted. First by
dropping pendulums and by measuring the reflection, I have found the magnitude of the
elastic force; then with this force I have determined the reflections in other cases of
concurrence, and they have answered the trials. Always the wool have returned with a
relative velocity, which is to be to the relative velocity of concurrence as around 5 to 9.
Balls of steel return with almost the same velocity ; others from cork with a little less :
but with glass the proportion was around 15 to 16. And with this agreed upon, the third
law has agreed with theory as far as impacts and reflections are concerned, which clearly
agree with experiment.
I briefly show the matter for attractions thus. With any two bodies A and B mutually
attracting each other, consider some obstacle placed between each, by which the meeting
of these may be impeded. If either body A is drawn more towards the other body B, than
that other B towards the first A, the obstacle will be urged more by the pressing of body A
than by the pressing of body B; and hence will not stay in equilibrium. The pressing will
prevail stronger, and it will act so that the system of the two bodies and the obstacle may
move in the direction towards B, and in motions in free spaces always by accelerating,
may depart to infinity. Which is absurd and contrary to the first law. For by the first law
the system must persevere in it state of rest or of uniform motion in a direction, and hence
the bodies will press equally on the obstacle, and on that account are drawn equally in
turn. I have tested this with a loadstone and iron. If these placed in their own vessels
touching separately they may float next to each other in still water ; neither propels the
other, but from the equality of the attraction they sustain mutual attempts between
themselves, and finally they remain in an established
equilibrium.
Thus also is the gravity between the earth and the mutual
parts of this. The earth FI is cut by some place EG into two
parts EGF and EGI: and the mutual weights of these shall be
equal mutually between themselves. For if by another plane
HK which shall be parallel to the first part EG, the greater part
EGI shall be cut into the two parts EGKH and HKI, of which
HKI shall be equal to the first part cut EFG: it is evident that
the middle part EGKH by its own weight will not be inclined to either of the extreme
parts, but between each in equilibrium, thus so that I may say, it may be suspended and it
is at rest. But the extreme part HKI by its own weight presses on the middle part, and will
urge that into the other extreme part EGF; and thus the force by which the sum of the
parts HKI & EGKH , EGI tends towards the third part EGF, is equal to the weight of the
third part HKI, that is to the weight of the third part EGF. And therefore the weights of
the two parts EGI, EGF are mutually in equilibrium, as I had wished to show. And unless
these weights shall be equal, the whole earth floating on the free aether may go towards
the greater weight, and from that required flight would go off to infinity.
J ust as bodies in coming together and reflecting may exert the same influence [on each
other], the velocities of which are reciprocally as their innate forces: thus the agents exert
the same influence in the movements of mechanical devices, and by contrary exertions
mutually sustain each other, the velocities of which, following the determination of the
forces considered, are reciprocally as the forces. Thus the weights exert the same
st
Ed.
Isaac NEWTON.
55
influence towards moving the arms of scales, which with the scales oscillating are
reciprocally as the velocities of these up and down: that is, the weights, if they ascend up
and down rightly [i.e. vertically], exert the same influences, which are reciprocally as the
distances of the points from which they are suspended from the axis of the scales; if, by
an oblique plane or from other obstacles to the motion, the ascents or descents are
oblique, they exert the same influence, which are reciprocally as the ascent and descent,
just as made along the perpendicular: and that on account of the determination of the
weight acting downwards.
Similarly with a pulley or a pulley system, the force of the hand directly drawing on
the rope which shall be to the weight , ascending either directly or obliquely, as the
perpendicular speed of ascent to the speed of the hand pulling directly on the rope will
sustain the weight. In clocks and similar devices, which have been constructed from little
wheels joined together, the forces required contrary to promoting and retarding the
motions of the wheels if they are reciprocally as the speeds of the wheels on which they
are impressed, will mutually sustain each other. The force of a screw required to press
upon a body is to the force of hand turning the handle, as the rotational speed of the
handle in that part where it is pressed on by the hand, to the speed of progress of the
screw towards the body pressed. The forces by which a wedge urges the two parts of
wood to be split are to the force of the hammer to the wedge, as the progress of the wedge
following a determined force impressed by the hammer on itself, to the speed by which
the parts of the wood, following lines perpendicular to the faces of the wedge. And an
account of all machines is the same.
The effectiveness and use of these consists in this only, that by diminishing the speed
we augment the force, and vice versa: From which the general problem is solved in all
kinds of suitable mechanical devices : a given weight is to be moved by a given force, or
some given resistance is to be overcome by a given force. For if machines may be formed
thus, so that the speeds of the driving force and of the resistance shall be reciprocally as
the forces ; the driving force will sustain the resistance : and it may overcome the same
with a greater difference of the speeds. Certainly if the disparity of the speeds shall be so
great, so that all resistance may also overcome, which is accustomed to arise both from
the slipping and friction of nearby bodies between each other, as well as from the
cohesion and in turn of the separation and continued elevation of bodies ; with all that
resistance overcome, the excess force will produce an acceleration motion proportional to
itself, partially within the parts of the machine, and partially within the resisting body. It
is not the intention of this work to treat everything mechanical. I have wished only to
show, both how wide and sure the third law of motion shall be. For if the action of the
driving force may be estimated from the speed and this force taken jointly ; and similarly
the reaction of the resistance may be estimated conjointly from the velocities of the
individual parts of this, and from the friction of these, from the cohesion, and from the
weight, and from the acceleration arising ; the action and the reaction will always be
equal to each other in turn, in every use of instruments. And as far as the action is
propagated by the instrument and finally may be impressed on any resisting body, the
final determination of this will always be contrary to the determined reaction.

Isaac NEWTON: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. 3
rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.
Translated and Annotated by Ian Bruce. Page 76

THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY

CONCERNING THE

MOTION OF BODIES

BOOK ONE.

SECTION I.

Concerning the method of first and last ratios, with the aid of which the following are
demonstrated.

LEMMA I.

Quantities, and so the ratios of quantities, which tend steadily in some finite time to
equality, and before the end of that time approach more closely than to any given
differences, finally become equal.

If you say no; so that at last they may become unequal, and there shall be a final
difference D of these. Therefore they are unable to approach closer to equality than to the
given difference a D: contrary to the hypothesis.
Q. E. D.
LEMMA II.

If in some figure AacE, with the right lines Aa, AE and the curve acE in place, some
number of parallelograms are inscribed Ab, Bc, Cd, &c. with equal bases AB, BC, CD,
&c. below, and with the sides Bb, Cc, Dd, &c. maintained parallel to the side of the
figure Aa; & with the parallelograms aKbl, bLcm, cMdn, &c. filled in. Then the width
of these parallelograms may be diminished and the number may be increased to
infinity : I say that the final ratios which the inscribed figure AKbLcMdD, the
circumscribed figure AalbmcndoE, and to the
curvilinear figure AabcdE have in turn between each other, are ratios of equality.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.

For the difference of the inscribed and circumscribed figures is the sum of the
parallelograms Kl, Lm, Mn, Do, that is (on account of
the equal bases) the rectangle under only one of the
bases Kb and the sum of the heights Aa, that is, the
rectangle ABla. But this rectangle, because with the
width of this AB diminished indefinitely, becomes less
than any given [rectangle] you please. Therefore (by
lemma I) both the inscribed and circumscribed figures
finally become equal, and much more [importantly] to
the intermediate curvilinear figure.
Q. E. D.

LEMMA III.

Also the final ratios are the same ratios of equality, when the widths of the
parallelograms AB, BC, CD, &c. are unequal, and all are diminished indefinitely.

For let AF be equal to the maximum width, and the parallelogram FAaf may be
completed. This will be greater than the difference of the inscribed and of the
circumscribed figure ; but with its own width AF diminished indefinitely, it is made less
than any given rectangle.
Q. E. D.

Corol. I. Hence the final sum of the vanishing parallelograms coincides in every part
with the curvilinear figure.

Corol. 2. And much more [to the point] a rectilinear figure, which is taken together
with the vanishing chords of the arcs ab, bc, cd, &c., finally coincides with the
curvilinear figure.

Corol. 3. And in order that the circumscribed rectilinear figure which is taken together
with the tangents of the same arcs.

Corol. 4. And therefore these final figures (as far as the perimeter acE,)
are not rectilinear, but the curvilinear limits of the rectilinear [figures].

rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.

LEMMA IV.

If in the two figures AacE, PprT, there are inscribed (as above ) two series of
parallelograms, and the number of both shall be the same, and where the widths are
diminished indefinitely, the final ratios of the parallelograms in the one figure to the
parallelograms in the other, of the single to the single, shall be the same ; I say on
which account, the two figures in turn AacE, PprT are in that same ratio.

And indeed as the parallelograms are one to one, thus (on being taken together) shall be
the sum of all to the sum of all, and thus figure to figure; without doubt with the former
figure present (by lemma III) to the first sum, and with the latter figure to the latter sum
in the ratio of equality.
Q. E. D.
Corol. Hence if two quantities of any kind may be divided into the same number of
parts in some manner; and these parts, where the number of these is increased and the
magnitude diminished indefinitely, may maintain a given ratio in turn, the first to the
first, the second to the second, and with the others in their order for the remaining : the
whole will be in turn in that same given ratio. For if, in the figures of this lemma the
parallelograms are taken as the parts between themselves, the sums of the parts always
will be as the sum of the parallelograms ; and thus, when the number of parts and of
parallelograms is increased and the magnitude is diminished indefinitely, to be in the
final ratio of parallelograms to parallelograms, that is (by hypothesis) in the final ratio of
part to part.

LEMMA V.

All the sides of similar figures, which correspond mutually to each other, are in
proportion, both curvilinear as well as rectilinear: and the areas shall be in the squared
ratio of the sides.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.

LEMMA VI.

If some arc in the given position ACB is subtended by the chord AB, and at some
point A, in the middle of the continued curve, it may be touched by the right line AD
produced on both sides; then the points A, B in turn may approach and coalesce ; I say
that the angle BAD, contained within the chord and tangent, may be diminished
indefinitely and vanishes finally.

For if that angle does not vanish, the arc ACB
together with the tangent AD will contain an
angle equal to a rectilinear angle, and therefore
the curve will not be continuous at the point A,
contrary to the hypothesis.

Q. E. D.

LEMMA VII.
With the same in place; I say that the final ratio of the arc, the chord, and of the
tangent in turn is one of equality.
For while the point B approaches towards the point A, AB and AD are understood
always to be produced to distant points b and d, and bd is drawn parallel to the section
BD. And the arc Acb always shall be similar to the arc ACB. And with the points A, B
coming together, the angle dAb vanishes, by the above lemma ; and thus the finite arcs
Ab, Ad and the intermediate arc Acb coincide always, and therefore are equal. And thence
from these always the proportion of the right lines AB, AD, and of the intermediate arc
ACB vanish always, and they will have the final ratio of equality.
Q. E. D.

Corol. I. From which if through B there is
drawn BF parallel to the tangent, some line
AF is drawn passing through A always cutting
at F, this line BF finally will have the ratio of
equality to the vanishing arc ACB, because
from which on completing the parallelogram
AFBD, AD will have always the ratio of equality to AD.

Corol. 2. And if through B and A several right lines BE, BD, AF, AG, are drawn
cutting the tangent AD and the line parallel to itself BF; the final ratio of the cuts of all
AD, AE, BF, BG, and of the chords and of the arc AB in turn will be in the ratio of
equality.

Corol. 3. And therefore all these lines can be taken among themselves in turn, in the
whole argument concerning the final ratios.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.

LEMMA VIII.

If the given right lines AR, BR, with the arc ACB, the chord AB and the tangent
AD, constitute the three triangles RAB, RACB, RAD, then the points A and B
approach together: I say that the final form of the vanishing triangles is one of
similitude, and the final ratio one of equality.

For while the point B approaches towards
the point A, always AB, AD, AR are understood
to be produced a great distance away to the
points b, d and r, and with rbd itself to be made
parallel to RD, and the arc Acb always shall be
similar to the arc ACB. And with the points A
and B merging, the angle bAd vanishes, and
therefore the three finite triangles coincide rAb,
rAcb, rAd, and by the same name they are
similar and equal. From which and with these
RAB, RACB, RAD always similar and proportional, finally become similar and equal to
each other in turn.
Q. E. D.
Corol. And hence those triangles, in the whole argument about the final ratios, can be
taken for each other in turn.
LEMMA IX.

If the right line AE and the curve ABC, for a
given position, mutually cut each other in the
given angle A, and to that right line AE at another
given angle, BD and CE may be the applied
ordinates, crossing the curve at B and C, then the
points B and C likewise approach towards the point
A: I say that the areas of the triangles ABD and
ACE will be in the final ratio in turn, in the square
ratio of the sides .
And indeed while the points B and C approach
towards the point A, it is understood always that the
points AD and AE are to be produced to the distant points d and e, so that Ad and Ae shall
be proportional to AD and AE themselves, and the ordinates db and ec are erected parallel
to the ordinates DB and EC , which occur for AB and AC themselves produced to b and c.
It is understood that there be drawn, both the curve Abc similar to ABC itself, as well as
the right line Ag, which touches each curve at A, and which cuts the applied ordinates
DB, EC, db, ec in F, G, f, g. Then with the length Ae remaining fixed, the points B and C
come together at the point A; and with the angle cAg vanishing, the curvilinear areas Abd
to Ace coincide with the rectilinear areas Afd to Age; and thus (by lemma V.) they will be
in the square ratio of the sides Ad and Ae : But with these areas there shall always be the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.
proportional areas ABD to ACE, and with these sides the sides AD to A E. And therefore
the areas ABD to ACE shall be in the final ratio as the squares of the sides AD to AE.
Q. E. D.

LEMMA X.

The finite distances which some body will describe on being pushed by some force,
shall be from the beginning of the motions in the square ratio of the times, that force
either shall be determined and unchanged, or the same may be augmented or
diminished continually.

The times are set out by the lines AD to AE, and the velocities generated by the
ordinates DB to EC; and the distances described by these velocities will be as the areas
ABD to ACE described by these ordinates, that is, from the beginning of the motion itself
(by lemma IX) in the square ratio of the times AD to AE.
Q. E. D.

Cor I. And hence it is deduced easily, that the errors of bodies describing similar parts
of similar figures in proportional times, which are generated by whatever equal forces
applied similarly to bodies, and are measured by the distances of bodies of similar figures
from these places of these, to which the bodies would arrive in the same times with the
same proportionals without these forces, are almost as the squares of the times in which
they are generated.
[These corollaries examine the effect of small resistive forces on otherwise uniformly
accelerated motion; the initial motion being free from such velocity-related resistance.]

Corol. 2. Moreover the errors which are generated by proportional forces similarly
applied to similar parts of similar figures, are as the forces and the squares of the times
jointly.

Corol. 3. The same is to be understood from that concerning any distances whatsoever
will describe which bodies acted on by diverse forces. These are, from the beginning of
the motion, as the forces and the squares of the times jointly.

Corol. 4. And thus the forces are described directly as the distances, from the start of
the motion, and inversely as the squares of the times.

Corol.5. And the squares of the times are directly as the distances described and
inversely with the forces.
Scholium.

If indeterminate quantities of different kinds between themselves are brought together,
and of these any may be said to be as some other directly or inversely : it is in the sense,
that the first is increased or decreased in the same ratio as the second, or with the
reciprocal of this. And if some one of these is said to be as another two or more directly
rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.
or inversely : it is in the sense, that the first may be increased or diminished in the ratio
which is composed from the ratios in which the others, or the reciprocals of the others,
are increased or diminished. So that if A may be said to be as B directly and C directly
and D inversely: it is in the sense, that A is increased or diminished in the same ratio with
1
B C
D
, that is, that
BC
A and
D
are in turn in a given ratio.

LEMMA XI.

The vanishing subtense of the angle of contact, in all curves having a finite
curvature at the point of contact, is finally in the square ratio of the neighbouring
subtensed arcs.

Case I. Let that arc AB be [called] the subtensed arc [of the
chord] AB, the subtense of the angle of contact is the
perpendicular BD to the tangent. To this subtense AB and to
the tangent AD the perpendiculars AG and BG are erected,
concurring in G; then the points D, B, G may approach the
points d,b,g, and let J be the intersection of the lines BG, AG
finally made when the points D and B approach as far as to A.
It is evident that the distance GJ can be less than any assigned
distance. But (from the nature of the circles passing through
the points ABG, Abg) AB squared is equal to AG BD , and
Ab squared is equal toAg bd ; and thus the ratio AB squared
to Ab squared is composed from the ratios AG to Ag and BD
to bd. But because GJ can be assumed less than any length
assigned, it comes about that the ratio AG to Ag may differ
less from the ratio of equality than for any assigned
difference, and thus so that ratio AB squared to Ab squared may differ less from the ratio
BD to bd than for any assigned difference. Therefore, by lemma I, the final ratio AB
squared to Ab squared is the same as with the final ratio BD to bd.
Q. E. D.

[Thus, in the limit,
2 2
: : BD bd AB Ab = ; the term subtensed is one not used now in
geometry, and does not get a mention in the CRC Handbook of Mathematics, etc., and as
it is used here, it means simply the chord subtending the smaller arc in a circle. The
related versed sine or sagitta that we will meet soon is the maximum distance of the arc
beyond the chord, given by
2
2
1 2 cos sin

= , where is the angle subtended by the
arc of the unit circle.]

Case 2. Now BD to AD may be inclined at some given angle, and always there will be
the same final ratio BD as bd as before, and thus the same AB squared to Ab squared.
Q. E. D.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.
Case 3. And although the angle D may not be given, but the right line BD may
converge to a given point, or it may be put in place by some other law; yet the angles D,
d are constituted by a common rule and always will incline towards equality, and
therefore approach closer in turn than for any assigned difference, and thus finally will be
equal, by lemma I, and therefore the lines BD to bd are in the same ratio in turn and as in
the prior proposition.
Q. E. D.

Corol. 1. From which since the tangents AD to Ad, the arcs AB to Ab, and the sines of
these BC to bc become equal finally to the chords AB to Ab ; also the squares of these
finally shall be as the subtenses BD to bd.
[Thus,
2
2
; ; ; and
arcAB BC AD AB AB AB AB BD
Ad Ab arcAb Ab bc Ab bd
Ab
. = Care must be taken to note that
some ratios are equal in the limit only, while others are true more generally.]

Carol. 2. The squares of the same also are finally as the versed sines [sagittae] of the
arcs, which bisect the chords and they converge to a given point. For these versed sines
are as the subtenses BD to bd.

Corol. 3. And thus the sagitta is in the square ratio of the
time in which the body will describe the arc with a given
velocity.

Carol. 4. The [areas of the] rectilinear triangles ADB to
Adb are finally in the cubic ratio of the sides AD to Ad, and
in the three on two ratio [of the powers] of the sides DB to
db; as in the combined ratio of the sides AD and DB to Ad
and db present. And thus the triangles ABC to Abc are
finally in the triplicate ratio of the sides BC to bc. Truly I
call the three on two ratio the square root of the cube, which
is composed certainly from the simple cube and square root
[ratios].

[For the areas of the triangles are as

3 3
2 2
2 2 3 3 3 3
: : :
: : : :
Also, : : : : : : ]
AD.DB Ad.db AD Ad BD bd
AD ad AB Ab AB Ab AD ad .
AD.DB Ad.db AD ad BD bd BD bd BD bd BD bd .
=
= = =
= = =

Corol.5. And because DB to db finally are parallel and in the square ratio of AD to
Ad : the final curvilinear areas ADB to Adb (from the nature of parabolas) are two thirds
of the parts of the rectilinear triangles ADB to Adb; and the segments AB to Ab one third
parts of the same triangles. And thence these areas and these segments will be in the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.
cubic ratio both of the tangents AD to Ad; as will as of the chords and of the arcs AB to
Ab.

Scholium.

Moreover in all these we suppose the angle of contact neither to be infinitely greater to
the angles of contact which circles maintain with their tangents, nor with the same
infinitely small ; that is, the curvature at the point A, neither to be infinitely small nor
infinitely great, or the interval AJ to be of finite magnitude. For DB can taken
as AD
3
: [Thus far, as the angle DAB becomes very small, AB AD , and
2 2
: : BD bd AD Ad .] as in that case no circle can be drawn through the point A between
the tangent AD and the curve AB, and hence the angle of contact will be infinitely smaller
than with circles. And by a similar argument, if DB becomes successively as
4 5 6 7
AD , AD , AD , AD ,&c. there will be had a series of contact angles going on to
infinity, of which any of the latter is infinitely smaller then the first. And if DB is made
successively as
6 7 3 4 5
3 5 6 2 4
2
, AD , AD , AD , AD AD , AD , &c. [i.e. powers between 1 and 2]
another infinite series of contact angles will be had, the first of which is of the same kind
as with circles, the second infinitely greater, and any later infinitely greater with the
previous. But between any two from these angles a series of intermediate angles to be
inserted can go off on both sides to infinity, any latter of which will be infinitely greater
of smaller with the previous. As if between the terms
2 3
and AD AD the series
13 7 8 17 11 9 6 5 14 11
6 5 3 3 5 6 4 4 2 4
, , AD , AD , AD AD , AD , AD , AD , AD AD , AD ,&c. is inserted. And again
between any two angles of this series a new series of intermediate angles can be inserted
in turn with infinite intervals of differences. And nor by nature will it know a limit
Everything which have been shown fully about curved lines and surfaces , easily may
be applied to the surface curves of solids and the curves within. Truly I have presented
these lemmas, so that I might escape the tedium of deducing long demonstrations ad
absurdum, in the custom of the old geometers. For they are rendered more contracted by
the method of indivisibles. But because the hypothesis of indivisibles is harder, and
therefore that method is less recommended geometrically; I have preferred the
demonstrations of the following things, the sums and ratios of the first arising and for the
final of the vanishing quantities, that is, to deduce the limits of sums and ratios; and
therefore demonstrations of these limits which I have been able to present briefly.
Because indeed with these the same may be done better by the method of indivisibles ;
and with the principles now demonstrated we may use them without risk. Hence in the
following, if when I have considered quantities as it were from [being] small and
unchangeable, or if I have used small curved lines for right lines ; I may not wish
indivisibles to be understood, but vanishing divisibles, not the sums and ratios of parts
but the limits of the sums and ratios of parts being determined always to be understood ;
and the strength of such demonstrations always to be recalled to the method of the
preceding lemmas.
To the accusation, that the final proportion of vanishing quantities shall be nothing;
obviously which, before they will have vanished, it is not the final, where they will have
rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.
vanished, and there is nothing. But by the same argument it may be equally contended the
velocity is to be zero for a body at a certain place, when the motion may have finished,
you may arrive at the final velocity : for this not to be the final, before the body has
reached the place, and when it has reached there it is zero. And the easy response is : By
the final velocity that is to be understood, by which the body is moving, and neither
before it has reached the final place and the motion has ceased, nor afterwards, but then at
the instant it touches that place; that is, that velocity itself by which the body reaches the
final place and from which motion it ceases. And similarly by the ultimate ratio of
vanishing quantities, the ratio of the quantities is required to be understood, not before
they vanish, not after, but with which they vanish. And equally the first ratio arising is the
ratio by which they are generated. And the first sum and final sum [in turn] is to be, by
which they begin or cease (either to be increased or decreased). The limits stand out to
which the velocity is able to reach at the end of the motion, but not to be transgressed.
This is the final velocity. And in a like manner is the ratio of the limit of a quantity and of
the proportions of all beginnings and endings. And since here the limit shall be certain
and defined, the problem is truly the same geometrical one to be determined. Truly
everything geometrical has been legitimately used in all the geometrical determinations
and demonstrations.
It may be contended also, that if the final vanishing ratios of vanishing quantities may
be given, and the final magnitudes will be given: and thus a quantity will be constructed
entirely from indivisibles, contrary to what Euclid demonstrated concerned with
incommensurables, in Book X of the Elements. Truly this objection is supported by a
false hypothesis. These final ratios actually vanishing from any quantities, are not the
ratios of the final quantities, but the limits to which the ratios of quantities always
approach by decreasing without bounds ; and which can be agreed they approach nearer
than for whatever differences, at no time truly to be transgressed, nor at first to be
considered as quantities being diminished indefinitely. The matter is understood more
clearly with the infinitely great. If two quantities of which the difference has been given
may be increased indefinitely, the final ratio of these is given, without doubt the ratio of
equality, nor yet thus will the final quantities of this be given or the maxima of which that
is the ratio. In the following, therefore if when I discuss quantities, in advising about
things to be considered easily, either as minimas, vanishing or final ; you may understand
the quantities are determined with great care, but always to be thought of as diminishing
without limit. [In the sense that they are finite and getting smaller, and keep on doing so.]

[Translator's Note: At this stage, we are made aware by Newton of the two methods of
doing calculations, apart from the ponderous reducti ad absurdum type geometrical
methods of the ancient Greeks, e.g. the approach of Archimedes to solving certain
problems, and as used by Huygens in his Horologium in deriving the isochronous
property of his cycloidal pendulum : The method of the first and last ratio, which appears
to be none other than extracting a limit from first principles by seeking closer and closer
upper and lower bounds indefinitely; and the method of indivisibles, which is akin to the
modern calculus. At present, for the sake of economy and to avoid further controversy it
would seem regarding vanishing quantities, only the first of the two has been used and
shown in some detail.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section I.
Newton goes to great pains to construct a geometrical method which embodies the
ideas both of integration and differentiation, but which avoids directly the forming of
integrals and derivatives as we know them now; instead, the idea of a limit is set out
initially, which incidentally demolishes Zeno' s Paradox in a sentence, and which in
words is more or less the present definition of such, the difference between the limiting
value and nearby values can be made as small as it pleases without end, without actually
being made equal. In the method of first and last sums and ratios, a geometrical method is
established for carrying out this process, and so for treating integration and
differentiation.
At first we look at slightly greater and slightly smaller rectangles enclosing a curve,
which approach each other and the segment of the area under the curve closer and closer
as their number is increased and the bases diminished, which on the whole seems highly
credible. Thus a formulation of integration is obtained. In the second a parallelogram is
presented in which a small arc of the curve lies near the diagonal, crossing at the ends,
and one side of the parallelogram is a tangent at one vertex; as the parallelogram is
diminished in size, the diagonal, the curve, and the tangent finally merge together closer
and closer; on elaboration, we are to follow points on lines in diminishing similar
triangles approaching an ultimate point at their intersection, where the two similar
triangles vanish, but their finite ratios of corresponding sides is maintained by two other
trustworthy similar triangles which remain finite all along, this method also seems
intuitively ok, as we are told that the final ratio is to be evaluated from the finite similar
triangles, at least in the case of the curve being a circle, which follows readily from
elementary geometry, while of course Newton rightly asserts that the dreaded zero on
zero is never used.
Thus the objections of the doubters were allayed, or at least they had less to argue
about. This approach is and was not enough for the pure mathematicans at the time, at
least those on the continent; we must remember that Newton was (in my view) essentially
a physicist doing mathematics, at which he was extraordinarily adept, as well as an
experimentalist cum alchemist cum theologian, rather than a pure mathematician. The
method considers points moving along lines in time, which we now would consider as a
mere parameter, and we are asked to retrace these positions into the past to arrive at the
starting point, or very close to it. Thus, Newton's calculus in the Principia is about the
rates of change of quantities with time.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.

SECTION II.

On the finding of centripetal forces.

PROPOSITION I. THEOREM I.

The areas which bodies will describe driven in circles, with the radii drawn towards a
motionless centre of the forces, remain together in immoveable planes, and to be
proportional to the times.

The time may be divided into equal parts, and in the first part of the time the body may
describe the right line AB with the force applied [at B]. Likewise in the second part of the
time, if nothing may hinder, the body may go on
along the right line to c, (by Law I.) describing the
line Bc itself equal to AB; thus so that from the radii
AS, BS, cS acting towards the centre, the equal areas
ASB, BSc may be completed. Truly, when the body
comes to B, by a single but large impulse the
centripetal force acts, and brings about that the body
deflects from the line Bc and goes along in the line
BC ; cC is acting parallel to BS itself, crossing BC in
C; and with the second part of the time completed,
the body (by the corollary to Law I.) may be found
at C, in the same plane with the triangle ASB. J oin
SC; and the triangle SBC, on account of the parallels SB, Cc, will be equal to the triangle
SBc, and thus also equal to the triangle SAB. By a similar argument if the centripetal force
acts successively at C, D, E, &c. making it so that the body in particular small times will
describe the individual lines CV, DE, EF, &c. all these will lie in the same plane; and the
triangle SCD to the triangle SBC, and SDE to SCD itself, and SEF will be equal to SDE
itself. Therefore in equal times equal areas are described in the motionless plane : and by
adding together, the sums of any areas SADS, SAFS are between themselves, as the times
of describing. Now the number may be increased and the width of the triangles
diminished indefinitely; and finally the perimeter of these ADF, (by the fourth corollary
of the third lemma) will be a curved line: and thus the centripetal force, by which the
body is drawn perpetually from the tangent of this curve, may act incessantly ; truly any
areas described SADS, SAFS always proportional to the times of description, in this case
will be proportional to the same times. Q. E. D.

Corol. I. The velocity of the body attracted towards the motionless centre, in intervals
without resistance, is reciprocally as the perpendicular sent from that centre to the
rectilinear tangent of the orbit. For the velocities at these locations A, B, C, D, E, are as
the bases of equal [area] triangles AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, and these bases are reciprocally
as the perpendiculars sent to themselves.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
Corol. 2. If the chords AB, BC of two arcs described successively by the same body in
equal times in non-resisting distances [or spaces] may be completed in the parallelogram
ABCV; and of this diagonal, as it finally has that position when these arcs are diminished
indefinitely, BV may be produced both ways, and will pass through the same centre of the
forces.

Corol. 3. If the chords of arcs described in equal times in distances without resistance
AB, BC and DE, EF may be completed into the parallelograms ABCV, DEFZ; the forces
at B and E are in turn in the ratio of the final diagonals BV, EZ, when the arcs themselves
are diminished indefinitely. For the motions of the body BC and EF are composed (by the
Law I corollary) from the motions Bc, BV and Ef, EZ: but yet BV and EZ are equal to Cc
and Ff themselves, in the demonstration of this proposition they were being generated by
the impulses of the centripetal force at B and E, and thus they are proportional to these
impulses.

Corol. 4. The forces by which any bodies in non-resisting intervals are drawn back
from rectilinear motion and may be turned into curved orbits are between themselves as
these versed sines of the arcs described in equal times which converge to the centre of
forces, and they bisect the chords when these arcs are diminished indefinitely. For these
versed sines are as the half diagonals, about which we have acted in the third corollary.

Corol.5. And thus the same forces are as the force of gravity, as these versed sines are
to the perpendicular versed sines to the horizontal of the arcs of parabolas, which
projectiles describe in the same time.

Corol. 6. All remains the same by Corollary V of the laws, when the planes, in which
the bodies may be moving, together with the centres of forces, which in themselves have
been placed, are not at rest, but may be moving uniformly in a direction.

[Some important features to note in these corollaries are :

1. The distances travelled by the body AB, BC, CD, etc., in successive constant time
intervals t are related to the constant velocities in the intervals from the start of each
interval by the simple relations :
; ; etc
A B
AB v t BC v t . = = ;
since the areas of the triangles etc SAB, SCB, . described in the equal time intervals are
equal, (and note how this has been achieved in diagram by means of the triangles of equal
areas and etc. ScC CcB, ), then on calling the perpendicular distances from S to AB,
BC, etc.,
A B
h ,h , etc.,
etc; or, , etc.
A B C
SAB SBC SCD, . h AB h BC h CD = = = = , and hence
, etc.
A A B B C C
h v h v h v = = ,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
and thus the perpendicular distance from the centre of force varies inversely as the
velocity of the body in that section of the motion. We would now interpret this result in
terms of conservation of angular momentum of the orbiting body.
2.When the parallelgrams VBcC, etc. collapse as t tends to zero, the impelling force acts
along the diagonal towards S.
3. The distances through which the centripetal force act, when applied, are given by the
displacements BV or cC, EZ or fF, etc. By Lemma XI of Section I, these displacements
tend towards the squares of the versed sines of the arcs AC and DF as t tends to zero.
4. These deliberations apply to parabolic arcs with uniform gravity acting uniformly, and
also under the circumstances that the whole system is moving with a uniform motion in
some direction.
It should be noted that Newton, in the following propositions, has essentially let the
number of sides of the polygon go to to infinity, and a geometrical analysis is performed
on one of the small segments of the original polygon envelope of the resulting curve.]

PROPOSITION II. THEOREM II.

Any body, that is moving in some curved line described in a plane, and with the radius
drawn to some point, either motionless or progressing uniformly in a rectilinear
motion, will describe areas about that point proportional to the times, and is urged on
by a centripetal force tending towards the same point.

Case I. For any body, because it is moving in a curved line, is turned from rectilinear
motion by some force acting on itself (by Law I.). And that force, by which the body is
turned from a rectilinear course, and it is known that the minima triangles SAB, SBC,
SCD, &c. are described equally in equal intervals of time about the fixed point S, acts in
the location B along a line parallel to cC itself (by Prop.XL, Book. I. Elem. and Law II.)
that is, along the line BS; and in the place C along a line parallel to dD itself, that is,
along the line SC, &c. Therefore the force always acts along lines tending towards that
fixed point S.
Q. E. D.

Case:2. And, by the fifth corollary of the laws, it is likewise, either the surface is at
rest in which the body will describe a curvilinear figure, or it may be moving together
with the same body, and with its own point S moving uniformly in a direction, with the
figure described.

Corol. I. In intervals or in non-resisting mediums, if the areas are not proportional to
the times, the forces do not tend to the meeting point of the radii, but thence are deviated
as a consequence, or towards the direction in which the motion is made, but only if the
description of the areas is accelerated: if it may be retarded ; they are deviated in the
opposite way.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
Corol. II. Also in mediums with resistance, if the description of the areas is
accelerated, the directions of the forces deviate from the running together of the radii
towards the direction in which there shall be motion.

Scholium.

A body can be urged by a centripetal force composed from several forces. In this case
the understanding of the proposition is, because that force which is composed from all the
forces, tend towards the point S. Again if some force may act always following a line
described perpendicular to a surface ; this will act so that the body is deflected from the
plane of its motion: but the magnitude of the surface described neither will be increased
or diminished, and therefore in the composition of the forces is required to be ignored.

PROPOSITION III. THEOREM III.

Every body, which with a radius drawn to the centre of some other moving body will
describe areas about that centre proportional to the times, is acted on by a force
composed from the centripetal force tending towards that other body, and by the force
arising from all the acceleration, by which that other body is acted on.

Let L be the first body, and T the other body : and (by corollary VI of the laws) if by a
new force, which shall be equal and contrary to that, by which the other body T is driven,
may urge each body along parallel lines ; the first body L goes on to describe the same
areas as before about the other body T: but the forceT, by which the other body was
being, now is destroyed by the force equal and contrary to itself ; and therefore (by Law
I) that other body T itself now left to itself, itself either will be at rest or it will be moving
uniformly forwards : and the first body L by being pressed on by the difference of the
forces, that is, by being urged by the remaining force, goes on to describe areas
proportional to the times about the other body T. Therefore it tends (by theorem II.) by
the difference of the forces to the other body T as centre.
Q. E. D.

Corol. 1. Hence if the one body L, by a radius drawn to the other T, will describe areas
proportional to the times ; and concerning the total force (either simple, or from several
forces joined together composed according to the second corollary of the laws,) by which
the first body L is urged, the total accelerative force is subtracted (by the same corollary
of the laws), by which the other body is impressed : all the remaining force, by which the
first body is impressed, tends towards the other body T as centre.

Corol. 2. And, if these areas are approximately proportional to the times, the
remaining force will tend approximately to the other body T.

Corol. 3. And in turn, if the remaining force tends approximately towards the other
body T, these areas will be approximately proportional to the times.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
Corol. 4. If the body L with the radius drawn to the other body T will describe areas,
which with the times are deduced to be very unequal ; and that other body T either is at
rest, or is moving uniformly in a direction : the action of the centripetal force tending
towards the body T either is zero, or it is a mixture and composed from the actions of
other very strong forces : and the total force from all, if there are several forces added
together, is directed towards another centre (either fixed or moving). The same will be
obtained, when the other body is moved by some other motion ; but only if the centripetal
force is assumed, which remains after subtracting the total force acting on that other body
T .

Scholium.

Because the description of the equal areas is an indication of the centre, which that
force considers, by which the body is influenced especially, and by which it is drawn
back from rectilinear motion, and retained in its orbit ; why may we not take in the
following the equal delineation of the areas as the sign of a centre, about which the
motion of all circles in free intervals is carried out ?

PROPOSITION IV. THEOREM IV.

The centripetal forces of bodies, which describe different circles with equal motion,
tend towards the centres of these circles ; and to be between themselves, so that they
are in the same time as the squares of the arcs described and as the radii of the circles.

These forces tend towards the centres of the circles by Prop. II. and Corol.2, Prop. I.
and are between themselves as with the smallest arcs in equal times, as without doubt of
the versed sines described by Corol.4, Prop. I, that is , as the squares of the arcs
themselves applied to the diameters of the circles by Lem. VII. and therefore, since these
arcs shall be as the arc described in any equal times, and the diameters shall be as the
radii of these ; the forces will be as the squares of any arcs described in the same time
applied to the radii of the circles.
Q. E. D.

Corol. I. Since these arcs shall be as the velocities of the bodies, [and inversely as the
radii] the centripetal forces shall be composed from the square ratio of the velocities
directly, and in the simple inverse ratio of the radii.

Corol. 2. And, since in the periodic times they shall be in the ratio composed from the
ratio of the radii directly, and in the ratio of the velocities inversely ; the centripetal
forces are in the ratio composed from the ratio of the radii directly, and in the square ratio
of the periodic times inversely.

Corol. 3. From which if the periodic times may be equal, and therefore the velocities
shall be as the radii; also the centripetal forces shall be as the radii; and vice versa.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
Corol. 4. And if both the periodic times and the velocities shall be as the square roots
of the radii ; the centripetal forces shall be equal among themselves ; and vice versa.

Corol.5 . If the periodic times shall be as the radii, and therefore the velocities are
equal; the centripetal forces shall be inversely as the radii : and vice versa.

Corol. 6. If the periodic times shall be in the three on two power ratio of the radii, and
therefore the velocities reciprocally in the square root ratio of the radii ; the centripetal
forces shall be reciprocally as the square of the radii, and vice versa.

Corol. 7. And universally, if the time of the period shall be as any power
n
R of R, and
therefore the velocity inversely as the power
1 n
R

of the radius ; the centripetal force will
be reciprocally as the power
2 1 n
R

of the radius: and vice versa.

Corol. 8. All the same things described concerning times, velocities, and forces, by
which similar bodies of any similar shape, and with centres having been put in place in
these figures similarly, follow from the preceding demonstration and applied to these
cases. But it is required for the description of the equality of areas to be substituted for
the equality of motion, and the distances of the bodies from the centres to be taken for the
radii.
[This had been shown experimentally by Kepler in his second law of planetary motion.]

Corol. 9. It also follows from the same demonstration ; that the arc, which a body will
describe in a given circle by the centripetal force on rotating uniformly in some given
time, is the mean proportional between the diameter of the circle, and the descent of the
body on falling in the same time caused by the same given force.

[These results are set out in the analytical manner by Routh and Brougham in their
Analytical View of Sir Isaac Newton's Pricipia, p. 36 37; and also are dealt with
conclusively by modern authors.]

Scholium.

The case of corollary six prevails with celestial bodies, (as also our Wren, Hook, and
Halley have deduced separately) and therefore who consider the centripetal force
decreasing in the square ratio of the distances from the centre, I have decided to explain
further in the following.
Again from the preceding propositions and from the benefit of the corollaries of this,
also the proportion of the centripetal force to any known force is deduced, such as that of
gravity. For if a body may be revolving in a circle concentric with the earth by its gravity,
this weight is the centripetal force of that [motion]. But by Corol. IX of this proposition,
from the descent of the weight and the time of one revolution, and the arc described in
some given time is given. And from propositions of this kind Huygens in his exemplary
rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
treatise de Horologio Oscillatorio [Concerning the Oscillatory (i.e. Pendulum) Clock]
brought together the force of gravity with the centrifugal forces of revolution.
Also the preceding can be demonstrated in this manner. In any circle a polygon is
understood to be described of some number of sides. And if the body be required to move
with a given velocity along the sides of the polygon, and is to be reflected by the circle,
according to the individual angles of this; the force, with which the individual reflections
impinge on the circle, will be as the velocity of this: and thus the sum of the forces in a
given time will be as that velocity, and the number of reflections jointly : that is (if the
kind of polygon may be given) as the distance described in that given time, and increased
or decreased in the ratio of the length of the same to the aforementioned radius ; i.e. , as
the square of this length applied [i.e. multiplied by] to the radius: and thus, if a polygon
with an infinite number of sides may coincide with the circle, as the square of the arc
described in the given time applicable to the radius. This is the centrifugal force, by
which the body acts on the circle ; and to this the contrary force is equal, by which the
circle continually repels the body towards the centre.

PROPOSITION V. PROBLEM I.

With the velocity given in some places, by which a body will describe some given
figure with forces commonly tending towards some given centre, to find that centre.

The three lines PT, TQV, VR [along which the velocity acts] touch the described figure
in just as many points P, Q, R, concurring in T and V.
To the tangents the perpendiculars PA, QB, RC are
erected reciprocally proportional to the velocities of
the body at these points P, Q, R, from which they have
been raised ; that is, thus so that PA to QB shall be as
the velocity at Q to the velocity at P, and QB to RC
shall be as the velocity at R to the velocity at Q .
Through the ends of the perpendiculars A, B, C are
drawn AD, DBE, EC at right angles concurring in D
and E [parallel to the respective tangents]: And TD and VE are drawn concurrent at the
centre sought S. For the perpendiculars sent from the centre S to the tangents PT, QT (by
Corol. I, Prop. I.) are inversely as the velocities of the body at the points P and Q; and
thus by the construction [these perpendiculars from S to the tangents from T and V will
be] directly as the perpendiculars AP and BQ , that is: as the perpendiculars are sent from
the point D to the tangents. From which it is easily deduced that the points S, D, T are on
a single right line. And by a similar argument the points S, E, V also are on a single right
line; and therefore the body is turning about the centre S at the concurrence of the lines
TD and VE.
Q. E. D.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.

[We give here the Le Seur and J anquier proof of Prop. V ; note 206, p. 78 :

The points S, D, and T do lie on a single
straight line. For from the centre S, with
the perpendiculars SG, SF sent to the
tangents TV, TF; and from the point D,
with the perpendiculars DK, DH, it is
apparent the angles FSG, HDK to be
equal and contained betwee parallel
lines, and on account of the sides SF, SG,
DH, DK, in an analogous manner, the
triangles FGS, HKD are similar ; and
thus the angle SFG, DHK are equal; and
hence there will be :

: : :
: : :
TH TF HK FG DH SF,
&
TK TG HK FG DK SG.
= =
= =

On account of which TD, produced, will pass through the centre S.]

PROPOSITION VI. THEOREM V.

If a body is revolving in some orbit in a non resisting space about an immobile centre,
and some arc just arisen may be described in the minimum time, and the versed sine of
the arc may be understood to be drawn, which bisects the chord, and which produced
passes through the centre of forces : the centripetal force at the middle of the arc will
be directly as the versed sine and inversely with the time squared.

For the versed sine at the given time is as the force (Per
Cor.4. Prop. I.), and with an increase in the time in some
ratio, on account of the increase of the arc in the same ratio,
the versed sine may be increased in that ratio squared (By
Cor.2. & 3, Lem. XI.) and thus the versed sine is as the
force to the first power and the time to the second power.
The squared ratio of the time is rearranged on both sides of
the proportionality, and the force becomes directly as the versed sine and inversely as the
time squared.
Q. E. D.
The same is easily shown also by Cor.4., Lem. X.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
[i.e. in an obvious notation, vSin ~F
c
; t t and the arc ; the versed sine
increases as
2
, and thus ( )
2
c
vSin F t . See note to Cor.1 below.]
Corol. I. If the body P may describe the curved line APQ by revolving about the
centre S; truly the right line ZPR may touch the curve at some point P, and to the tangent
from some other point of the curve Q , QR is acting parallel to the length SP, and QT may
be sent perpendicular to that distance SP: the centripetal force will be reciprocally as the
volume
2 2
SP QT
QR
; but only if the magnitude of this volume is always taken as that,

which it shall be finally, when the points P and Q coalesce. For QR is equal to the versed
sine of twice the arc QP, in the middle of which is P, and twice the triangle SQP or
SP QT is proportional to the time, in which the double of this arc will be described;
and thus can be written for the time to be expressed.
Q. E. D.
[Recall that the versed sine, or the turned sine, is the line segment DB ; see the added
diagram here; given by
2
2 2 vSin r r cos r sin = = , or for very small
arcs, by
2
2 vSin r = ; thus
2
2
s
r
vSin = in this case, and the elemental area
of the corresponding sector OCB is
2
1
2
r rs = . Now, in these motions
equal areas are described in equal times, and thus the elemental [i.e.
instantaneous] area is proportional to the elemental time and vice versa :
2
1
2
t r rs = and thus the centripetal force or acceleration for unit mass, for areas
such as found above becomes
( )
( ) 2
2
2
vSin
c
t
t
F r r
= ,
the modern form, which is inversely as
2 2
SP QT
QR
as required. We may also note that

the idea of angular velocity was not apparent at the time, it seem that Euler was
responsible for this, so that Newton's derivation of the centripetal acceleration goes as far
as the deviation from the tangent towards S, QR; this distance is divided by the area of the
associated triangle SP QT squared, proportional to the time squared, as one expects for
an acceleration.]

Corol. 2. By the same argument the centripetal force is reciprocally as the volume
2 2
SY QP
QR
, but only if the perpendicular ST shall be sent from the centre of forces to
the tangent PR of the orbit. For the rectangles and SY QP SP QT are equal.

Corol. 3. If the orbit either is a circle, or either touches or cuts a circle concentrically :
that is, the angle of contact, or which contains the smallest section with a circle, and
having the same radius of curvature at the point P [as the circle]; and if PV shall be a
chord of this circle for a body acted on by a centre of forces: the centripetal force [which
rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
was previously inversely as
2 2
SY QP
QR
,] shall be inversely as the volume

2
SY PV .
For PV is as
2
QP
QR
.

[ We give here the Le Seur and J anquier proof of Prop.
VI, Cor. III ; note 211, p. 81 :
PV shall beas
2
QP
QR
. For let PQVF be the osculating
circle, and with the chord QM drawn, as well as the
other chord PV drawn through the centre of forces S,
the former may be bisected in K, and there will be (by
Prop. 35, Book III, Euclid Elements),
2
QK VK PK = ; but with PK evanescent, QR PK = ,
and (by Cor. I, Lemma VII) QK QP = , hence
2
2
and
QP
QR
QP PV QR, VP . = = ]

Corol. 4. With the same in place, the centripetal force is directly as the velocity squared ,
and inversely as that chord [PV]. For the velocity is reciprocally as the perpendicular SY
by Corol. I. Prop. I.

Corol. 5. Hence if some curvilinear figure APQ is given, and in that there may be given
also a point S, towards which the centripetal force is always directed, the law of the
centripetal force can be found, from which some body P drawn back from a straight line
always will be retained in the perimeter of that figure, and by revolving describes it.
Without doubt either the volume
2 2
SP QT
QR
or the volume
2
SY PV is required to be
computed, for this is reciprocally proportional to the force. We will give examples of this
matter in the following problems.

PROPOSITION VII. PROBLEM II.

A body may rotate in the circumference of a circle, the
law of the attracting centripetal force towards some
given point is required.

Let VQPA be the circumference of the circle; S the
point given, to which the force as it were tends towards its
centre ; P the body brought to the circumference ; Q the
nearest point, into which it will be moved; and PRZ the
tangent to the circle at the previous point. The chord PV
rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
may be drawn through the point S; and with the diameter of the circle VA drawn, AP is
joined; and to SP there may be sent the perpendicular QT, which produced may run to
meet tangent PR in Z; and then LR may act through the point Q, which shall be parallel to
SP itself, and then crosses to the circle at L, and then with the tangent PZ at R. And on
account of the similar triangles ZQR, ZTP, VPA; there will be RP
2
(that is RL RQ ) to
QT
2
as AV
2
to PV
2
. And thus
2
2
RL RQ PV
AV

is equal to QT
2
. [Note the degenerate cyclic
quadrilateral LQPP.] This equality may be multiplied by
2
SP
QR
, and with the points P and
Q coalescing there may be written PV for RL. Thus
2 3
2
SP PV
AV
becomes equal to
2 2
SP QT .
QR
. Therefore (by Corol.1. & 5. Prop. VI.) the centripetal force is inversely as
2 3
2
SP PV
AV
as the square of the distance or of the height SP, and jointly as the cube of
the chord PV. Q. E. D.

The Same Otherwise.

To the tangent PR produced there may be sent the perpendicular SY: and on account of
the similar triangles SYP, VPA; there will be AV to PV as SP to SY : and thus
SP PV
AV

equals SY, and
2 3
2
SP PV
AV
equals
2
SY PV . And therefore (by Coral.3. & 5. Prop. VI.)
the centripetal force is reciprocally as
2 3
2
SP PV
AV
, that is, on account of AV given,

reciprocally as
2 3
SP PV . Q. E. D.

Corol. I. Hence if the given point S, towards which the centripetal force always tends,
may be located on the circumference of this circle, for example at V, thecentripetal force
will be reciprocally as the fifth power of the height SP.

Corol. 2. The force, [proportional to
2 3
SP PV ] by which
the body P is revolving in a circle APTV about the centre of
forces S, is to the force, by which the same body P in the
same circle and in the same periodic time can be revolving
about some other centre of forces R, as
2
RP SP to the cube
of the right line SG, which is a right line drawn from the
centre of the first force S to the tangent of the orbit PG, and
which is parallel to the distance of the body from the second centre of forces. For from
rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
the construction of this proposition, the first force is to the second force as
2 3 2 3
to RP PT SP PV that is, as
3 3
2
3
to
SP PV
SP RP
PT
, or (on account of the

similar triangles PSG, TPV [for :
SG SP PG
PV TP TV
= = ]) to SG
3
.

Corol.3. The force, by which a body P is revolving in some orbit about a centre of
forces S is that force, by which the same body P in the same orbit and in the same
periodic time can revolve about some other centre of forces R, as
2
SP RP ; and certainly
contained under the distance of the body from the first centre of forces S and with the
square of the distance of this from the second centre of force R, to the cube of the right
line SG, which is drawn from the centre of the first forces S to the tangent of the orbit
PG, and is parallel to the distance RP of the body from the second centre of forces. For
the forces in this orbit at some point P of this are in a circle of the same curvature.

PROPOSITION VIII. PROBLEM III.

A body may move in the semicircle PQA : towards effecting this, a law of the
centripetal force is required thus tending towards a
remote point S, so that all the lines PS, RS drawn
towards that, will be had as parallel.

From the semicircle with centre C, the radius CA is
drawn, cutting such parallels in M and N, and CP may
be joined. On account of the similar triangles CPM,
PZT and RZQ there is CP
2
to PM
2
as PR
2
to QT
2
,
and from the nature of the circle PR
2
is equal to the
rectangle QR RN QN + , or if with the points P and Q merged together to the rectangle
2 QR PM . Therefore CP
2
to PM
2
is as 2 QR PM to QT
2
and thus
2
QT
QR
equals
3
2
2PM
CP
, and [the ratio for the inverse of the centripetal force]
2 2 3 2
2
2
equals
QT SP PM SP .
QR
CP

Therefore (by Corol.I.&5, Prop. VI.) the centripetal force is reciprocally as
3 2
2
2PM SP
CP
, that is (with the ratio determined

2
2
2SP
CP
ignored) reciprocally as
3
PM .
Q. E. D.

The same may be deduced easily from the preceding proposition.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
Scholium.

And from an argument not much dissimilar the body may be found to move in an
ellipse, or also in a hyperbola or a parabola, by a central force which shall be reciprocally
as the cube of the applied ordinate to a centre of forces acting at a great distance.

PROPOSITION IX. PROBLEM IV.

A body may be rotating on the [equiangular] spiral PQS with all the radii SP, SQ,
&c. cut in a given angle : the law of the centripetal force is required tending towards
the centre of the spiral.

A small indefinite angle PSQ may be given, and on that account all the given angles
will be given by a figure with the appearance SPRQT .

[Recall that we need to evaluate
2 2
QT SP
QR
which varies inversely as the centripetal

force.] Therefore the ratio
QT
QR
is given [i.e. constant], and
2
QT
QR
is as QT, that is (on
account of the kind of that given figure) as SP. Now the angle PSQ may be changed in
some manner, and the right line QR subtending the contact angle QPR will be changed
(by lemma XI) in the square ratio of PR itself or in the square ratio of QT. Therefore
2
QT
QR
will remain the same which it was first, that is as SP. Whereby
2 2
QT SP
QR
is as
SP
3
and thus (by Corol.1 & 5, Prop. VI ), the centripetal force is reciprocally as the cube
of the distance SP.
Q. E. D.
The Same Otherwise.

The perpendicular SY sent to the tangent, and the chord PV of the circle concentrically
cutting the spiral are in given ratios to the altitude SP [i.e. and
SY PV
SP SP
are both
constant]; and thus
3
SP is as
2
SY PV , that is (by Corol.3.& 5, Prop. VI.) reciprocally
as the centripetal force.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
LEMMA XII.

All the parallelograms drawn about any conjugate diameters of a given ellipse or
hyperbola are equal to each other.

Shown in works on conic sections.
[Note that conjugate diameters for the ellipse are defined from the chords parallel to
parallel tangents on either side of the ellipse; the one parallel chord passing through the
centre is the one diameter, while the conjugate diameter bisects all these chords,
beginning and ending on the contact points of the parallel tangents. ]

PROPOSITION X. PROBLEM V.

A body may be rotating in an ellipse : the law of the force is required tending towards
the centre of the ellipse.

With the semi-axes CA, CB of the ellipse taken ;
GP, DK the other conjugate diameters ; PF, QT the
perpendiculars to the diameters ; Qv the applied
ordinate to the diameter G P; and if the parallelogram
QvPR may be completed, there will be (from works
on conics );
[Newton defers proving the following theorem, which
is not quite trivial : but which follows from a like
theorem for the circle, as the ellipse can be regarded
as a projected circle, for which some theorems apply with a little modification. It is
perhaps the case that theorems used by Newton for the circle were thus extended to the
other conic sections where appropriate. Using the diagram given here, this theorem states
that
2 2 2
: : Pv vG Qv PC CD = , where PC and CD are semi-conjugate diameters and thus
PR is parallel to CD ; now, in the case of the circle, the corresponding theorem is
2
: 1:1 Pv vG Qv = , where QT and Cv are perpendicular to GP and
2 2
= PC CD , a well-
known result ; but the ratios based on parallel lines are not altered on projection, and the
result follows with the others accounted for. This extension to the ellipse in the form
given is shown, for example, in Theorem 9, 136, Elements of Analytical Geometry,
Gibson & Pinkerton, Macmillan & Co., 1911. A branch of geometry not studied much
these days. To return to the translation : ]
the rectanglePvG [i.e. Pv vG ] is to
2
Qv as
2
PC is to
2
CD and (on account of the
similar triangles QvT, PCF)
2
Qv to
2
QT as
2
PC to
2
PF ; and with the ratios taken
jointly, the rectangle PvG to
2
QT as
2
PC to
2
CD and
2
PC to
2
PF that is,
2 2 2
2
2
to as to
QT CD PF
vG PC .
Pv
PC

rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2

[ and ; or
or
= .]
Pv vG PC Qv PC
i.e.
Qv CD QT PF
Pv vG PC PC
,
QT CD PF
vG PC
QT / Pv CD PF / PC
= =

Write QR for Pv, and (by Lemma XII.) for BC CA CD PF , also (with the points P
and Q coinciding) 2PC for vG, and with the extremes and means multiplied in turn there
becomes
2 2 2 2
2
equal to
QT PC BC CA
QR PC

. Therefore there is, (by Coral.5, Prop. VI.)
the centripetal force varies reciprocally as
2 2
2BC CA
PC
; that is (on account of the given

2 2
2BC CA ) reciprocally as
1
PC
; that is, directly as the distance PC.
Q. E. I.

The same otherwise.
In the right line PG from the one side of the point T there may be taken u so that Tu
shall be equal to Tv itself; then take uV, which shall be to vG as
2
DC is to
2
PC . And
since from the theory of conics there is
2 2 2
to as to Qv Pv vG DC PC ,
2
Qv is equal to
PV uV . With the rectangle uPv added to both sides, and the square of the chord of the
arc PQ will be produced equal to the rectangle VPv ; and thus the circle, which touches
the conic section at P and passed through the point Q, will also pass through the point V.
The points P and Q run together, and the ratio uV to vG, which is the same as the ratio
2 2
to DC PC , becomes the ratio PV to PG or PV to 2PC; and thus PV will be equal to
2
2DC
PC
. Therefore the force, by which the body P is revolving in an ellipse, will be
reciprocally as
2
2DC
PC
into
2
PF (by Carol.3, Prop. VI) that is (on account of
2
2DC
into
2
PF given) directly as PC.
Q. E. I.

Scholium

Corol. I. Therefore the force is as the distance of the body from the centre of the ellipse :
and in turn, if the force shall be as the distance, the body will move in an ellipse having
the centre at the centre of forces, or perhaps in a circle, into which certainly the ellipse
can be transported.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section II.

Corol.2. And the periodic times of the revolutions made will be equal in all ellipses
around the same centre. For these times are equal in similar ellipses (by Corol. 3. and 8.
Prop. IV.) but in ellipses having a common major axis they are accordingly in turn as the
whole total elliptic areas, and inversely likewise of the particular areas described ; that is,
directly as the minor axes, and the velocities of the bodies inversely at the principal
vertices ; that is, as the minor axes directly, and inversely as the ordinates at the same
point of the common axis ; and therefore (on account of the equality of the direct and
inverse ratios) in the ratio of equality.

Scholium.

If with the centre of the ellipse departing to infinity it may change into a parabola, the
body will be moving in this parabola ; and a constant force now emerges at an infinite
distance from the centre. This is Galileo's theorem. And if with a parabolic section of a
cone (with the inclination of the plane to the section of the cone changed) may be
changed into a hyperbola, the body will be moved in the perimeter of this with the
centripetal force turned into a centrifugal force. And just as in a circle or ellipse, if the
forces tending towards the centre of the figure placed on the abscissa [i.e. the x or
ordinate axis]; these forces by augmenting or diminishing the ordinates in some given
ratio, either by changing the angle of inclination of the ordinates to the abscissae, always
may be augmented or diminished in some ratio of the distances from the centre, but only
if the periodic times remain constant; thus also in general figures, if the ordinates be
augmented or diminished in some given ratio, or the angle of the ordinates may be
changed in some manner, with the periodic times remaining ; the forces tending towards
some centre placed on the abscissa tending to particular ordinates may be augmented or
diminished in the ratio of the distances from the centre.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
SECTION III.

Concerning the motion of bodies in eccentric conic sections.

[The Rectangle Theorem is a general theorem for Conic Sections with many
applications: If two variable secants of
a conic whose directions are fixed cut
the conic in P, Q and P', Q', and intersect
in O, then
OP.OQ
OP' .OQ'
is constant for all
positions of O. (For a coordinate
geometry proof, see e.g. Elements of
Analytical Conics, Gibson & Pinkerton, p.434. (1911)) We
will demonstrate this theorem for an elliptical section,
following this reference. Thus, if the chords PQ and P'Q'
intersect at O outside the ellipse shown here, then if the
tangents parallel to these chords in turn, op and op' , intersect at o, then
2
2
OP.OQ op
OP' .OQ'
op'
= .
Similarly, if the semi-diameters CD and CD' parallel to the chords are considered, then
2
2
2 2
OP.OQ op
CD
OP' .OQ'
op' CD'
= = . A useful case occurs when O lies on the focus S of the ellipse, in
which case we have the added relations
2
2
2 2
OP.OQ op
CD SL.SK
OP' .OQ' SL' .SK'
op' CD'
= = = . In this latter case,
there is added property that the harmonic mean of the two segments of a focal chord is
equal to the semi-latus rectum l , where
2
2
b
a
l = for the standard ellipse: i.e.
1 1 2
SL SK l
+ = , or
2
;
KL
SL.SK l
= hence we have all these relations :
2
2
2 2
OP.OQ op
CD SL.SK KL
OP' .OQ' SL' .SK' K' L'
op' CD'
= = = = .

Thus, we have Newton's Theorem :

If VQ is an ordinate of the diameter PCP' of a conic, CP and CD are conjugate semi-
diameters, then
2
2 2
P' V.VP CP
VQ CD
= .

From the given figure, which satisfies the requirements of the Rectangle Theorem, we
have now in addition :
;
P' C.CP P' V.VP
DC.CD' QV.VQ'
= giving
2
2 2
P' V .VP CP
VQ CD
= for conjugate axes, where C is the centre of the
ellipse or hyperbola . A similar result holds for the hyperbola, though care must be taken
with signs.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
To prove a similar theorem for the parabola, used below by Newton, i.e. that
2
4 QV SP.PV = , we proceed as follows : . From the Rectangle Theorem applied to the
infinite parallel chords and R T , and with the
conjugate semi-diameter formed by the tangent
TPR:
2
2 2 2
or
QV
RP TP TP
RQ.R TA.T PV TA
= = , since =1
R
T
as RQ
and TA are parallel. Therefore
2
2
PV.TP
TA
QV = Also,
PG is normal to the tangent, and PN is the ordinate
of the point P. Now, from the geometry of the
figure, TA AN = and TS SP SG = = ;
2
or 2 2
TN TP
TG TP
TP TN.TG .TA. SP = = = . Therefore
2
2
4
PV.TP
TA
QV SP.PV = = , as required.
In addition,
2 2
2 4 4 4 .UA PN .UA PN TA.AS AN.AS, = = = = giving the familiar formula
2
4 y ax. = ]

PROPOSITION Xl. PROBLEM VI.

A body may be revolving in an ellipse: the law of the centripetal force is required
attracting towards the focus of the ellipse.

[Note : This is one of the main results of the Principia, that was of great interset at the
time, and was the proposition that Newton had mislaid when first visited by Halley
enquiring about such; surely part of the folklore that now extends around Newton, and
indicative of his disregard for the intellectual pursuits of others in the years following his
rebuttals by Hooke.
Thus, as always in these diagrams, we are looking for an expression for the area
transcribed about the centre of force, here the focus F, in the element of time the body
travels from P to Q, and this quantity squared is divided by a length corresponding to the
versed sine in the limit, a distance proportional to and in the direction of the force within
the arc of the motion (see Prop.I, Th.I, Sect. 2); thus the inverse of the acceleration is
obtained as the limit is approached. Newton is careful enough to state in Sect. I that he
does not take a limit, just approaches as near as you wish with smaller and greater
magnitudes, effected by the longer sides of the parallelogram that encompass the arc that
tends towards the long diagonal of the parallelogram.
This incremental parallelogram is itself of some interest, as its 'long' and 'short' sides
are determined by different causes : the long side PR corresponds to a small increment of
the tangent line following the First Law of Motion, and the corresponding side Qx is an
increment of a diameter of the section, the conjugate diameter of which passes through
the centre C of the conic; the short side QR following the Second Law of Motion
corresponds to the versed sine of the force, and acts towards the focal point F. Thus, from
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
the point P, one line is sent to S, and another to C; while from Q one line is Qv, while the
other drawn is QT, perpendicular to SP. Hence the area traced out is proportional to
PS QT which in turn is proportional to the time, while QR is the distance moved under
the action of the central force. Hence the centripetal acceleration can be found
proportional to
( )
2
QR
PS QT
.This ratio must be identified with known properties of the curve
via proportionals, etc. derived from theorems of the conic section involved, one of which
is :
2
2 2
Gv.vP PC
Qv CD
= , shown above from elementary considerations . Thus Newton used what
might be called geometrical dynamics in his calculations.]

Let S be a focus of the ellipse. SP may be drawn cutting both the diameter of the
ellipse DK in E, and the applied ordinate Qv [i.e, a semi-chord of the axis PCG] in x, and
the parallelogram QxPR may be completed. It is apparent that EP is equal to the major
semi-axis AC : because there, with the line HI drawn from the other focus of the ellipse
parallel to EC itself, on account of the equal lines
CS, CH, the lines ES, and EI are made equal, thus so
that EP shall be half the sum of PS, PI, that is (on
account of the parallel lines HI, PR, and the equal
angles IPR, HPZ) half the sum of PS, PH, which
themselves jointly are equal to the total axis length
2AC.
[Thus, in the customary equation for the ellipse
2
2
2 2
1
y
x
a b
+ = , and from the construction :
2 SP PH a + = ; from the reflection theorem for a ray
travelling from one focus to the other, the angles IPR, HPZ are equal; then
; PH PI SE EI = = ; therefore, 2 SP PI a + = and ( )
1
2
SP PI a + = .]

The perpendicular QT may be sent to SP, and I call L the principal latus rectum of the
ellipse [a useful constant, the length of the vertical focal chord, equal to
2
2b
a
] (or
2
2BC
AC
),
there will be L QR to L Pv as QR to Pv, that is, as PE or AC to PC [from the similar
triangles Pvx and PFC]; and L Pv to Gv.vP as L to Gv; and Gv.vP to
2
Qv as
2
PC to
2
CD ,

[thus we have the ratios :
L QR QR
AC PE
L Pv Pv PC PC
= = = ;
L Pv L
Gv.vP Gv
= ;
2
2 2
Gv.vP PC
Qv CD
= ],

and (per Corol.2, Lem. VII.)
2
Qv to
2
Qx with the points Q and P merged together is the
ratio of equality;
2
Qx or
2
Qv is to
2
QT as
2
EP to
2
PF , that is, as
2
CA to
2
PF or (per
Lem. XII.) as
2
CD to
2
CB . [Note 261 (i) Leseur & J anquier: From the nature of conics,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
the diameters of the parts made in terms of squares of the ordinates : as the square of the
transverse diameter to the square of the conjugate of that : PF CD AC BC = , and
thus
2 2 2 2
PF CD AC BC = , and thus
2 2
2 2
AC CD
PF BC
= . Note also that the lines DK, IH, Qv,
and RP are all parallel; hence the angle FEP in the right angle triangle PEF is equal to the
angle QxT in the small right angled triangle QxT, which triangles are hence similar.]
[i.e.
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
Qx Qv
CA EP
QT QT PF PF
= = = .]
And with all these ratios taken together, L QR becomes to
2
QT as
2 2
AC L PC CD , or
2 2 2
2.CB PC CD to
2 2
PC Gv CD CB , or as 2.PC to Gv.

2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
[ .]
L QR
AC L PC CD .CB PC CD .PC
Gv
QT PC Gv CD CB PC Gv CD CB
i.e.

= = =

But with the points Q and P coalescing, 2.PC and Gv are equal. Therefore from these
proportionalities L QR and
2
QT are equal. These equalities are multiplied by
2
SP
QR
,
and there becomes
2
L SP equals
2 2
SP QT
QR
. Therefore (by Corol.1 & 5, Prop.VI.) the

centripetal force is reciprocal as
2
L SP that is, reciprocally in the squared ratio of the
distance SP.
Q E.I.
[Note the desire to be rid of vanishing quantities, and to replace these with finite lengths ;
the triangles QTx and PCE fulfil this role; the first has vanishing sides, and the latter does
not; hence a ratio of vanishing sides in the first gives rise to a finite ratio in the second.
This can be accomplished by setting one vanishing ratio equal to a finite ratio times by a
vanishing ratio common to both the desired final quantities : considerable skill must be
exercised to do this. Thus, no quantities are allowed to vanish, merely to cancel to a finite
number. A crucial deduction in this matter is finding the length EP equal to AC. There is
also the ratios of the sections of chords:
2
2 2
Gv.vP PC
Qv CD
= ; thus it is necessary also to get rid
of Pv somehow, as well as Qx
2
the latter from the similar triangles mentioned; the
former from the vanishing triangle Pxv which is similar to the triangle PFE, which gives
the ratio
Pv PC PC
Px PE AC
= = . Thus, regarding the finite value of the vanishing quantities
2
QR
QT
,
we can set
Pv Pv
PC PC
QR Px PE AC = = = ; while
2
2
2
Qv
PC
Gv
CD
Pv = ; thus, in place of QR,
we may write
2 2
2
2 2
Qv Qv
AC PC PC
PC Gv Gv
CD CD
AC = . Again, QT
2
can be replaced by
2
2
2
PF
CA
Qx . It then follows that
( )
2
2
2 2 2 2
1
QR Qv
PC AC
Gv
QT CD Qx PF
AC = ; but from above,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
2 2
2 2
AC CD
PF BC
= , and hence
( )
2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
2
QR Qv
PC CD PC AC
Gv Gv
QT CD Qx BC BC BC
AC AC = = = , since
Gv tends to 2PC in the limit; hence
2
2
2
1
QR
BC
AC
QT
= , or
2
1
QR
QT
L = , as required.]

The Same Otherwise.
Since the force attracting the body towards the centre of the ellipse, by which the body
is able to rotate about that, shall be (by Corol.I, Prop. X.) as the distance CP from the
centre of the ellipse C; CE is taken parallel to the tangent of the ellipse PR ; and the
force, by which the same body P can revolve about some other point of the ellipse S, if
CE and PS are concurrent in E, will be as
3
2
PE
SP
(by Corol.3, Prop.VII.) that is, if the
point S shall be the focus of the ellipse, and thus PE may be given, as reciprocally as
2
SP . Q.E.1.
By the same brevity, with which we have extended the fifth problem to the parabola and
the hyperbola, here it is allowed to be used likewise; truly on account of the worth of the
problem, and the use of this in the following, it will be a pleasure to confirm the other
propositions by demonstration.

PROPOSITION XII. PROBLEM VII.

A body may be moving in a hyperbola : the law of the centripetal force is required
tending towards the focus of the figure.

With the semi-axes CA, CB of the hyperbola taken; PG, KD are other conjugate
diameters; PF is the perpendicular to the diameter KD; and Qv the applied ordinate to the
diameter GP. Construct SP cutting with the diameter DK in E, and then with the applied
ordinate Qv in x, and the parallelogram QRPx may be completed. It is apparent that EP is
equal to the transverse semi-axis AC, because there, from the other focus of the hyperbola
H the line HI parallel to EC is drawn, on account of which the equal quantities CS, CH
may be equal to ES, E1 ; thus so that EP shall be the semi-difference of PS, PI, that is
(on account of the parallel lines IH, PR and the equal angles IPR, HPZ) of PS, PH, which
amounts to the total difference of the axis 2.AC .
[This is a special case, where the chord SP is perpendicular to the axis, perhaps chosen to
ease the diagram : from symmetry and from the construction, and CH CS EI ES = = ; for
the hyperbola, 2 PH PS .AC = ; now PI = PH, i.e. the triangle PHI is isosceles : for if
we assume the physical result that a ray from H striking at P appears to come from S on
reflection, then the angles RPH and IPZ are equal, hence the normal line FP bisects the
angle HPI, and so the triangle is isosceles, and PI PH = . Hence
2 or on dividing by 2. PI PS .AC PE AC = = ]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
To SP there may be sent the perpendicular QT. And I call L the principal latus rectum of
the hyperbola (or
2
2BC
AC
), there will beL QR to L Pv as QR to Pv, or Px to Pv, that is
: (on account of the similar triangles Pxv, PEC) as PE to PC, or AC to PC. Also there will
be L Pv to Gv Pv as L to Gv; and (from the nature of conics) the rectangle Gv.vP to
2
Qv as
2 2
to PC CD ; and (by Corol.2, Lem.VII.)
2 2
to Qv Qx with the points Q and P
coalescing shall become the ratio of equality ; and
2 2
or Qx Qv is to
2 2 2
as to QT EP PF ,
that is, as
2 2
to CA PF , or (by Lem.XII.) as
2 2
to CD CB : and with all these ratios taken
togetherL QR shall be to
2
QT as
2 2
AC L PC CD , or
2 2 2
2CB PC CD to
2 2
PC Gv CD CB , or as 2PC to Gv. [See below for modern notation.] But with the
points P and Q coalescing 2PC and Gv are equal. And therefore from these proportions
L QR and
2
QT are equal. These equalities are multiplied by
2
SP
QR
, and there becomes
2
L SP equal to
2 2
SP QT
QR
. Therefore (by Corol.I & V, Prop.VI.) the centripetal force is

reciprocally as
2
L SP , that is, reciprocally in the ration of the square of the distance SP.
Q. E. I.

[The derivation and notation follow the ellipse above exactly.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
[ ; ; ;
as = = = .
Finally, = = = .]
L QR QR
Px AC L Pv Gv.vP PC PE L
L Pv Pv Pv PC PC Gv Pv Gv
Qv CD
Qx
CA CD EP
QT PF PF CB
L QR
AC L PC CD CB PC CD PC
Gv
QT PC Gv CD CB PC Gv CD CB
Q P,

= = = = = =

The same otherwise.

The force may be found, by which the body tends from the centre of the hyperbola C.
This will be produced proportional to the distance CP. Truly thence (by Carol.III,
Prop.VII.) the force tending towards the focus S will be as
3
2
PE
SP
that is, on account of
PE given reciprocally as
2
SP .
Q.E.1.
In the same manner it may be shown, because the body by this force turned from
centripetal to centrifugal will be moving in the above hyperbola.

[The idea of free positive and bound negative energy orbits was not of course
available at the time, whereby a body with total energy >0 describes a hyperbola about
an attracting source of force such as the sun, a body with total energy <0 describes an
ellipse, while the parabola corresponds to zero energy, such as a comet starting from rest
at essentially an infinite distance from the sun. Thus, an attractive gravitational force can
still give rise to this hyperbolic motion. Such comets with zero or positive energy have
been observed occasionally. In the diagram, the attractive force may act from the one
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
focus, while a repulsive force may act from the other, and in this respect they have the
same effect.]

LEMMA XIII.
The latus rectum of a parabola pertaining to some vertex is four times the distance of that
vertex from the focus of the figure.
This is apparent from conic sections.

[For the modern reader, the delightful Book of Curves by E. H. Lockwood (CUP) can be
consulted for the more common properties referring to conic sections, as well as for
details about many other well-known curves.]

LEMMA XIV.
The perpendicular, which is sent from the focus of the parabola to the tangent of this
curve, is the mean proportional between the distance of the focus from the point of
contact and from the principal vertex of the figure.

For let AP be the parabola, S the focus of this,
A the principle vertex, P the point of contact of
the tangent, PO the applied ordinate to the
principle diameter, PM the tangent crossing the
principal axis M, and SN the perpendicular from
the focus to the tangent. AN is joined and on
account of the equal lines MS and SP, MN and
NP, MA and AO , the right lines AN and OP are
parallel ; and thence the triangle SAN will be right-angled at A, and similar to the equal
triangles SNM and SNP: therefore PS is to SN as SN is to SA. Q.E.D.
[
PS SN
SN SA
i.e. = .]
[For the envelope of the parabola can be constructed from the tangents by rotating the
right angle SAN about S while N moves progressively along the coordinate line AN from
N to some N' (not shown here) whereby SNN'P is a cyclic quadrilateral and the angle ANS
is the angle between the chord and the tangent, equal to the angle in the alternate segment
NPS, on letting N' tend towards N. See Lockwood p.4 for the details.]

Corol. 1.
2
PS is to
2
SN as PS to SA. [For
2
SN PS.SA = and
2
PS PS
PS.SA SA
= .]

Corol. 2. And on account of SA given there is
2
SN as PS.

Corol. 3. And the running together of any tangent PM with the right line SN, which is
from the focus into the perpendicular itself, falls on the right line AN, which is a tangent
to the parabola at the principle vertex.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.

PROPOSITION XIII. PROBLEM VIII.

A body may be moving in the perimeter of a parabola :the law of the centripetal force
tending towards the focus of this figure is to be acquired.

The construction of the lemma may remain, and let P be a body on the perimeter of
the parabola, and from the closest place Q, into
which the body may move, with the line QR
drawn acting parallel to Sp itself and the
perpendicular QT, and also Qv parallel to the
tangent, and running to meet both with the
diameter PG in v, as well as the interval SP in x.
Now on account of the similar triangles Pxv,
SPM, and the equality of the sides SM, SP, the
other sides Px or QR and Pv are equal. But from
the theory of conics [See note at start of this section.] the square of the ordinate Qv is
equal to the rectangle under the latus rectum and the segment of the diameter Pv, that is
(by Lem. XIII.) to the rectangle 4PS Pv , or to 4PS QR ; and with the points P and Q
merging together, the ratio Qv to Qx (by Corol 2, Lem.VII.) shall be one of equality.
Hence
2
Qx in that case is equal to the rectangle 4PS QR . But (on account of the similar
triangles QxT , SPN)
2 2 2 2
is to as to Qx QT PS SN , that is (by Corol.I, Lem.XIV.) as PS
to SA, that is, as 4PS QR to 4SA QR , and thence (by Prop. IX, Lib. V. Elem.)
2
QT and 4SA QR are equal. This equality is multiplied by
2
SP
QR
, and there becomes
2
2
SP QT
QR
equal to
2
4 SP SA : and therefore (by Corol.I. and V, Prop. VI.) : the
centripetal force is reciprocally as
2
4 SP SA , that is, on account of 4SA given,
reciprocally in the square ration of the distance SP.
Q.E.I.

[
2 2
4 Qv Qx PS QR = ;
2
2
2 2
4
4
Qx PS QR
PS PS
SA SA QR
QT SN

= = = ;
2
4 QT SA QR = .]

Corol. I. From the three latest propositions it follows, that if some body P may
emerge from the position P and follows some line PR with whatever velocity, and with
the centripetal force, which shall be reciprocally proportional to the square of the distance
of the position from the centre, likewise may be acting ; this body will be moved in some
conic sections having the focus in the centre of forces ; and vice versa. For from given
focus and point of contact, and from the position of the tangent, it is possible to describe
a conic section, which will have a given curvature at that point. But the curvature is given
from the given centripetal force, and from the velocity of the body : and it is not possible
to describe two orbits mutually touching each other with the same centripetal force and
with the same velocity.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.

Corol 2. If the velocity, with which the body leaves from its position P, shall be that, by
which the short line PR may be able to be described in some smallest part of time ; and
the centripetal force shall be able in the same time to move through the distance QR: this
body will be moved in some conic section, the principal latus rectum is that quantity
2
QT
QR
which finally is made when the small lines PR and QR are diminished indefinitely.
The circle I refer to the ellipse in these corollaries ; and I rule out the case, where the
body descends to the centre along a straight line.

PROPOSITION XIV. THEOREM VI.
If several bodies are rotating about a common centre, and the centripetal force shall
be in the reciprocal square ratio of the distances of the places from the centre ; I say that
the principal latera recta are in the square ratio of the areas, which the bodies describe
by the radii to the centre in the same time.
For (by Corol 2, Prop. XIII, [and Prop. XI]) the latus
rectum L is equal to the quantity
2
QT
QR
which finally comes
about, when the points P and Q coincide. But the minimum
line QR in the given time is as the generating centripetal
force, that is (by hypothesis) reciprocally as SP
2
. Therefore
2
QT
QR
is as
2 2
QT SP , that is, the latus rectum L is in the
square ratio of the area QT SP .
Q.E.D.
Corol. Hence the total area of the ellipse, and to which the rectangle under the axis is
proportional, is composed from the square root ratio of the latus rectum, and from the
ratio of the periodic time. For the total area is as the area QT SP , which will be
described in the given time, taken into the periodic time.

PROPOSITION XV. THEOREM VII.

With the same in position, I say that the periodic times for ellipses are in the ratio of the
three on two power of the major axis.

For the minor axis is the mean proportional between the major axis and the latus
rectum, and thus the rectangle under the axes is in the ratio of the major axis. But this
rectangle (by Corol. Prop. XIV.) is in the ratio composed from the square root of the
latus rectum and in the ratio of the periodic time. The ratio of the square root of the
lengths of the lines are subtracted from both sides, and there will remain the three on two
ratio of the major axis with the ratio of the periodic time.
Q.E.D.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
Corol. Therefore the periodic times are the same in ellipses and circles, of which the
diameters are equal to the major axes of ellipses.

PROPOSITION XVI. THEOREM VIII.

With the same in place, and with the right lines drawn to the bodies, which at that
instant are tangents to the orbits, and with perpendiculars sent from the common focus to
these tangents: I say that the velocities of the bodies are in a ratio composed from the
inverse ratio of the perpendiculars, and directly with the square root ratio of the
principal latera recta.

Send the perpendicular SY from the focus S to
the tangent PR, and the velocity of the body P will
be reciprocally in the ratio of the square root of the
quantity
2
SY
L
. For that velocity is as the minimum
arc PQ described in the given moment of time, that
is (by Lem.VII.) as the tangent PR, that is, on
account of the proportionals PR to QT and SP to
SY, as
SP QT
SY
or as SY reciprocally and
SP QT directly; and SP QT shall be as the area
described in the given time, that is (by Prop.XIV.) in the square root ratio of the latus
rectum.
Q E.D.
Corol.I. The principal latera recta are in a ratio composed from the square of the ratio
of the perpendiculars and, and in the squared ratio of the velocities.

Corol. 2. The velocities of bodies, at the maximum and minimum distances from the
common focus, are in a ratio composed from the inverse ratio of the distances, and
directly as the square root of the principal latera recta. For the perpendiculars now are
these distances themselves.

Corol.3. And thus the velocities in a conic section, at the maximum or minimum
distances from the focus, is to the velocity in a circle at the same distance from the centre,
in the square root ratio of the principal latus rectum to twice that distance.

Corol. 4. The velocities of bodies gyrating in ellipses at their mean distances from the
common focus are the same as of bodies gyrating in circles at the same distances; that is
(by Corol.6, Prop. IV.) reciprocally in the square root ratio of the distances. For the
perpendiculars now are the minor semi-axes, and these are as the mean proportionals
between the distances and the latera recta. This ratio may be taken inversely with the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
square root ratio of the latus rectums directly, and it becomes the ratio of the inverse
square of the distances.

Corol. 5. In the same figure, or even in different figures, of which the principal latera
recta are equal, the velocity of the body is inversely as the perpendicular sent from the
focus to the tangent.

Corol. 6. In a parabola the velocity is reciprocally in the square root ratio of the distance
of the body from the focus of the figure; in an ellipse it is changed more, in a hyperbola
less than in this ratio. For (by Corol. 2, Lem. XIV.) the perpendicular sent from the focus
to the tangent of the parabola is in the inverse square ratio of the distance. In a hyperbola
the perpendicular is varied less, in an ellipse more.

Corol. 7. In the parabola the velocity of a body at some distance from the focus is as the
velocity of the body revolving in a circle at the same distance from the same centre in the
square root ratio of two to one; in an ellipse it is less, in a hyperbola it is greater than in
this ratio. For (by Corollary 2 of this Prop.)the velocity at the vertex of the parabola is in
this ratio, and (by Corollary 6 of this Prop. and Proposition IV) the same proportion is
maintained between all the distances. Hence also in the parabola the velocity everywhere
is equal to the velocity of the body revolving in a circle at half the distance, in an ellipse
it is less, greater in a hyperbola.

Corol. 8. The velocity of gyration in some conic section is to the velocity of gyration
in a circle at a distance of half the principle latus rectum of the section, as that distance to
the perpendicular from the focus sent to the tangent of the section. This is apparent from
corollary five.

Corol. 9. From which when (by Corol 6. Prop. IV.) the velocity of gyration in this
circle shall be to the velocity of gyration in some other circle reciprocally in the square
root ratio of the distances ; there becomes from the equality the velocity of gyration in the
conic section to the velocity of gyration in a circle at the same distance, as the mean
proportional between that common distance and half the principle latus rectum of the
section, to the perpendicular sent from the common focus to the tangent of the section.

PROPOSITION XVII. PROBLEM IX.

Because the centripetal force shall be reciprocally proportional to the square of the
distance of the places put in place from the centre, and because the magnitude of that
force shall be known absolutely; the line is required, that the body will describe from that
place progressing with a given velocity along a given right line.

The centripetal force tending towards the point S shall be that, by which the body p
may gyrate in some given orbit pq, and the velocity of this may be known at the position
p. From the place P the body P may emerge following the line PR with a given velocity,
and thence soon, with the centripetal force acting, that may be deflected in the section of
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.
a cone PQ. Therefore this right line PR is a tangent at P. Likewise pq may touch the other
orbit in p, and if from S these
perpendiculars are understood to be sent,
(by Corol. I, Prop. XVI.) the principle
latus rectum of the conic section will be
to the principle latus rectum of the orbit
in a ratio composed from the squared
ratio of the perpendiculars and from the
squared ratio of the velocities, from
which thus it is given. Let L be the latus
rectum of the conic section. Therefore
the focus S of this conic section is given.
The complement of the angle RPS to two right angles makes the angle RPH; and from the
position given of the line PH, on which the other focus H may be located. With the
perpendicular SK sent from PH, the conjugate semi-axis BC is understood to be erected,
and there will be

2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
2 4 4 4
2
SP KPH PH SH CH BH BC
SP PH L SP PH SP SPH PH L SP PH.
+ = = = =
+ + = + + +

On both sides there may be added
2 2
2.KPH SP PH L SP PH + + , and there
becomes 2 2 L SP PH SPH KPH, + = + or to as 2 2 to SP PH PH .SP .KP L + + . From
which PH is given both in length as well as in position. Without doubt if that shall be the
velocity of the body at P, so that the latus rectum L were less than 2 2 .SP .KP + , PH will
be added to the same direction of the tangent PR with the line PS; and thus the figure will
be an ellipse, and it will be given from the given foci S, H, and the principle axis
SP AH + . But if the velocity of the body shall be so great, so that the latus rectum L
were equal to 2 2 .SP .KP + , PH will be infinitely long; and therefore the figure will be a
parabola having the axis SH parallel to the line PK, and thence it will be given. But if the
body at this point emerges with a greater velocity from its place P , a length may be
required to be taken PH at another direction of the tangent; and thus with the tangent
arising between the two foci, the figure will be a hyperbola having the principle axis
equal to the difference of the lines SP and PH, and thence it will be given. For if the body
in these cases may revolve in a conic section thus found, it has been shown in Prop. XI,
XII, and XIII, that the centripetal force will be inversely as the square of the distance
from the centre of the forces S; and thus the line PQ is shown to be correct, as the body
may describe by such a force, from some given place P, with a given velocity, emerging
along the given right line PR in place. Q.E.F.

Corol. I. Hence in every conic section from a given vertex D , with the latus rectum L,
and with the focus S, another focus H is given on taking DH to DS as the latus rectum to
the difference between the latus rectum and 4DS. For the proportion to SP PH PH + is as
2 2 SP KP + to L in the case of this corollary, shall be DS DH + to DH as 4DS to L, and
separately DS to DH as 4DS L to L.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section III.

Corol. 2. From which if the velocity of the body is given at the principal vertex D, the
orbit may be found readily, clearly on taking the latus rectum of this to twice the distance
DS, in the square ratio of the velocity of this given to the velocity of the body in a circle
at a distance of rotation DS (by Corol.3, Prop. XVI. ;) then DH to DS shall be as the latus
rectum to the difference between the latus rectum and 4DS.

Corol. 3. Hence also if the body may be moving in some conic section, and it may be
disturbed from it orbit by some external impulse ; it is possible to know, what course it
will pursue afterwards. For on compounding the proper motion of the body with that
motion, that the impulse alone may generate, the motion of the body will be had with
which it will emerge along a given line in place with the given impulse in place,.

Corol. 4. And if that body may be disturbed continually by some extrinsic impressed
force, as the course may become know approximately, by requiring the changes to be
deduced which the force induces on that body at some points, and from analogous series
the continuous changes can be judged at the intermediate places.

Scholium.
If the body P tending towards some given point R
by the centripetal force, may be moving on the
perimeter of some given conic section, the centre of
which shall be C; and the centripetal law of the
force may be required : CG is drawn parallel to the
radius RP , and crossing to the tangent of the orbit
PG at G; and that force (by Corol.I. and Schol. Prop.
X. & Corol.3, Prop.VII.) will be as
3
2
CG
RP
.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section IV.

SECTION IV.

Concerning the finding of elliptical, parabolic and hyperbolic orbits from a given
focus.

LEMMA XV.
If the two right lines SV and HV are changed in
direction at some third point V, with an ellipse or
hyperbola for which the two foci are S, H, of
which the one line HV shall be equal [in length] to
the principle axis of the figure, that is, to the axis
on which the foci are placed, and the other line SV
is bisected by a perpendicular TR sent from T ;
that perpendicular TR will be a tangent at some point [R] on the conic section: and vice
versa, if it touches, then HV will be equal [in length] to the principle axis of the figure.

For the perpendicular TR cuts the right line HV at R, produced if there were a need ;
and SR may be joined. On account of the equal lines TS, TV, the angles TRS and TRV and
the lines SR and VR will be equal. From which the point R will be on the conic section,
and the perpendicular TR will touch the same : and vice-versa.
Q.E.V.
[This section is concerned with the construction of conic sections satisfying various
conditions of the focii and tangents, and so is not involved with mechanics directly; due
to symmetry there will often be more than one point on the curve where a tangent with
the same or a known gradient acts. The ellipse and hyperbola written in standard form are
not of course functions as such, and are made up from the positive and negative square
root functions which are symmetric. ]

PROPOSITION XVIII. PROBLEM X.

With a focus and the principle axis given, to describe elliptic and hyperbolic trajectories,
which will pass through a given point, and will be tangents to given lines in place.

S shall be the common focus of the figures ; AB the
length [i.e. 2a in modern notation] of the principle axis
of any trajectory ; P the point through which the
trajectory must pass ; and TR the right line that it must
touch. With centre P, and with the interval [i.e. radius]
AB SP, if the orbit shall be an ellipse. or AB SP + ,
if that shall be a hyperbola, a circle HG may be
described. The perpendicular ST may be sent to the tangent TR, and the same may be
produced to V , so that TV shall be equal to ST; and the circle FH is described with centre
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IV.
V, and the interval [or radius] AB. By this method from the two circles either two points
P, p may be given, or two tangents TR, tr, or the point P and a tangent, are required to be
described. H shall be the common intersection of these, and from the foci S and H, with
that axis given, the trajectory may be described. I say that this has been accomplished.
For the trajectory described (because therefore PH SP + is equal to the axis in the case of
an ellipse, and PH SP in the case of a hyperbola) will pass through the point P, and (by
the above lemma) it touches the right line TR. And by the same argument the same will
pass through two [given] points P and p, or touch two [given] right lines TR and tr.
Q.E.F.
PROPOSITION XIX. PROBLEM XI.
To describe a parabolic trajectory about a given focus, which will pass through a given
point, and touch a given right line in position.

S shall be the focus, P the point and TR the tangent of
the trajectory to be described. With centre P, with the
interval [i.e. radius] PS, describe the circle FG. Send the
perpendicular ST from the focus to the tangent, and produce
the same to V, in order that TV shall be equal to ST. In the
same manner another circle fg is required to be described, if
another point p is given; or finding another point v, if
another tangent tr is given ; then the right line IF must be
drawn which touches the two circles FG, fg if the two
points P and p are given, or it may pass through the two
points V and v, if the two tangents TR and tr are given, or
touch the circle FG and pass through the point V, if the
point P and the tangent TR are given. Send the perpendicular SI to FI, and bisect the same
in K; and the parabola may be described with the principle axis SK and vertex K. I say the
proposition has been accomplished. For the parabola, on account of the equal lines SK
and IK, SP and FP, will pass through the point P; and (by Lem. XIV, Corol. 3.) on
account of the equal lines ST and TV and the right angle STR, touches the right line TR.
Q E.F.

PROPOSITION XX. PROBLEM XII.

To describe a trajectory of some given kind about a given focus, which will pass
through given points and touch a given right line in place.

Case I. With S the given focus, the
trajectory ABC shall be described through
the two points B and C. Because with the
kind of trajectory given, the ratio of the
principle axis to the separation of the focal
points will be given. On that account take
KB to BS, and LC to CS. From the centres B and C, with the distances BK, CL, describe
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IV.
two circles, and to the right line KL, which may touch the same [circles] at K and L, send
the perpendicular SG, and cut the same line at A and a, thus so that GA is to AS and Ga to
aS as KB is to BS, and with the axis Aa, vertices A, a, the trajectory may be described. I
say the construction is complete. For the other focus of the figure described shall beH,
and since GA shall be to AS as Ga to aS, there will be separately Ga GA or Aa to
aS AS or SH in the same ratio, and thus in the ratio that the principle axis of the figure
described has to the separation of the foci of this figure; and therefore the figure
described is of the same kind as that required to be described. And since KB to BS and LC
to CS shall be in the same ratio, this figure will pass through the points B, C, as has been
shown from the conics.
Q E.F.

[Here the proof indicated relies on the focus directrix property between S and GL for a
point on the ellipse, for which the ratios
CS
CL
, etc., are constant. Thus,

1 1; or giving or
AS aS AG aG AG AS Aa HS Aa aG
AG aG AS aS aG aS aG aS HS aS
, , = = = = = .]

Case 2. With S the given focus, the trajectory is to be described which may touch the two
right lines TR and tr at some points. [Note : The
original diagram in the 3
rd
edition has r at the
wrong side of t, if we want to apply Lemma VI,
assuming the trajectory is an ellipse.] Send the
perpendiculars ST and St from the focus to the
tangents and produce the same to V and v, so that
TV and tv shall be equal to TS and tS. Bisect Vv in
O, and erect the indefinite perpendicular OH, and
cut the right line VS produced indefinitely in K and
k, thus so that VK shall be to KS and Vk to kS as
the principal axis of the described trajectory is to the separation of the foci. [Thus, TR is a
tangent at the point R and
VK Vk VH
KS kS SH
= = .] With diameter Kk, a circle is described
cutting OH in H; and with the foci S, H, with the principal axis itself made equal to VH,
the trajectory is described. I say the construction is complete. For bisect Kk in X, and join
HX, HS, HV, and Hv. Because VK to KS is as Vk to kS [i.e. =
VK Vk
KS kS
]; and on adding
together as VK Vk + to KS kS +

[i.e.
2
2
; or
VK Vk KS kS VK Vk VX Vk
Vk kS KS kS KX kS
+ + +
+
= = = ];

and separately as Vk VK to kS KS , that is, as 2VX to 2KX and 2KX to 2SX

[i.e.
2
2
; or
Vk VK kS KS Vk VK Vk KX
Vk kS kS KS SX kS

= = = ];

rd
Ed.

Book I Section IV.
and thus, as VX to HX and HX to SX,[i.e. as and
VX HX
HX SX
which are hence equal to
Vk
kS
,]
there will be the similar triangles VHX and HXS, and therefore VH will be to SH as VX to
XH, and thus as VK to KS [i.e. =
VH VX VK
SH XH KS
= ]. Therefore the principal axis of the
described trajectory VH has that ratio to the separation of the foci SH, and therefore is of
the same kind. Since in addition VH and vH may be equal in length to the principal axis,
and VS and vS may be bisected by the perpendicular lines TR and tr, it is clear (from
Lem. XV.) these right lines touch the described trajectory.
Q E.F.

Case. 3. With the focus S given, a
trajectory shall be described which
touches the right line TR at the given point
R. Send the perpendicular ST to the right
line TR, and produce the same to V, so
that TV shall be equal to ST. J oin VR and
cut the right line VS produced indefinitely
in K and k, thus so that VK to SK and Vk
to Sk shall be as the principal axis of the
ellipse required to be described to the separation of the foci [i.e. =
VK Vk VH
SK Sk SH
= ] ; and
with a circle described on the diameter Kk, with the right line VR produced to be cut in H,
and with the foci S, H, with the principal axis made equal to the right line VH, the
trajectory will be described. I say that the construction is complete. For VH is to SH as
VK to SK, and thus as the principal axis of the trajectory described to the separation of the
foci of this, as may be apparent from the demonstration in the second case, and therefore
the trajectory described to be of the same kind with that to be described, truly the right
line TR by which the angle VRS may be bisected, to touch the trajectory in the point R, is
apparent from the theory of conics.
Q E. F.

Case 4. Now the trajectory APB shall be described about the focus S, which may touch
the right line TR, and may pass through some point P beyond the given tangent, and
which shall be similar to the figure apb, with the principal axis ab, and described with the
foci s, h. Send the perpendicular ST to the tangent TR, & produce the same to V, so that
TV shall equal ST. Moreover make the angles VSP, SVP equal to the angles hsq, shq ; and
with the centre q and with an interval [i.e. radius] which shall be to ab as SP to VS
describe a circle cutting the figure apb in p. J oin sp and with SH acting which shall be to
sh as SP is to sp, and which angle PSH may be put in place equal to the angle psh and the
angle VSH equal to the angle psq. And then with the foci S, H, and with the principle
axis distance AB equal to VH, the section of a cone may be described. I say that the
construction is done. For if sv is acting which shall be to sp as sh is to sq, and which put
in place the angle vsp equal to the angle hsq and the angle vsh equal to the angle psq, the
triangles svh and spq will be similar, and therefore vh will be to pq as sh to sq, that is (on
account of the similar triangles VSP, hsq ) so that VS is to SP or ab to pq. Therefore vh
and ab are equal.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IV.

Again on account of the similar triangles VSH, vsh, VH is to SH as vh to sh, that is, the
axis of the conic section now described is to the interval of separation of the foci, as the
axis ab to the separation of the foci sh; and therefore the figure now described is similar
to the figure apb. But this figure passes through the point P, on account of which the
triangle PSH shall be similar to the triangle psh; and because VH is equal to the axis itself
and VS may be bisected perpendicularly by the right line TR, it will touch the same right
line TR.
Q.E.F.
LEMMA XVI.

From three given points, to put in place three right lines to a fourth point which is not
given, of which the differences are given or are zero.

Case I. Let these points be given A, B, C and let Z be
the fourth point, that it is required to find; on account
of the given difference of the lines AZ, BZ, the point Z
will be found on a hyperbola of which the foci are A
and B, and that given difference the principal axis. Let
MN be that axis. Take PM to MA so that it is as MN to
AB, [i.e.
MN PM
MA AB
= ; note that PR is the directrix of this
branch of the hyperbola.] and with PR erected
perpendicular to AB, and with the perpendicular ZR
sent to PR; there will be, from the nature of this
hyperbola, ZR to AZ as MN is to AB [i.e.
MN ZR
AZ AB
= ;
here Newton has used the inverse of the eccentricity to
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IV.
define a constant ratio]. By similar reasoning the point Z will be located on another
hyperbola, of which the foci are A and C and the principal axis the difference between
AZ and CZ, and QS itself can be drawn perpendicular to AC, to which if from some point
Z of this hyperbola the normal ZS may be sent, this will be to AZ as the difference is
between AZ and CZ is to AC. Therefore the ratios of ZR and ZS to AZ are given, and on
that account the same ratio of ZR and ZS in turn is given ; therefore if the right lines RP
and SQ meet in T, and TZ and TA may be drawn, a figure of the kind TRZS will be given,
and with the right line TZ on which the point Z will be given in place somewhere. Also
there will be given the right line TA, and also the angle ATZ ; and on account of the given
ratios of AZ and TZ to ZS the ratio of these will be given in turn; and thence the triangle
ATZ will be given, the vertex of which is the point Z.
Q.E.I.
Case 2. If two from the three lines such as AZ and B Z may be made equal, thus draw the
right line TZ, so that it may bisect the angle AB ; then find the triangle ATZ as above.

Case 3. If all three are equal, the point Z may be located in the centre of the circle
passing through the points A, B, C.
Q.E.1.
This lemma problem is solved also in the book of Appolonius on tangents restored by
Vieta.

PROPOSITION XXI. PROBLEM XIII.

To describe a trajectory around a given focus, which will pass through given points
and touch given right lines in place.

The focus S may be given, a point P, and touching TR, and it shall be required to find
the other focus H. To the tangent send the
perpendicular ST and produce the same to Y; so that
TY shall be equal to ST, and YH will be equal to the
principal axis. J oin SP and HP, and SP will be the
difference between HP and the principal axis. In this
manner if several tangents TR may be given, or more
points P, always just as many lines TH, or PH,
drawn from the said points Y or P to the focus H,
which either shall be equal to the axis, or to some given lengths SP different from the
same, and thus which either are equal among themselves in turn, or have some given
differences; and thence, by the above lemma, that other focus H is given. But with the
foci in place together with the length of the axis (which either is YH; or, if the trajectory
be an ellipse, PH SP + ; or PH SP for a hyperbola,) the trajectory may be had.
Q E.1.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section IV.

Scholium.
When the trajectory is a hyperbola, I cannot
deal with the opposite hyperbola under the
name of this trajectory. For a body by
progressing in its motion cannot cross over into
the opposite hyperbola.
The case where three points are given can be
solved expediently thus. The points B, C, D
may be given. J oin BC, CD produced to E, F,
so that there shall be EB to EC as SB to SC,
and FC to FD as SC to SD. To EF drawn and
produced send the normals SG, BH, and on GS produced indefinitely take GA to AS and
Ga to aS as HB is to BS; and A will be the vertex, and Aa the principal axis of the
trajectory: which, just as Gd shall be greater, equal, or less than AS, will be an ellipse,
parabola or hyperbola; the point a falling in the first case on the same part of the line GF
with the point A; in the second case departing to infinity; in the third case on the opposite
side of the line GF. For if the perpendiculars CI, DK may be sent to GF ; IC will be to
HB as EC to EB, that is, as SC to SB; and in turn IC to SC as HB to SB or as GA to SA.
And by a like argument it is approved that KD to SD be in the same ratio. Therefore
place the points B, C, D in a conic section around the focus S thus described, so that all
the right lines, drawn from the focus to the individual points of the section, shall be in
that given ratio to the perpendiculars sent from the same points to the line GF.
By a method not much different the solution of this problem has been treated most
clearly in the geometry of de la Hire; Book VIII, Prop. XXV of his book on conic
sections.
[The New Elements of Conick Sections by Philip de la Hire was translated from Latin and
French editions into English in 1724; it is available on microfilm.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.

SECTION V.

Finding the orbits where neither focus is given.

[A thorough investigation of the origin and use of these Lemmas is given by
D.T.Whiteside in Vol. VI of his Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, CUP, p.238
onwards. In addition, a work can be reconstructed from Newton's Waste Book on the
Solid Locus of the ancient Greek mathematicians, which was lightly modified for these
Lemmas of the Principia (See Vol. IV Whiteside, p. 274 onwards for an account of this,
which bears a close resemblance to the version in the Principia.) Mention should also be
made of J . L. Coolidge's little book : A History of Conic Sections and Quartic Surfaces,
available as a Dover reprint, especially Ch.'s 3 & 4. This book gives a modern impression
on some of Newton's trail-blazing work, as he was unaware of the work done already by
others into the projective nature of conics. Newton clearly had an eye towards an
exhaustive survey of the construction of conic sections dating from antiquity, to which he
added significantly, with regard to possible applications to the orbits of planets and
comets; for in addition to the conventional treatment, he investigated the construction
and properties of conic sections from points on the curve only; for the directrix and focus,
relating to such curves given at a few points only, are unknown initially.]

LEMMA XVII.
If from some point P of a given conic section to the four sides AB, CD, AC, DB of
some trapezium ABDC produced indefinitely, and inscribed in that conic section, just
as many right lines PQ, PR, PS, PT may be drawn at given angles, one line to each side
: the rectangle PQ PR drawn to the two opposite sides, will be in a given ratio to the
rectangle PS PT drawn to the other two opposite sides.

Case 1. In the first place we may put the lines drawn to the opposite sides to be parallel
to one of the remaining sides, e.g. PQ and PR [are parallel] to the side AC, PS and PT to
the side AB. And in addition the two opposite sides
[of the trapezium], e.g. AC and BD, themselves in
turn shall be parallel. A right line, which may bisect
those parallel sides, will be one of the diameters of
the conic section, and it also will bisect RQ. Let O
be the point in which RQ may be bisected, and PO
will be the applied ordinate for that diameter.
Produce PO to K, so that OK shall be equal to PO,
and OK will be the applied ordinate for the other
part of the diameter
[Note: The use of the term applied ordinate by
Apollonius for the distance from the centre of the conic along an oblique axis to the curve
was a forerunner of the idea of a coordinate, developed by De Cartes some 1800 years
later.]
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
Therefore since the points A, B, P and K shall be on the conic section, and PK may cut
AB in a given angle, the rectangle PQ.QK will be (by Prop.17,19, 21 & 23. Book III.
Apollonius Conics) in a given ratio to the rectangleAQ.QB. But QK & PR are equal, as
from the equality of OK, OP, and their difference from OQ, OR, and thence also the
rectangles PQ.QK and PQ PR are equal; and thus the rectangle PQ PR is to the
rectangle AQ.QB, that is in the given ratio to the rectangle PS PT .
Q.E.D.

[ The initial theorems referring to Apollonius relate to the rectangles formed by chords of
a conic section IJ and HF intersecting at the point
G, drawn through two random points on the
section I and H, to the ratio of the tangents
squared CA and CB from an external point C,
which are parallel to the given chords and vice
versa. Thus, in the diagram added, the letters of
which bear no relation to those above, the red and
blue chords are parallel to the tangents from some
external point C. The normals AE and BD also have been drawn and are part of a proof,
which we do not give here, but the proposition shown by Apollonius is that
2
2
=
FG GH CA
JG GI
CB
. We indicate here the ellipse drawn for these five points :

This Lemma can be extended to hyperbolic, circular and parabolic sections, and is further
generalised below. In the following, we shall include the ellipse that the reader had to
imagine drawn around the trapezium or quadrilateral; in general coloured lines have been
added by this translator; I am sorry if they cause offense; the purpose is to improve the
readability of the work.]

Case 2. Now we may consider the opposite sides of the
figure [trapezium] AC and BD not to be parallel. Bd
acts parallel to AC and then crosses to the right line ST
at t, and to the section of the cone at d. J oin Cd cutting
PQ in r, and PQ itself acts parallel to DM, cutting Cd in
M and AB in N. Now on account of the similar triangles
BTt, DBN; Bt or PQ is to Tt as DN to NB. Thus Rr is to
AQ or PS as DM to AN.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
[i.e. = =
PQ
Bt DN
Tt Tt NB
and = =
Rr Rr DM
AQ PS AN
. ]
Hence, by taking antecedents multiplied into antecedents and consequents into
consequents, so that the rectangle PQ Rr is to the rectangle PS Tt , thus as the
rectangle ND.DM it to the rectangle AN.NB, and (by case I.) thus the rectangle PQ Pr is
to the rectangle PS Pt , and dividing thus the rectangle PQ PR is to the
rectanglePS PT .
Q.E.D.

Case 3. And then we may put the four lines PQ, PR, PS,
PT not to be parallel to the sides AC, AB but at some
inclination to that. Of these in turn Pq, Pr act parallel to AC
itself; Ps, Pt parallel to AB itself ; and therefore the given
angles of the triangles PQq, PRr, PSs, PTt, will give the
ratios PQ to Pq, PR to Pr, PS to Ps, and PT to Pt ;
[i.e. , and
PQ
PS PR PT
Pq Pr Ps Pt
, .]
and thus the composite ratios
to and to PQ PR Pq Pr, PS PT Ps Pt . But, by the above demonstrations, the ratio
to Pq Pr Ps Pt has been given : and therefore the ratio PQ PR to PS PT also is
given. Q.E.D.

LEMMA XVIII.
With the same in place ; if the rectangle drawn to the two opposite sides of the
trapezium PQ PR shall be in a given ratio to the rectangle drawn to the remaining
two sides PS PT ; the point P, from which the lines are drawn, will lie on the conic
section described about the trapezium.

Consider a conic section to be described through the points A, B, C, D, and any of the
infinitude of points P, for example p: I say that the point P always lies on this section. If
you deny this, join AP cutting this conical section
elsewhere than at P, if it were possible, for example at
b. Therefore if the lines pq, pr, ps, pt & bk, bn, bf, bd
may be drawn from these points p & b at given angles
to the sides of in the right trapezium ; so that
will be to bk bn bf bd as (by Lem. XVII.)
to pq pr ps pt , and thus (by hypothesis)
to PQ PR PS PT . And on account of the similitude
of the trapeziums bkAf, PQAS, so that bk is to bf thus
as PQ to PS. Whereby, on applying the terms of the
first proportions to the corresponding terms of this,
there will be bn to bd as PR to PT. Therefore the equal
angled trapeziums Dnbd and DRPT are similar, and
the diagonals of these, Db and DP are similar on that account. And thus b lies at the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
intersection of the lines AP,DP and thus it coincides with the point P. Whereby the point
P, where ever it is taken, to be inscribed on the designated conic section.
Q E.D.
Corol. Hence if the three right lines PQ, PR, PS are drawn at given angles from a
common point P to just as many given right lines in position AB, CD, AC, each to each in
turn, and let the rectangle under the two drawn PQ PR to the square of the third PS be
in a given ratio: the point P, from which the right lines are drawn, will be located in the
section of a cone which touches the lines AB, CD in A and C; and vice versa. For the line
BD may fit together with the line AC, with the position of the three lines AB, CD, AC
remaining in place; then also the line PT fits with the line PS: and the rectangle
PS PT becomes PS squared and the right lines AB, CD, which cut the curve in the
points A and B, C and D, now are no longer able to cut the curve in these points taken
together, but only touch.
[Thus, the lines AB and CD are now tangents to the conic. Apollonius derived the
classical three-line locus as a special case of the four-line locus for generating a conic :
See Conics III, Prop. 54-56.]

Scholium.
The name of the conic section in this lemma is taken generally, thus so that both a
section passing through a vertex of the cone as well as a circle parallel to the base may be
included . For if the point p falls on the line, by which the points A and D or C and B are
joined together, the conic section is changed into two right lines, of which one is that
right line on which the point p falls, and the other is a right line from which the two
others from the four points are joined together. If the two opposite angles of the
trapezium likewise may be taken as two right angles, and the four lines PQ, PR, PS, PT
may be drawn to the sides of this either perpendicularly or at some equal angles, and let
the rectangle drawn under the two PQ PR be equal to the rectangle under the other two
PS PT , so that the rectangle under the sines of the angles S, T, in which the two final
PS, PT are drawn, to the rectangle under the sines of the angles Q, R, in which the first
two PQ, PR are drawn. In the rest of the cases the position of the point P will be from
the other three figures, which commonly are called conic sections. But in place of the
trapezium ABCD it is possible to substitute a quadrilateral, the two opposite sides of
which cross each other mutually like diagonals. But from the four points A, B, C, D one
or two are able to go off to infinity, and in that case the sides of the figure, which
converge to these points, emerge parallel: in which case the section of the cone will be
crossed by the other points, and will go off to infinity as parallel lines.

[A full solution of this problem can be found as a note in Whiteside, Vol. VI, p. 275. ]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
LEMMA XIX.
To find a point P, from which if four right lines PQ, PR, PS, PT may be drawn to
just as many other right lines AB, CD, AC, BD, given in position, from one to the other
in turn, at given angles, the rectangle drawn under the two, PQ PR , will be in a
given ratio to the rectangle under the other two, PS PT .

The lines AB, CD, to which the two right lines PQ, PR are drawn containing one of
rectangles, come together with the other two lines given at
the points A, B, C, D. From any of these points A some right
line AH may be drawn, in which the point you wish P may
be found. That line cuts the opposite lines BD, CD, without
doubt BD in H and CD in I, and on account of all the given
angles of the figure, the ratios PQ to PA and PA to PS are
given, and thus the ratio PQ to PS is given. By taking [i.e. by
dividing] this ratio from the given ratio PQ PR to
PS PT , the ratio PR to PT will be given, and by adding
[i.e. multiplying by] the given ratios PI to PR, and PT to PH the ratio PI to PH will be
given, and thus the point P.
Q.E.1.
Corol. I. Hence also it is possible to draw the tangent at some point D of the infinite
numbers of locations of the points P. For the chord PD, when the points P and D meet,
that is, where AH is drawn through the point D, becomes the tangent. In which case, the
final vanishing ratio of the lines IP and PH may be found as above. Therefore draw CF
parallel to AD itself, crossing BD in F, and cut at E in the same final ratio, and DE will
be the tangent, because therefore CF and the vanishing IH are parallel, and similarly cut
in E and P.

Corol. 2. Hence it is apparent also that the position of all the points P can be defined.
Through any of the points A, B, C, D, e.g. A, draw the
tangent AE of the locus and through some other point B
draw the parallel of the tangent BF meeting the curve [or
locus] at the position F. But the point F may be found by
Lem. XIX. With BF bisected in G, and AG produced
indefinitely, this will be the position of the diameter to
which the ordinates BG and FG may be applied. This line
AG may meet the curve in H, and AH will be a diameter
or a transverse width to which the latus rectum will be as
BG
2
to AG GH . If AG never meets the curve, the AH
proves to be infinite, the locus will be a parabola, and the
latus rectum of this pertaining to the diameter AG will be
2
BG
AG
. But if that meets
somewhere, the locus will be a hyperbola, where the points A and H are placed on the
same side of G: and an ellipse, when G lies between, unless perhaps the angle AGB shall
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
be right, and the above BG
2
is equal to the rectangle AGH, in which case a circle will be
had.
And thus [a solution] of the problem of the ancients concerning the four lines, started
by Euclid and continued by Apollonius and such as the ancients sought, not from a
calculation but composed geometrically, is shown in this corollary.

[There is next presented an important Lemma that is fundamental to the applications that
follow.]

LEMMA XX.
If in some parallelogram ASPQ, the two opposite angles A and P touch the section of
a cone at the points A and P ; and with the sides of one of the angles AQ and AS
produced indefinitely, meeting the same section of the cone at B and C ; moreover from
the meeting points B and C to some fifth point D of the conic section, the two right lines
BD and CD are drawn meeting the other two sides of the parallelogram PS and PQ
produced indefinitely at T & R: the parts PR and PT of the sides [ of the parallelogram]
will always be cut in turn in a given ratio. And conversely, if these cut parts are in turn in
a given ratio, the point D touches the section of the cone passing through the four points
A, B, C, P.

Case I. BP and CP are joined together and from the point D the two right lines DG and
DE are acting , the first of which DG shall be parallel to AB itself and meets PB and PQ
and CA in H, I and G; the other shall be DE parallel to AC itself and meeting PC and PS
and AB in F, K and E: and the rectangle DE DF will be (by Lem. XVII.) in a given
ratio to the rectangle DG DH . But PQ to DE (or IQ) shall be as PB to HB, and thus as
PT to DH; and in turn PQ to PT as DE to DH. And there is PR to DF as RC to DC, thus
as (IG or) PS to DG, and in turn PR to PS as VF to DG; and with the ratios joined the
rectangle PQ PR shall be to the rectanglePS PT as the rectangle DE DF to the
rectangle DG DH , and thus in a given ratio. But PQ and PS are given, and therefore
the ratio PR to PT is given. Q E.D.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.

Case 2. Because if PR and PT may be put in place in a given ratio in turn, then by
retracing the reasoning, it follows that the rectangle DE DF to be in a given ratio to the
rectangle DG DH , and thus the point D (by Lem. XVIII.) touches the conic section
passing through the points A, B, C and P.
Q. E. D.
Corol. I. Hence if BC acts cutting PQ in r, & on PT there may be taken Pt in the ratio to
Pr that PT has to PR, Bt will be a tangent of the conic section at the point B. For consider
the point D to coalesce with the point B, thus so that, as with the chord BD vanishing, BT
may become a tangent; and CD and BT coincide with CB and Bt.

Corol. 2. And in turn if Bt shall be a tangent, and at some point D of the conic section BD
and CD may come together; R will be to PT as Pr to Pt. And counter wise, if there shall
be PR to PT as Pr to Pt: BD and CD may come together at some point D of the conic
section.

Corol. 3. A conic section does not cut a conic section in more than four points. For, it
were possible to happen, the two conic sections may pass through each other in the five
points A, B, C, P, O; and these may cut the right line BD in the points D, d, and PQ itself
may cut the right line Cd in q. Hence PR is to PT as Pq to PT; from which PR and Pq in
turn themselves may be equal, contrary to the hypothesis.

[The following lemma, related to the above, shows how to describe a branch of a
hyperbola without making use of the focus, using points on the curve only, as well as a
reference line on which related points and angles may be defined. Note the positions of
the points A, B, C, D and P in the diagrams relating to these lemmas, where the hyperbola
in the latter can be viewed as an inverted form of the ellipse in the former. Newton has
not followed with a like proof, but has introduced a new way of drawing a conic section.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.

LEMMA XXI.
If two moveable and indefinite right lines BM and CM drawn through the given points
or poles B and C, a given line MN may be described from their meeting position M;

and two other indefinite right lines BD and CD may be drawn making given angles
MBD and MCD with the first two lines at these given points B and C : I say that these
two lines BD and CD, by their meeting at D, describe the section of a cone passing
through the points B and C. And vice versa, if the right lines BD and CD by their
meeting at D describe the section of a cone passing through B, C, and A, and the angle
DBM shall always be equal to the given angle ABC, and the angle DCM always shall
be equal to the given angle ACB: then the point M remains in place on the given line.

For a [fixed] point N may be given on the line MN, and when the mobile point M falls
on the motionless point N, the mobile point D may fall on the motionless [i.e. fixed] point
P. J oin CN, BN, CP, BP, and from the point P direct the lines PT and PR crossing with
BD and CD themselves in T and R, and making the angle BPT equal to the given angle
BNM, and the angle CPR equal to the given angle CNM. Therefore since (from the
hypothesis) the angles MBD and NBP shall be equal, and also the angles MCD and NCP;
take away the common angles NBD and NCD, and the equal angles NBM and PBT , NCM
and PCR remain: and thus the triangles NBM and PBT are similar, and also the triangles
NCM, PCR. Whereby PT is to NM as PB to NB, and PR to NM as PC to NC. But the
points B, C, N, P are fixed. Therefore PT and PR have a given ratio to NM, and therefore
a given ratio between themselves; and thus (by Lem. XX.) the point D, always the
meeting point of the mobile right lines BT and CR , lies on a conic section passing
through the points B, C, P.

[The triangles NBM , PBT , and NCM, PCR are similar ;
and
NM NB NM NC MC MB
PT PB TB PR PC CR
= = = = ; hence a definite ratio is formed for the lines PT
and PR , as in the above lemma.]
Q E.D.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
And conversely, if the moveable point D may lie on a conic section passing through
the given points B, C, A, and the angle DBM always shall be equal to the given angle
ABC, and the angle DCM always equal to the given angle ACB, and when the point V
falls successively on some two immoveable points of the section p, P, the moveable
point M falls successively on two immoveable points n, N: through the same n and N the
right line nN acts, and this will be the perpetual locus of that mobile point M. For, if it
should happen that the point M can move along some curved line. Therefore, the point D
will touch the conic section passing through the five points B, C, A, p, P, where the point
M always lies on a curved line. But also, from the demonstration now made, the point D
also lies on the conic section passing through the five points B, C, A, p, P, where the
point M always lies on a right line. Therefore the two conic sections will pass through the
same five points, contrary to Corol. 3, Lemma. XX. Therefore is absurd for the point M
to be moving on some curved line. Q. E. D.

PROPOSITION XXII. PROBLEM XIV.

To describe a trajectory through five given points.

Five points A, B, C, P and D may be
given. From any one of these points A to
some other two, which may be called the
poles B and C, draw the right lines AB and
AC, and from these draw the parallel lines
TPS, PRQ through the fourth point P.
Then from the two poles B and C, draw
the two indefinite lines BDT, CRD
through the fifth point D, crossing the
most recently drawn lines TPS and PRQ at T and R (the first to the first and the second to
the second). And then from the right lines PT and PR, with the right line drawn tr
parallel to TR itself, cut some proportion Pt and Pr of PT and PR; and if through the ends
t and r of these and the poles B and C, Bt and Cr are drawn concurrent in d, that point d
will be located in the trajectory sought. For that point d (by Lem. XX) may be placed in a
conic section crossed over by the four points A, B, C, P ; and with the lines Rr and Tt
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
vanishing, the point d coincides with the point D. Therefore the five points A, B, C, P, D
will pass through the conic section.
Q.E.D.
The same otherwise.
From the given points join any three A, B, C; and around two of these B, C, or the
poles, by rotating the given angles with magnitude ABC and ACB, the sides BA and CA
may be applied first to the point D, then to the point
P, and the points M and N may be noted with which
the other sides BL and CL, themselves cross over in
each case. The indefinite line MN may be drawn and
these mobile angles may be rotated around their poles
B, C, from that rule so that the intersection of the legs
BL, CL or BM, CM, which now shall be m, always
lies on that infinite line MN; and the intersection of
the legs BA, CA, or BD, CD, which now shall be d,
will delineate the trajectory sought PADdB. For the
point d (by Lem. XXI.) contains the section of the
cone passing through the points B and C; and when the point m approaches towards the
points L, M, N, the point d (by construction) will approach towards the points A, D, P.
And therefore the conical section passes through the five points A, B, C, P, D.
Q.E.F.
Corol. 1. Hence the right line can be drawn readily, which touches the trajectory at some
given point B. The point d may approach the point B, and the line Bd emerges as the
tangent sought.

Corol.2. From which also the centres of the trajectories, the diameters and the latera recta
can be found, as in the second corollary of Lemma XIX.

Scholium.

The first construction arose a little simpler by joining BP, and in that, if there was a
need, produced by requiring that Bp to BP is as PR ad PT; and by drawing an infinite
right line pe through p parallel to SPT itself, and on that always by taking pe equal to Pr;
and with the right lines Be , Cr drawn concurrent in d. For since there shall be Pr to Pt,
PR to PT, pB to PB, pe to Pt in the same ratio ; pe and Pr always will be in the same
ratio. By this method the points of a trajectory can be found most expeditiously, unless
you prefer a curve, as in the following construction, to be described mechanically.

[More information on this and related topics can be found in the book by J .L. Coolidge :
A History of Conic and Quartic Sections, originally published by OUP (1945), and later
as a paperback by Dover Books. The connection to Newton's ongoing research activities
can be found in Vol. IV of Whiteside's Mathematical Papers......, p.299, and in Vol. VI,
p.258 of the same. The entire writings of Greek geometry and many other things can be
found at the wilbourhall.org website, in Greek and Latin; these are corrected versions of
the ham-fisted efforts of Google in scanning old texts. Of particular interest is the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
monumental translation of the works of Apollonius by Edward Halley in 1712 from
Greek and Arabic sources into Latin; this was published about the same time as the
second edition of the Principia.]

PROPOSITION XXIII. PROBLEM XV.

To describe the trajectory, which will pass through four given points,
and which will touch a given right line in place.

Case 1. The tangent HB may be given, the point of
contact B, and three other points C, D, P. J oin BC, and
with PS acting parallel to the right line BH, and PQ
parallel to the right line BC, complete the parallelogram
BSPQ. Draw BD cutting SP in T; and CD cutting PQ in
R. And then, with some line tr parallel to TR , from PQ,
PS cut Pr, Pt proportional to PR, PT themselves
respectively; and the meeting point d of the lines drawn
Cr, Bt (by Lem. XX.) always lies on the described trajectory.

[Thus, the two methods of defining the conic section are shown, the first above using the
parallelogram method, while the second below uses the idea of poles with an angle
rotating about one pole and chords passing through the other pole from a variable point
on a line.]

The same otherwise.
While the angle with given magnitude CBH may rotate
about the pole B, then also some rectilinear radius DC has
been produced at both ends about the pole C. The points M,
N may be noted, in which the leg BC of the angle may cut
that radius, when the other leg BH meets the same radius at
the points P and D. Then for MN drawn indefinitely always
meeting that radius CP or CD, and the leg BC of the angle,
the join of the other leg BH with the radius will delineate
the trajectory sought.
For if in the constructions of the above problems the
point A may fall on the point B, the lines CA and CB
coincide, and the line AB in its ultimate position becomes
the tangent BH; and thus the constructions put in place there
become the same as the constructions described here.
Therefore the meeting of the leg BH with the radius passing through the points C, D, P
will delineate the section of the cone, and the right line BH tangent at the point B.
Q E.F.
Case 2. Four points may be given B, C, D, P , thetangent HI placed outside. With the
two lines BD, CP joined meeting in G, and with these lines crossing the tangent line in H
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
and I. The tangent may be cut at A, thus so that HA shall be to IA, as the rectangle under
the mean proportion between CG and GP and the mean
proportion between BH and HD, to the rectangle under the
mean proportion between DG and GB and the mean
proportion between PI and IC; and A will be the point of
contact.
[Thus,
2
2
CG PG HA BH DH
DG BG PI CI
AI

= , which is a constant ratio.
This can be viewed expediently as an application in analytic
geometry relating to the Rectangle Theorem mentioned
earlier; Whiteside has related this and the following lemmas to invariant cross ratios in
projective geometry, which of course did not exist as a theory at the time; we have to take
the Proposition of Apollonius (Book III, Prop.17) mentioned above as the basis of this
lemma and the following.]

For if HX parallel to the right line PI may cut the trajectory at some points X and T: the
point A thus will be located (from the theory of conics [Apollonius Conics III, 17&18. ]),
so that HA
2
will be to AI
2
in the ratio composed from the ratio of the rectangle XHT to the
rectangle BHD, or of the rectangle CGP to the rectangle DGB, and from the ratio of the
rectangle BHD to the rectangle PIC. Moreover with the point of contact found A, the
trajectory may be described as in the first case.
Q.E.F.
But the point A can be taken either between the points H & I, or beyond ; and likewise a
twofold trajectory can be described.

PROPOSITION XXIV PROBLEM XVI.

To described a trajectory, which will pass through three given points and which may
touch two given right lines in place.

The tangents HI, KL and the points B, C, D may be given. Through any two points B,
D draw the indefinite right line BD meeting the
tangents in the points H, K. Then also through any
two of the other points C, D draw the indefinite line
CD crossing the tangent lines at the points I, L. Thus
with the drawn lines cut these in R and S, so that HR
shall be to KR as the mean proportional between BH
and HD is to the mean proportional between BK and
KD; and IS to LS as the mean proportional is between
CI and ID to the mean proportional between CL and
LD. Moreover cut as it pleases either between the
points K and H, I and L, or beyond the same ; then
draw RS cutting the tangents at A and P, and A and P
will be the points of contact. For if A and P may be
supposed to be the points of contact situated somewhere on the tangents ; and through
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
some of the points H, I, K, L some I, placed in either tangent HI, the right line IT is
drawn parallel to the other tangent KL, which meet the curve at X and Y, and on that IZ
may be taken the mean proportional between IX and IY: there will be, from the theory of
conics, the rectangle XIY or IZ
2
to LP
2
as the rectangle CID to the rectangle CTD, that is
(by the construction) as SI
2
. ad SL
2
and thus IZ to LP as SI to SL. Therefore the points S,
P, Z lie on one right line. Again with the tangents meeting at G, there will be (from the
theory of conics), the rectangle XIY or IZ
2
to IA
2
as GP
2
to GA
2
and thus IZ to IA as GP
to GA. Therefore the points P, Z and A lie on a right line, and thus the points S, P and A
are on one right line. And by the same argument it will be approved that the points R, P
and A are on one right line. Therefore the points of contact A and P lie on the right line
RS. But with these found, the trajectory may be described as in the first case of the above
problem.
Q.E.F.
In this proposition, and in the following case of the above proposition the
constructions are the same, whither or not the right line XY may cut the trajectory at X
and Y ; and these may not depend on that section. But from the demonstrated
constructions where that right line may cut the trajectory, the constructions may be
known, where it is not cut ; I shall not linger with further demonstrations for the sake of
brevity.
[According to Whiteside, Pemberton, the editor of the 3
rd
and final edition, tried to induce
Newton to make some corrections to indicate the existence of two real solutions : see
note 60 p.243, Vol.6 Math. Papers......]

LEMMA XXII.

To change figures into others of the same kind.

Some figure HGI shall be required to be changed. Two parallel lines may be drawn in
some manner AO, BL cutting some third given line AB in place at A and B, and from
some point G of the figure, some line GD may be drawn to the line AB, parallel to OA
itself. [The initial skew axis can be taken as BDI
of the abscissa or ordinate x with origin A, and AO
as the applied line or coordinate y; this general
one to one degree preserving transformation, the
product of a simple affine transformation and a
plane perspectivity, or a simple translation and
rotation, and rescaling, had been published
originally by de la Hire in his Conic Sections,
(Note 67 Whiteside); subsequently used here to
convert converging lines into parallel lines.].Then
from some point O, given on the line OA, the right
line OD is drawn to the point D, crossing BL itself in d, and from the crossing point there
is raised the given line dg containing some angle with the right line BL, and having that
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
ratio to Od which DG has to OD; and g will be the point in the new figure hgi
corresponding to the point G. [Thus the first axis are translated and rotated and rescaled
to become th new axis; the new abscissa of the original point G is ad.] By the same
method the individual points of the first figure will give just as many points in the new
figure. Therefore consider the point G by moving continually to run through all the points
of the first figure, and likewise the point g by moving continually will run through all the
points of the new figure and describe the same. For the sake of distinction we may call
the DG the first order, and dg the new order; AD the first abscissa, ad the new abscissa; O
the pole, OD the cutting radius, OA the first order radius, and Oa (from which the
parallelogram OABa is completed) the new order radius.
Now I say that, if the point G touches the right line in the given position, the point g
will also touch the same right line in the position given. If the point G touches a conic
section, the point g will also touch a conic section. Here I count the circle with the conic
sections. Again if the point G touches a line of the third analytical order, the point g
touches a line of the third analytical order ; and thus with curved lines of higher order.
The two lines which the points G, g touch will always be of the same analytical order.
And indeed as ad is to OA thus are Od to OD, dg to DG, and AB to AD; and thus AD is
equal to
OA AB
ad
, and DG is equal to
OA dg
ad
. Now if the point G touches a right line,

and thus in some equation, in which a relation may be had between the abscissa AD and
the ordinate DG, these indeterminate lines AD and DG rise to a single dimension only, by
writing
OA AB
ad
for AD in this equation, and

OA dg
ad
for DG, a new equation will be

produced, in which the new abscissa ad and the new ordinate dg rise to single dimension
only, and thus which designate a right line. But if AD and DG, or either of these, will rise
to two dimensions in the first equation, likewise ad and dg will rise to two in the second
equation. And thus with three or more dimensions. The indeterminates ad, dg in the
second equation, and AD, DG in the first always rise to the same number of the
dimensions, and therefore the lines, which touch the points G, g, are of the same
analytical order.
I say besides, that if some right line may touch a curved line in the first figure ; this
right line in the same manner with the transposed curve in the new figure will touch that
curved line in the new figure ; and conversely. For if some points of the curve approach
to two and join in the first figure, the same transposed points will approach in turn and
unite in the new figure; and thus the right lines, by which these points are joined, at the
same time emerge as tangents in tangents of the curves in each figure.
The demonstrations of these assertions may be put together in a more customary
manner by geometry. But I counsel brevity.
Therefore if a rectilinear figure is to be transformed into another, if it is constructed
from right lines, it will suffice to transfer intersections, and through the same to draw
right lines in the new figures. But if it may be required to transform curvilinear figures,
points, tangents and other right lines are to be transferred, with the aid of which a curved
line may be defined. But this lemma is of assistance in the solution of more difficult
problems, by transforming the proposed figures into simpler ones. For any converging
right lines are transformed into parallel lines, by requiring to take some right line for the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
first order radius, which passes through the meeting point of convergent lines; and thus
because that meeting point with this agreed upon will go to infinity ; since they are
parallel lines, which never meet. But after the problem is solved in the new figure; if by
inverse operations this figure may be changed into the first figure, the solution sought
will be had.
Also this lemma is useful in the solution of solid problems. For as often as two
sections of cones are come upon, of which a problem is required to be solved by the
intersection, it is possible to change either of these, if it shall be either a hyperbola or a
parabola into an ellipse: then it may be easily changed into a circle. Likewise a right line
and a conic section, in the construction of plane problems, may be turned into a right line
and a circle.

[The interested reader may like to know that Edmond Halley the first editor, according to
Note 71 on p. 272 of Vol. VI of the Math. Works....., wished further explanation from
Newton on this Lemma; this he was given in a letter from Newton, but which never made
it translated into Latin into the Principia. Coolidge, using coordinates, derives a
transformation of the kind indicated on p. 46 of his history of sections.]

PROPOSITION XXV. PROBLEM XVII.

To describe a trajectory, which will pass through two given points, and touch three
given lines in place.

Through the meeting of any two tangents with
each other in turn, and the meeting of the third
tangent with that line, which passes through the two
given points, draw an indefinite line; and with that
taken for the first order radius, the figure may be
changed by the above lemma, into a new figure. In
that new figure these two tangents themselves
emerge parallel in turn to each other, and the third
tangent becomes parallel to the right line passing
through the two given points. Let hi, kl be these two
parallel tangents, ik the third tangent, and hl a right
line parallel to this passing through these points a, b,
through which the conic section in this new figure must pass through, and completing the
parallelogram hikl. The right lines hi, ik, kl may be cut in c, d, e, thus so that the side hc is
to the square root of the rectangle ah.hb, [i.e. hc squared shall be to the rectangle ah.hb],
as ic to id, and ke to kd as the sum of the rectangles hi and kl is to the sum of the three
lines, the first of which is the right line ik, and theother two are as the squared sides of
the rectangles ah.hb and al.lb: and c, d, e will be the points of contact. For indeed; from
the conics, hc
2
is to the rectangle ah.hb, as ic
2
to id
2
, and ke
2
to kd
2
, and in the same ratio
el
2
to the rectangle al.lb; and therefore hc is to the square root of ahb, ic to id, ke to kd,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
and el to the square root of al.lb are in that square root ratio, and on adding, in the given
ratio of all the preceding hi and kt to all the following, which are to the square root of the
rectangle ah.hb, and to the rectangle ik, and the square root of the rectangle al.lb.
Thereforethe points of contact c, d, e may be had from that given ratio in the new figure.
By the inverse operations of the newest lemmas these points may be transferred to the
first figure, and there (by Prob. XIV.) the trajectory may be described. Q. E. F.

[From the Rectangle Theorem :
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
and hence
hc ic ke ic le hc
ha hb lb la ha hb
id kd id

= = = = ; or
hc ic ke le
id kd
ha hb lb la
= = = . Hence given ratio.
hc ci ke el hi kl
id dk ha hb lb la ik ha hb lb la
+ + + +
+ + + + +
= = ]

Moreover thence so that the points a,b lie either between the points h, l, or beyond, the
points c, d, e must lie between the points taken h, i, k, l , or beyond. If either of the points
a, b fall between the points h, l, and the other beyond, the problem is impossible.

PROPOSITION XXVI. PROBLEM XVIII.

To describe a trajectory, which will pass through a given point, and will touch four
given lines in place.

From the common intersection of any two tangents to the
common intersection of the remaining two an indefinite right line
is drawn, and the same taken for the first order radius, the figure
may be transformed (by Lem. XXII.) into a new figure, and the
two tangents, which met at the first order radius now emerge
parallel. Let these be hi and kl ; ik and hl containing the
parallelogram hikl. And let p be the point in this new figure
corresponding to a given point in the first figure. Through the centre of the figure Opq is
drawn, and putting Oq to equal Op, q will be another point through which the conic
section in this new figure must pass. By the operation of the inverse of Lemma XXII this
point may be transferred into the first figure, and here two points will be had through
which the trajectory is to be described. Truly that same trajectory can be described by
Problem XVII.
Q.E.F.
[On p. 272 of Vol. VI of the Math. Papers...., Whiteside has drawn a hyperbola for the
external case, where the curve and the points p and q lie outside the parallelogram.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
LEMMA XXIII.

If two given right lines in place AC, BD may be terminated in two given points A, B,
and they may have a given ratio in turn, and the line CD, by which the indeterminate
points C, D are joined together, may be cut in the given ratio at K : I say that the point
K will be located on a given fixed right line.

For the right lines AC and BD meet in E, and on BE
there may be taken BG to AE as BD is to AC, and FD
always shall be equal to the given EG ; and from the
construction there will be EC to GD, that is, to EF as
AC to BD, and thus in the given ratio, and therefore a
kind of triangle EFC is given. CF may be cut in L so
that CL to CF shall be in the ratio CK to CD; and on account of that given ratio, a kind of
triangle EFL will also be given ; and thence the point L will be place in a given position
on the line EL. J oin LK, and CLK, CFD will be similar triangles; and on account of FD
given and the given ratio LK to FD, LK will be given. This may be taken equal to EH,
and ELKH always will be a parallelogram. Therefore the point K is located on the side
HK of this parallelogram in place.
Q.E.D.

Corol. On account of the given kind of figure EFLC, the three right lines EF, EL and EC,
that is, GD, HK and EC, in turn have given ratios.

LEMMA XXIV.
If three right lines may touch some conic section, two of which shall be parallel and
may be given in position; I say that the semi-diameter of the section parallel to these
two lines, shall be the mean proportional between the segments of these, from the
points of contact and to the third interposed tangent.

Let AF and GB be the two parallel tangents of the conic
section ADB touching at A and B; EF the third tangent of
the conic section touching at I, and crossing with the first
tangents at F and G; and let CD be the semi-diameter of
the figure parallel to the tangents : I say that AF, CD, BG
are continued proportionals.
For if the conjugate diameters AB and DM cross the
tangent FG at E and H, and mutually cut each other at C
and the parallelogram IKCL may be completed; from the nature of the conic section as
EC is to CA thus CA is to CL, [by Apoll. Book III, Prop. 42] and thus by division ECCA
to CACL, or EA to AL, and from adding EA to + EA AL or EL as EC to EC CA + or EB;
and thus, on account of the similar triangles EAF, ELI, ECH, EBG, AF to LI as CH to
BG. Likewise, from the nature of conic sections, LI or CK is to CD as CD is to CH; and
thus from the rearranged equation, AF to CH as CD to BG.
Q.E.D.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.

Corol. I. Hence if the two tangents FG, PQ with the parallel tangents AF, BG cross at F
and G, P and Q and mutually cut each other at O; from the rearranged equation there will
be AF to BQ as AP to BG, and on dividing as FP to GQ, and thus as FO to OG.

Corol. 2. From which also the two right lines PG, FQ, drawn through the points P and
G, F and Q, concur at the right line ACB through the centre of the figure and passing
through the points of contact A, B .

LEMMA XXV.
If the four sides of a parallelogram produced indefinitely may touch some conic
section, and are cut by some fifth tangent; moreover the ends of any two neighbouring
sides [sections] cut off opposite the angles of the parallelogram may be taken : I say
that each section shall be to its side, as the part
of the other neighbouring side between the
point of contact and the third side, is to the
section of this other side.
The four sides ML, IK, KL, MI of the
parallelogram MLIK may touch the conic section
at A, B, C, D, and the fifth tangent FQ cuts these
sides at F, Q, H and E; moreover the sections of
the sides MI, KI may be taken ME and KQ, or of
the sides KL, ML the sections KH, MF : I say that
ME to MI shall be as BK to KQ; and KH to KL as AM to MF. For by the first corollary
of the above lemma ME is to EI as AM or BK to BQ, and by taking ME to MI as BK to
KQ. Q. E. D.

Likewise KH to HL as BK or M to AF, and on dividing KH to KL as AM to MF. Q E.D.

Corol. I. Hence if the parallelogram IKLM is given, described about some given conic
section, the rectangle KQ ME will be given, and also as equally to that the rectangle
KH MF . For the rectangles are equal on account of the similarity of the triangles KQH
and MFE.

Corol. 2. And if a sixth tangent eq is drawn crossing with the tangents KI, MI at q and e;
the rectangle KQ ME will be equal to the rectangle Kq Me ; and there will be KQ to
Me as Kq to ME, and by division as Qq to Ee.

Corol. 3. From which also if Eq, eQ may be joined and bisected, and a right line is
drawn through the point of bisection, this will pass through the centre of the conic
section. For since there shall be Qq to Ee as KQ to Me, the same right line will pass
through the midpoints of every EQ, eQ, M K (by Lem. XXIII.), and the midpoint of the
line MK is the centre of the section.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
[See Whiteside note 80, Vol. VI p.280 Math. Papers... for some of the interesting history
on this Lemma]

PROPOSITION XXVII. PROBLEM XIX.

To describe a trajectory, which touches five given lines in position.

The tangents ABG, BCF, GCD, FDE, EA may be given in position. For the
quadrilateral figure ABFE contained by any four, bisect the diagonals AF, BE in M and N,
and (by Corol.3. Lem. XXV.) the right line MN drawn through the point of bisection
will pass through the centre of the trajectory . Again for the figure of the quadrilateral
BGDF, contained by any other four tangents, the diagonals (as thus I may say) BD, GF
bisected in P and Q: and the right line PQ drawn through the point of bisection will pass
through the centre of the trajectory. Therefore the centre will be given at the meeting
point of the bisectors. Let that be O. Draw KL parallel to any tangent BC of this
[trajectory], to that distance so that the centre O may be located at the mid-point between
the parallel lines ; and the line KL drawn will touch the trajectory to be described [note :
the diagram is misleading: K does not lie on the ellipse] . It will cut these other two
tangents in GCD and FDE in L and K. Through the meeting points of the non-parallel
tangents CL, FK with the parallel tangents CF, KL, C and K, F and L draw CK, FL
meeting in R, and the right line OR drawn and produced will cut the parallel tangents
CF, KL in the points of contact. This is apparent by Corol.2, Lem. XXIV. By the same
method it will be possible to find the other points of contact, and then finally by the
construction of Prob. XIV. to describe the trajectory. Q. E .F.

Scholium.
The problems, where either the centres or asymptotes of the trajectory are given, are
included in the proceeding. For with the points and tangents given together with the
centre, just as many other points and tangents are given from the other parts of this
trajectory equally distant from the centre. But an asymptote may be taken as a tangent,
and the end of this will be considered for the point of contact at an infinite distance (if
thus it shall be spoken of). Consider the contact point of any tangent to go off to infinity,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
and the tangent will change into an asymptote, and the constructions of the preceding
problems [XIV and Case 1 of XV] will be changed into constructions where the
asymptote is given.
After the trajectory has been described, we are free to find the axes and the foci of this
curve by this following method. In the construction and in the figure of Lemma XXI,
made so that the legs BP, CP of the moveable angles PBN, PCN, by the meeting of which
the trajectory was described, in turn themselves shall become parallel, and then
maintaining that position [the angles] may be rotated about their poles B and C in that
figure. Meanwhile truly the other legs CN, BN of these angles may describe the circle
BGKC, by their meeting at K or k,. Let O be the centre of this circle. From this centre to
the ruler MN, to which these other legs CN and BN meanwhile will concur, while the
trajectory may be described, send the normal OH from the centre crossing at K and L.
And where these other legs CK and BK meet at that point K which is closer to the ruler,
the first legs CP and BP will be parallel to the major axis, and perpendicular to the
minor; and the opposite comes about, if the same legs meet at the more distant point L.
From which if the centre of the trajectory may be given, the axes are given. But from
these given, the foci are evident.
[A detailed explanation of these results is given by Whiteside in the notes 92 95 Vol. VI
of the Math. Papers....p.285 ; Whiteside also considers the hyperbolic case with a
splendid diagram.]
Truly the squares of the axes are one to the other as KH to LH, and from this the kind
of the trajectory given by the given four points is easily described. For if from the two
points given [on the curve], the poles C and B may be put in place, the third will give the
mobile angles PCK and PBK; moreover with these given the circle BGKC can be
described. Then on account of the given kind of trajectory, the ratio OH to OK will be
given, and thus OH itself, With centre O and with the interval OH describe a circle, and
the right line, which touches this circle, and passes through the meeting point of the legs
CK and BK, where the first legs CP and BP concur at the fourth given point, will be that
ruler MN with the aid of which the trajectory may be described. From which also in turn
the kind of trapezium [i.e. quadrilateral] given (if indeed certain impossible cases are
excepted) in which some given conic section can be described.
Also there are other lemmas with the aid of which given kinds of trajectories, with
given points and tangents, are able to be described. That is of this kind, if a right line may
be drawn through some given point in place, which may intersect the given conic section
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
in two points, and the interval of the intersection may be bisected, the point of bisection
may touch another conic section of the same kind as the first, and having the axes parallel
with those of the former. But I will hurry on to more useful matters. [This question is
examined by Whiteside in note 98 of the above.]

LEMMA XXVI.

The three angles of a triangle given in kind and magnitude are put in place one to one to
as many given right lines in place, which are not all parallel.

Three right lines AB, AC, BC are given in place and it is required thus to locate the
triangle DEF, so that the angle of this D may touch the line AB, likewise the angle E the
line AC, and the angle F the line BC. Upon the
sides DE, DF & EF describe three segments
of circles DRE, DGF, EMF, which take angles
equal to the angles BAC, ABC, ACB
respectively. But these segments may be
described to these parts of the lines DE, DF,
EF, so that the letters DRED may be returned
in the same cyclic order with the letters BACB,
the letters DGFD with the same letters ABCA,
and the letters EMFE with the letters ACBA;
then these segments may be completed in whole circles. The first two circles cut each
other mutually in G, and let P and Q be the centres of these. With GP and PQ joined,
take Ga to AB as GP is to PQ , and with the
centre G, with the interval Ga describe the
circle, which will cut the first circle DGE in a.
Then aD is joined cutting the second circle DFG
in b, then aE cutting the third circle EMF in c.
And now the figure ABCdef can be set up
similar and equal to the figure abcDEF. With
which done the problem is completed.
For Fc itself may be drawn crossing aD in n,
and aG, bG, QG, QD, PD may be joined. From
the construction the angle EaD is equal to the
angle CAB, and the angle acF is equal to the
angle ACB, and thus the triangle anc is
equiangular to the triangle ABC . Hence the
angle anc or FnD is equal to the angle ABC, and thus is equal to the angle FbD ; and
therefore the point n falls on the point b. Again the angle GPQ, which is half of the angle
at the centre GPD, is equal to the angle at the circumference GaD; and the angle GQP,
which is half the angle at the centre GQD, is equal to the complement of two right angles
at the circumference GbD, and thus equal to the angle Gba; and thus the two triangles
GPQ and Gab are similar; and Ga is to ab as GP to PQ ; that is (from the construction) as
Ga to AB. And thus ab and A B are equal; and therefore the triangles abc and ABC,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
which we have approved in a similar manner, are also equal. From which, since the sides
ab, ac, bc respectively may touch the above angles D, E, F of the triangle DEF , the
angles of the triangleabc, the figure ABCdef can be completed similar to the similar and
equal figure abcDEF, and that on completion solves the problem. Q E F.

Corol. Hence a right line can be drawn the parts of which given in length will lie between
three given right lines in place. Consider the triangle DEF, with the point D approaching
the side EF, and with the sides DE, DF placed along a line, to be changed into a right
line, the given part of which DE must be placed between the right lines given in place
AB, AC, and the preceding part DF between the given right lines AB, BC in place ; and
by applying the preceding construction to this case the problem may be solved.

PROPOSITION XXVIII. PROBLEM XX.

To describe a trajectory given in kind and magnitude, the given parts of which will lie
in position between three given lines.

The trajectory shall be required to be described, which shall be similar and equal to the
curved line DEF, and which with the three right lines AB, AC, BC given in position, will
be cut into the given parts of this by the similar and equal parts of this DE and EF.
Draw the right lines DE, EF, DF, and to the triangle of this DEF place the angles D, E,
F to these given right lines in place (by Lem. XXVI), then describe a similar and equal
trajectory of the curve DEF about the triangle. Q.E.F.

LEMMA XXVII.

To describe a given kind of trapezium [i.e. quadrilateral ], the angles of which are
given to four right lines in position, one to one in position, and which are not all
parallel, nor converge to a common point,.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
The four right lines may be given in position ABC, AD, BD, CE; the first of which
may cut the second at A, the third at B, and the fourth at C: and the trapezium fghi shall
be required to be described, which shall be similar to the trapezium FGHI ; and the angle
f of which shall be equal to the given angle F, may touch the right line ABC; and the
other angles g, h, i, shall be equal to the other given angles G, H, I , may touch the lines
AD, BD, CE respectively. FH and the aboveFG may be joined, FH and F1 may describe
as many sections of the circle FSG, FTH, FVI; of which the first FSG may take an angle
equal to the angle BAD, the second FTH may take an angle equal to the angle CBD, and
the third FVI may take an angle equal to the angle ACB. But the segments must be
described according to these parts of the lines FG, FH, F1, so that the letters FSGF shall
be in the same cyclic order as the letters BADB, and so that the letters FTHF shall be
returned in the same circle with the letters CBDC, and the letters FVIF with the letters
ACEA. The segments may be completed into whole circles, and let P be the centre of the
first circleFSG, and Q the centre of the second FTH. Also PQ may be joined and
produced in each direction and in that QR may be taken in the same ratio to PQ as BC has
to AB. But QR may be taken on the side of the point Q so that the order P, Q, R of the
letters shall be the same as of the letters A, B, C: and with centreR and with the interval
RP the fourth circle may be described FNc cutting the third circle FVI in c. Fc may be
joined cutting the first circle a, and the second in b. aG, bH, and cI are constructed and
the figure abcFGHI can be put in place similar to the figure ABCfghi. With which done
the trapeziumfghi will be that itself, which it was required to construct.
For the two first circles FSG and FTH mutually cut each other in K. PK, QK, RK, aK,
bK, and cK may be joined and QP may be produced to L. The angles to the
circumferences FaK, FbK, FcK are half of the angles FPK, FQK, FRK at the centres, and
thus equal to the halves of these angles LPK, LQK, LRK. Therefore the figure PQRK is
equiangular and similar to the figureabcK, and thereforeab is to bc as PQ to QR, that is,
as AB to BC. By construction, to the above FaG, FbH, FcI the angles fAg, fBh, fCi are
equal. Therefore to the figure abcFGHI the similar figureABCfghi is able to be
completed. With which done the trapeziumfghi may be constructed similar to the
trapeziumFGHI, and with its angles f, g, h, i touching the right lines ABC, AD, BD, CE.
Q. E. F.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.
Corol. Hence a right line can be drawn whose parts, with four given lines in position
intercepted in a given order, will have
a given proportion to each other. The
angles FGH and GH1 may be
augmented as far as that, so that the
right lines FG, GH, HI may be placed
in a direction, and these in this case
by constructing the problem will lead
to the right line fghi, the parts of
which fg, gh, hi, intersected by the
four right lines given in position AB
and AD, AD and BD, BD and CE, are
to one another as the lines FG, GH,
HI, and they will maintain the same
order among themselves. Truly the same shall be expedited thus more readily.
AB may be produced to K, and BD to L, so that B K shall be to AB as HI to GH; and
DL to BD as GI to FG; and KL may be joined crossing the right line CE in i. There may
be produced iL to M, so that there shall beLM to iL as GH to HI, and then there may be
drawn MQ parallel to LB itself, and crossing the right line AD in g, then gi cuts AB, BD
in f, h. I say that it has been done. [See note 110 of Whiteside for an explanation.]
For Mg may cut the right lineAB in Q, and AD the right lineKL in S, and AP is drawn
which shall be parallel to BD itself and may cross iL in P, and there will be gM to Lh (gi
to bi, Mi to Li, GI to HI, AX to BK) and AP to BL in the same ratio. DL may be cut in R so
that DL shall be to RL in that same ratio, and on account of the proportionals gS to gM,
AS to AP, and DS to DL; there will be, from the equation, as gS to Lh thus AS to BL
and DS to RL; and on mixing [the ratios], BLRL to LhBL as ASDS to gSAS. That is,
as BR to Bh so AD to Ag, and thus as BD to gQ. And in turn BR to BD as Bh to gQ, or fh
to fg. But by construction the line BL will be cut in the same ratio in D and R and the line
FI in G and H: and thus BR is to BD as FH to FG. Hence fh is to fg as FH to FG.
Therefore since also there shall be gi to hi as Mi to Li, that is, as GI to HI, it is apparent
the lines FI, fi similarly are cut in g and h, G and H.
Q. E.F.
In the construction of this corollary after LK is drawn cutting CE in i, it is allowed to
produce iE to V, so that there shall be EV to Ei as FH to HI, and to draw Vf parallel to
BD itself. The same is returned if from the centre i, with the radius IH, a circle may be
described cutting BD in X, and iX may be produced to r, so that iT shall be equal to IF,
and Tf may be drawn parallel to BD.
Other solutions of this problem were devised formerly by Wren and Wallis.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section V.

PROPOSITION XXIX PROBLEM XXI.

To describe a trajectory of a given kind, which from four given right lines will be cut
into parts, in order, in given kind and proportion.

A trajectory shall be required to be described, which shall be similar to the curved line
FGHI, and the parts of which, similar and proporional to the parts of this FG, GH, HI,
with the right lines given in position AB and AD, AD and BD, BD and CE, the first may
lie between the first, the second with the second, and the third with the third. With the
right lines drawn FG, GH, HI, FI, the trapezium [read as quadrilateral] fghi may be
described (by Lem. XXVII.) which shall be similar to the trapezium FGHI, and the
angles of which f, g, h, i may touch these right lines given in position AB, AD, BD, CE,
one to one in the said order. Then about this trapezium the trajectory of the like curved
line FGHI may be described.
Scholium.

It is possible for this problem to be constructed as follows. With FG, GH, HI, FI
joined produceGF to P, and join FH, 1G, and with the angles FGH, PFH make the
angles CAK, DAL equal. A K and AL are concurrent with the right line BD in K and L,
and thence KM and LN are drawn, of which KM may make the angle AKM equal to the
angle GHI, and it shall be to AK as HI is to GH ; and LN may make the angle ALN equal
to the angle FHI, and it shall be to AL as HI to FH. Moreover AK, KM, KM, AL, LN may
be drawn to these parts of the lines AD, AK, AL, so that the letters CAKMC, ALKA,
DALND may be returned in the same order with the letters FGHIF in the orbit; and with
MN drawn it may cross the right line CE in i. Make the angle iEP equal to the angle1GF,
and PE shall be to Ei as FG to G1; and through P there is drawn PQf, which with the
right line ADE may contain the angle PQE equal to the angleFIG, and crosses the right
line AB in h and fi may be joined. But PE and PQ may be drawn to these sections of the
lines CE and PE, so that the cyclic order of the lines PEiP and PEQp shall be the same as
of the letters FGHIF, and if above on the line fi also the same order of the letters may be
put in place, the trapeziumfghi will be similar to the trapeziumFGHI, and the given kind
of trajectory may be circumscribed, the problem may be solved.
Up to this point concerned with the finding of orbits. It remains that we may determine
the motion of bodies in the orbits found.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.

SECTION VI.

Concerning the finding of motions in given orbits.
(s)

(t)
Thus, according to the annotated edition of the Principia by Fathers Le Seur and
J acquier, the last edition of which was pub. in 1833 in Glasgow, the so-called 'J esuit
Edition' , we have this summary :-
Note 338 (s), p. 202:
Newton in this whole section supposes the body thus to be moving in a given conic
trajectory, so that with the radii drawn to the focus of the trajectory, areas or sectors will
be described proportional to the times; for by that law in Book 3, all the planets have
been shown by the phenomena to revolve in conic section orbits. In addition the time is
required to be noted, in which the body will arrive at some given point of the trajectory of
the orbit from some given point of the trajectory, e.g. from the principal vertex point of
that to some other point on the same given trajectory ; and for the area to be given or the
sector of the trajectory corresponding to this given time ; and from these given, the
moving position on the trajectory may be sought at some other given time; or on the other
hand the time may be sought in which the moving point will reach some given point in
the trajectory; for since the areas shall be proportional to the times, in some given time,
the area described in this time may be found, and in turn with the area described given,
the time may be found in which the motion was described.

PROPOSITION XXX. PROBLEM XXII.

To find the position of a body in a given parabolic trajectory at a designated time.

Let S be the focus and A the principle vertex of the
parabola, and let4AS M be equal to the area of the
parabola APS cut off, by which the radius SP, either after
the height of the body had been described from the
vertex, or before the approach of this to the vertex has
been described. The magnitude of this area cut off is
known to be proportional to the time itself. Bisect AS in
G, and raise a perpendicular GH equal to 3M, and the
circle described with centre H, radius HS will cut the
parabola at the position sought P. For, with the
perpendicular PO sent to the axis and with PH drawn,
there is

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
( )
2 2
AG GH HP AO AG PO GH
AO PO AG AO GH PO AG GH .
+ = = +
= + + +

From which
2 2 2 2
3
4
2 ( 2 ) GH PO AO PO AG AO AO PO . = + = + [Since
2
4
OP
AS AO = , ]
For
2
AO write
2
4
PO
AS
AO [i.e.
2
2
3
4 4
2
PO
AS
GH PO AO PO = + ] ; and with all the applied
terms divided by 3PO and multiplied by 2AS, there becomes

4 1 1
3 6 2
3 4 3
6 6
(
area ) area
AO AS AO SO
GH AS AO PO AS PO
PO PO APO SPO APS.
+
= +
= = = =

[For the area under the parabola is
2
3
AO OP (either by integration, or from Archimedes
Prop. 17, quadr. Parab. sup. Theor. IV, de Parabola).]
But GH was equal to 3M, and thence
4
3
GH AS is 4AS M . Therefore the area cut APS
is equal to the area 4AS M , that was required to be cut.
Q. E. D.

Corol.1. Hence GH is to AS, as the time in which the body has described the arc AP to the
time in which the body has described the arc between the vertex A and the perpendicular
to the axis erected from the focus S. [Let P'S be the semi-latus rectum, for which
2 P' O AS = , then the area APS : area AP'S =
4 2
3 3
: 2 : GH AS AS AS GH AS = .]

Corol. 2. And with the circle ASP always passing through the moving body at P , the
velocity of the point H is to the velocity which the body had at the vertex A as 3 to 8; and
thus also in that ratio is the line GH to the right line that the body in the time of its motion
from A to P, that it may describe with the velocity it had at the vertex A. [See Note 339
(b) ]
338 (t) : Let S be the focus, and A, the principal vertex of the parabola, and the time shall
be given in which the body in moving on the parabola, as we have established (358.),
from the vertex A to the point P, or arrives at the vertex A from the point P , or the time
shall be given in which the sector APS is described.

Note 339 (b):
J oin AP, and at the mid-point q of this,
raise the perpendicular L, and since (from
the demonstration) always HP HA = , and
thus AP is the chord of this circle whose
centre is H. And thus (by Book I, Sect. I
Euclid's Elements) that perpendicular qL
cuts the right line GH in H ; and on account
of the similar triangles LGH, LqA there is
1
2
: or : GH qA AP LG Lq = . There may be
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.
taken 2 AC AS = clearly half of the latus rectum of the parabola, and with centre C, and
with the radius CA, the circle AN may be described, this is a tangent to the parabola at A
(note 241); truly with the points P and A, H and G coincident, and thus also the points L
and C coincide. Let 2 4 Lq LA CA AS GS = = = = and 3 LG CG GS = = , and with the arc
AP equal to the chord AP, (Lem. VII) ; from which since in the above proportion there
shall be
1
2
: : GH AP LG Lq = , in this case there shall be
1
2
: 3 : 4 GH AP GS GS = ; that is,
: 3:8 GH AP = . Truly on account of the uniformity of the motion and equally by
continuing in its state over the time through the points A, P, G, H, the velocity of the
point H at G, is to the velocity of the body P at A as GH to AP, and because (from the
Dem.)
4
3
AS GH is always equal to the area APS, and
4
3
AS is a constant quantity, GH
will always be as the area APS, that is as the time in which the point H, has run through
GH, and is hence whose motion is uniform and the same everywhere. Whereby the
velocity of the point H is everywhere to the velocity that the body P has at A, as arising at
GH , to that arising at AP, that is, as 3 to 8. Q.e.d.

Corol. 3. Hence also in turn it is possible to find the time in which the body has described
some designated arc AP. J oin AP and to the mid-point of this erect the perpendicular GH
to the line crossing in H. [i.e. the same argument for the time can be applied to any point.]

LEMMA XXVIII.

No figure is extant, cut by right lines as you please, of which the oval area may be able
to be found generally by equations with a finite number of terms and dimensions.

Within an oval some point may be given, about which or pole a right line may rotate
perpetually, with a uniform motion, and meanwhile on that right line a point may emerge
moveable from the pole, and it may always go forwards with that velocity, which shall be
as the square of that right line within the oval. [See note 359.] By this motion the point
will describe a spiral with infinite rotations. Now if a part of the oval area can be found
cut from that right line by a finite equation, also the distance may be found by the same
equation of the point from the pole, which is proportional to this area, [See note 360
below.] and thus all the points of the spiral can be found by a finite equation: and
therefore from any position of this right line the intersection with a given position with
the spiral also can be found by a finite equation. And every right line produced infinitely
cuts the spiral in an infinite number of points, and the equation, [See note 361 below.] by
which some intersection of the two lines may be found, shows all the intersections of
these with just as many roots, and thus it rises to just as many dimensions as there are
intersections. Because two circles cut each other mutually in two points, a single
intersection may not be found except by an equation of two dimensions, from which the
other intersection also may be found. Because there can be four intersections of the two
conic sections [See note 362 below.], it is not possible to find any of these generally
except by an equation of four dimensions, from which all may be found at the same time.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.
For if these intersections themselves may be sought, since the law and the condition of
all is the same, the calculation will be the same in each case, and therefore always the
same conclusion, which therefore must include all like intersections and shown
indifferently. From which also the intersections of conic sections and of curves of the
third order, because from that there can be six, likewise they may be produced by
equations of six dimensions, and six intersections of the two curves of the third power,
because nine can be possible, likewise they may arise from equations of nine dimensions.
Unless that by necessity may come about, all solid [i.e. volume or 3 dimensional]
problems may be allowed to be reduced to the plane, and greater than solid [three
dimensions] to three dimensions. I am concerned here with curves that are irreducible in
power. For if the equation, by which a curve is defined, can be reduced to a lower power
: the curve will not be single, but composed from two or more equations, whose
intersections can be found separately by different calculations. In the same manner the
intersections of two right lines and the sections of cones will always be produced by
equations of two dimensions, of three right lines and of irreducible curves of the third
power by equations of the third dimension, of four right lines and of irreducible curves of
the fourth power by equations of the fourth dimension, and thus indefinitely. Therefore
the intersections of right lines and spirals will require equations with an infinite number
of dimensions, since this curve shall be simple and irreducible into many curves, and an
infinitude of roots, by which all the intersections can be likewise shown. For this is the
same law and the same calculation of everything. For if from the pole a perpendicular
may be sent through that intersecting right line, and that perpendicular may be rotated
together with the intersecting line about the pole, the intersections of the spiral will cross
mutually from one into another, whatever shall be first or nearest, after one revolution
will be the second, after two the third, and thus henceforth: nor meanwhile will the
equation be changed except for the change in the magnitude of the quantities by which
the position of the cuts may be determined. From which since these quantities after
individual rotations may return to the first magnitudes, the equation will be returned to
the first form, and thus one and the same will show all the intersections and therefore an
infinite number of roots will be had, from which everything is able to be shown.
Therefore the intersection of a right line and a spiral will be unable to be shown generally
by a finite equation, and therefore nothing may be shown by such an equation generally
with the area of which oval, cut by designated right lines.
By the same argument, if the distance between the pole and the point, by which the
spiral may be described, should be taken proportional to the perimeter of the oval cut, it
cannot be proved because the length of the perimeter cannot be shown generally by a
finite equation. But here I talk about ovals which are not touched by conjugate figures
going off to infinity.
Further notes from the Le Seur and J acquier edition:

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.

Note 359: Within the oval ACBA some point P may be given, or about which pole the
right line PS may rotate perpetually, with a uniform motion, thus so that the given point A
of this line may describe equal arcs of circles AamX in equal intervals of time, and
meanwhile on that right line PS, the moving point p may emerge from the pole P, and
will always go on the same right line PS with the velocity which shall [note the error
here!] be as the square of that right line within the oval, that is, when the line PS arrives
at the place Ps, and the mobile point P at p, the velocity of the point p shall be as the
square of the right line PQ contained between the pole P and the oval AQCP, in this
motion that point p, describes the spiral PpnZ, with infinite rotations.

Note 360. With these in place the right line Pp will always be as the area PAQP; for the
circle AamX may be understood to be divided into innumerable equal arcs as am, and
with the radii of the spiral PQ, Pq drawn, the perpendiculars Qr, pL sent from the circle
to the oval crossing at p and n, a and m, Q and q, to Pq, and in the same time in which the
point a, will traverse the arc am, the point p may run through the arc am, the point p may
run through the line Ln ; on which account with the arc am arising, Ln will be as the
velocity of the point p on the right line Ps, that is, (by hyp.) as the square of the line PQ;
again on account of the similar triangles Pam, PQr : :
PQ am
Pa
Pa PQ am Qr

= = , and
hence the area of the sector arising PQq,
2
1
2 2
PQ am
Pa
Qr PQ

= . Therefore since am and
2Pa shall be constant quantities (by hyp.), the area PQq arising or the flux of the area
PAQ will be as PQ
2
, and thus as the emerging Ln, or as the flux of the right line Pp, and
hence the total area of the fluent PAQ, will be as the total right line of the flux Pp , (Cor.
Lem. IV) Q.e.d.
Note 361. The points p and Q may be referred to the right line AB, in the given position
with the perpendiculars Q, H, pF sent to AB and the area PAQ shall be equal to a finite
quantity E from the variable lines PH, QH and composed from other constants as desired,
and since the line Pp is proportional to the area PAQ or to the finite quantity E (360), that
line will be able to be expressed by a factor from the quantity E into a constant quantity
B, and Pp E B = will be a finite equation. Truly from the similar triangles PFp, PHQ
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.
and the right angle to H, : Pp pF PQ = , or
2 2
: PH QH QH + , and : Pp PF PQ = , or
2 2
: PH QH PH + , and besides from the nature of the oval AQCB, another equation
may be given between PH and QH, four finite equations therefore may be found, which
likewise contain five variables, to wit Pp, PF, pF, PH, QH, and which hence will be able
to be reduced to a single finite equation in which only two variables PF, pF may be
found, and thus by this finite equation all the points of the spiral will be able to be found,
and therefore with the position given of any right line Sp, the intersection p of any given
right line Sp with the spiral also can be found from a finite equation; for since two right
lines Sp, SB shall be given in position, the magnitude of the line SP and the nature of the
triangle SpF may be given, and hence the ratio of the lines SF or SP PF to Fp, and a
new equation may be found between PF and Fp; therefore by this equation and by the
other which is to the spiral, PF may be determined, and Fp, and the point of intersection
p may be found by a finite equation.

Note 362. The two lines AMS, Sms may be referred to the same right line AQ given in
place, mutually intersecting in the points S, s , and let AQ, AP be the common abscissae,
and QS, PM, Pm the ordinates accorded to these; because with the common intersections
of the lines SMs, Sms, the ordinates PM, Pm are equal, if in the two equations for the
lines SMs, Sms, with the abscissae remaining common, in place of the ordinates PM, Pm,
the same letters may be written, such as y, and then from these equations the letter which
expressed the common abscissa may be eliminated, an equation will be obtained
composed from y and constants only. Again this final equation no more will determine
the first common ordinate SQ, or the first intersection S, than the third of the fourth, etc,
since there shall be the same law for everything and likewise the same condition in the
calculation; therefore this equation must show completed and indifferently all the
common coordinates QS, and likewise all the intersections S, and thus just as many roots
or the values of y to be returned as there are common ordinates or intersections, but the
equation has just as many dimensions as the number of roots; and thus if the intersections
S, s of the lines SMs, Sms, shall be finite in number, also the equation which may
determine those is finite ; but if the intersections were infinite in number, the equation
will be of infinite dimensions and with an infinitude of roots.
See also Chandrasekbar, p. 133. Here the point is made that 'smooth' curves are
geometrically rational or algebraic, and thus their area can be found; curves with points
of discontinuity, called 'geometrically irrational' by Newton, such as a sector of the
ellipse, are not smooth, and do not satisfy an algebraic equation of a finite number of
dimensions, and therefore cannot be integrated exactly. However, we find in what
follows that such sectors can be related to the area of the corresponding circular circle,
and approximate solutions can be found for the angle, if we know the area : which is of
course the aim of this section the area is known and the angle or position in the orbit is
required. Open curves such as the parabola and hyperbola do not suffer from this
condition.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.

Corollary.
Hence the area of [the sector] of an ellipse, which will be described by a radius drawn
from the focus to a moving body, will not be produced by a finite equation for the time
given; and therefore cannot be determined geometrically from the drawing of rational
curves . I call curves geometrically rational [i.e. algebraic], all of the points of which are
defined by lengths, that is, they are able to be determined by complicated ratios of lengths
; and the others (as spirals, quadratrixes, trochoides) I call geometrically irrational. For
the lengths which are or are not as number to number (just as in the tenth Book of the
Elements) are arithmetically rationals or irrationals. [Whiteside notes that it was Barrow
who made this connection on innumerability, and not Euclid, which Newton corrected.]
Therefore I cut off an area of an ellipse proportional to the time as follows, by a
geometrically irrational curve [i.e. a cycloid].

PROPOSITION XXXI. PROBLEM XXIII.

To find the position of a body in a given elliptical trajectory at a given designated time.

Let A be the principle vertex of an ellipse APB; S the focus, and O the centre, and let P
be the position of the body required to be found. Produce OA to G, so that OG shall be to
OA as OA to OS [In modern terms, if we let the eccentricity be e, than OS ae = and
OG a / e = , whereOA a = .] Erect the perpendicular GH, and with centre O and radius
OG describe the circle GEF, and upon the ruler or established right line GH, the wheel
GEF may progress by rotating about its axis, meanwhile with its own point A tracing out
the trochoid ALI. With which done, take GK in the ratio to the perimeter of the wheel
GEG, so that the time, in which the body by progressing from A will describe the arc AP,
is to the time of one revolution of the ellipse. The perpendicular KL can be erected
crossing the trochoid [or prolate cycloid] at L, and with LP itself drawn parallel to KG
will meet the ellipse in the position of the body sought P.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.
[Note that the ellipse does not itself rotate, just the point P on its curve, along with the
imaginary wheel , and the diagram is counter intuitive, as the circle must rotate clockwise
while it moves to the left to produce the curve shown so that P falls on L at the position
shown; this appears to be rather strange; the diagram by Wren who originally constructed
this solution, had the cycloid going to the right ; thus we may consider the point P to
coincide with A when 0 = , which is also a point on the cycloid, and the wheel to be
rolling to the left, so that P later actually coincides with L in the position shown. In this
case, in rotating through the positive angle , the point P moves to the left a distance GK
or
a
e
, while in the same time shortening this distance by the amount a sin ; hence
relative to the origin O fixed in space in the position shown, we have the point L situated
at ( );
a
e
x esin = the position of the y coordinate is given by (1 )
a
e
y ecos = . Thus,
this point is assumed given, from which we may deduce the area swept out by P in the
orbit.]
For with centre O, with the radius OA the semicircle AQB may be described, and for
LP to meet the arc AQ if there is a need by producing Q, and SQ, OQ may be joined. For
the arc EFG may cross OQ in F, and to the same OQ there may be sent the perpendicular
SR. Thearea APS is as the area AQS, that is as the difference between the sector area
OQA and the triangle area OQS, or, as the difference of the products
1 1
2 2
and OQ arcAQ OQ SR , [recall that for different ellipses or for an ellipse and a
circle, on the same diameter and with the ordinates in a given ratio, then the
corresponding areas of elliptic (and circular) sectors are in the same ratio b/a.] that is, on
account of the given
1
2
OQ, as the difference between the arc AQ and the right line SR,
[i.e. the circular sector AQS = ( )
1
2
OQ arcAQ SR , and the elliptic sector
b
a
APS AQS = ],
and thus (since the equal ratios shall be given, SR to the sine of the arc AQ, OS to OA, OA
to OG, and the arc AQ to the arc GF, and on separating, to arcAQ SR GF sin arcAQ),
as GK to the difference between the arc GF and the sine of arc AQ.
[i.e. ( )
2
a
APS arcAQ SR = giving SR OS sinarcAQ aesin = = , and hence the area of
the elliptic sector APS = ( )
2
ab
e sin , which relates to the known x coordinate, which
is moving along the x axis at a constant speed. There is still the problem of finding the
angle from the coordinate x analytically, if we are not content with simply measuring it
from a mechanical model.]
Q.E.D.
[Whiteside, in VI note134, points put that this mechanical solution of the problem of
determining the time to travel along the arc of the ellipse from the apse A is essentially
the same as that found by Wren in 1658, and published by Wallis in his tract De Cycloide
the following year. Note that this mechanical solution uses arcs rather than areas. Further
information can be found in the notes provided by Whiteside, especially note 138. Part of
the confusion about the following method was due to a page being mislaid by Humphrey
Newton, Newton's amanuensis, which resulted in several pages being deleted, as Newton
was unable in the short time availabe due to the printing in process, to reproduce that
page. The ellipse is now put upright, and a numerical method is used to solve Kepler's
equation.]
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.

Scholium.

The remaining description of this curve shall be had with difficulty, it is better to give
an approximate solution. Then a certain angle B may be found, which shall be to the
angle of the degrees 57.29578, that an arc subtends equal to the radius, as it is the
distance SH of the focus to the diameter of the ellipse AB; then also a certain length L,
which shall be to the radius [r] in the same ratio inverted. [Thus, in modern terms, we set
the eccentricity equal to the size of the angle B in radians or
HS SO r
AB AO L
B e = = = = , the
eccentricity.] With which once found, the problem then may be put together by the
following analysis. By some construction, or in some manner by making a guess, the
position of the body P may be known near to the true position p. And with the applied
ordinate PR sent to the axis of the ellipse, from the proportion of the diameters of the
ellipse, the ordinate RQ of the circumscribed circle AQB is given, which is the sine of the
angle AOQ with the radius being AO [by def.], and which cuts the ellipse at P. That will
suffice in a rough calculation to find the angle in approximate numbers. [That is,
SH PR
QR AB
e = = .] Also the angle may be known to be proportional to the time, that is, which
may be to four right angles, as the time is in which the body will describe the arc AP, to
the time of one revolution in the ellipse. Let this angle be N. [Thus,
2 2
arcAp
t N
T r
= = .]
[Clearly, the solution is required to the problem: area of sector of ellipse ApS : area of
sector of circle AqS =b/a. This may be developed as above, and we come upon an
equation similar to that above : the elliptic sector ( )
2
ab
ApS e sin = ; or
N e sin = , and the value of is required to satisfy this equaton. Following
Whiteside, an approximate solution is set up
2 1 1
= + , where
i
is small; from which
successive approximations follow. The initial value
1
it taken as the angle AOQ, while
the values for
1 2
etc , , ., are successively E, G... We may, for clarification, invoke
Newton's Method for finding a better approximation to the root of an equation : if x
0
is an
approximate root of the equation ( ) 0 f x = , then a better approximation is
1
1
( )
2 1
( )
f x
f ' x
x x = , and so on; here ( ) f N esin = + , in which case
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.
( ) 1 f ' ecos = + , and
( )
2
N AOQ L r sin AOQ
N AOQ Bsin AOQ
Bcos AOQ Lcos AOQ
AOQ AOQ
+
+
= = ;
thus, the correction is the angle
( ) ( ) N AOQ L r sin AOQ N AOQ L
r sin AOQ
Lcos AOQ Lcos AOQ Lcos AOQ
+
= + ; Newton sets
the correction into two parts,
r sin AOQ
Lcos AOQ
D = ; and applies the correction D to the other part,
giving :
( ) L N AOQ D
Lcos AOQ
E
+
= .] Then an angle D may be taken to the angle B, as the sine of
the angle AOQ to the radius itself, and an angle E to the angle N AOQ D + , as the
length L to the same length L diminished by the cosine of the angle AOQ [this statement
applies to both parts above], where that angle is less than a right angle, but increased
when it becomes greater. Afterwards then the angle F may be taken to the angle B, so that
the sine of the angleAOQ E + is to the radius, and the angle G to the angle
N AOQ E F + as the length L to the same length diminished by the cosine of the
angle AOQ + E , when that is less than a right angle, increased when greater. In the third
place in turn, the angle H may be taken to the angle B, as the sine of the angle
AOQ E G + + is to the radius; and the angle I to the angle N AOQ E G H + , and the
length L to the same length diminished by the cosine of the angle AOQ E G + + , when
this is less than a right angle, increased when greater. And thus it is permitted to go on
indefinitely. Finally the angle AOQ may be taken equal to the angle
AOQ E G I &c + + + + . And from the cosine of this Or and with the ordinate pr, which is
to the sine of this qr as the minor axis of the ellipse to the major axis, the correct position
p of the body is obtained. If when the angle N AOQ D + is negative, the + sign of E
everywhere is changed into , and the sign into +. Likewise it is to be understood
concerning the signs of G and I, where the angles
and N AOQ E F, N AOQ E G H + + may be produced negative.
But as the infinite series etc AOQ E G I + + + + . converges rapidly, thus so that scarcely
will there be any need to progress further than
to the second term E. And the calculation may
be based on this theorem, that the area APS
shall be as the difference between the arc AQ
and the right line from the focus S sent
perpendicularly to the radius OQ.
A similar calculation is put in place with the
hyperbola problem. Let O be the centre of this,
the vertex A, the focus S and the asymptote OK.
The magnitude of the area cut off is requiring to
be proportional to the time. Let that be A, and a
guess is made concerning the position of the
right line SP, which shall be cut approximate to the true area APS. OP may be joined, and
from A and P to the asymptote draw AI and PK parallel to the other asymptote, and the
area AIKP will be given by a table of logarithms, and from the area equal to OPA, which
taken from the triangle OPS, the area cut APS will be left. From the difference of the area
requiring to be cut off A and of the area cut off APS the double 2 2 APS A or
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VI.
2 2 A APS to the line SN, which is perpendicular from the focus S into the tangent TP,
the length of the chord PQ may arise. But that chord PQ may be inscribed between A and
P, if thearea cut APS shall be greater than the area required to be cut A, otherwise cut at
the opposite side of the point P: and the point Q will be a more accurate position of the
body. And with the computation repeated the same may be found more accurately
indefinitely.
And from these calculations the problem generally can be put together analytically.
Truly the calculation which follows is more fitted to astronomical uses. With the semi-
axis of the ellipse AO, OB, OD present, and L its latus rectum, and D the difference
between the semi-minor axis OD and the semi-latus rectum
1
2
L ; whereby then the angle
Y, the sine of which shall be to the radius as the rectangle formed from that difference D,
and the half sum of the axes AO OD + to the square of the major axis AB; then the angle
Z, the sine of which shall be to the radius as twice the rectangle formed by the distance
between the foci SH and that difference D to the triple of the square of the major semi-
axis AD. With these angles thus found ; the position of the body thus can be determined.
Take the angle T proportional to the time in which the arc BP has been described, or
equal to the mean motion (as they say) ; and the angle V, as it is the first equation of the
mean motion, to the angle Y, the first maximum equation, as the sine of double the angle
T to the radius ; and the angle X, the second equation, to the angle Z, the second
maximum equation, as the cube of the sine of the angle T is to the cube of the radius. [See
Whiteside note 159 Vol. VI etc.] Take the sum of the angles T, V, X or the sum
T X V + + , if the angle T is less than a right
angle , or the difference T X V + , if this
greater than a right angle and less than two
right angles, equal to the angle BHP, the mean
motion equation ; and if HP should cut the
ellipse at P, with SP drawn it will cut the area
BSP approximately in proportion to the time.
This practice may be seen to be work well
enough, because of the very small angles V and
X therefore arising, in seconds of arc, if it
pleases to be sufficient to find two or three
figures of the places. And also this is accurate
enough for the theory of the planets. For in the orbit of Mars itself, the equation of the
centre of which is ten degrees, the error scarcely will exceed a second of arc. But when
the equated mean motion has been found (the angleBHP), then the true motion (the angle
BSP) and the distance (SP)are had readily by the well-known method [of Seth-Ward; this
useful reference is missing in the 3
rd
edition, in place in the 1
st
and 2
nd
edition].
Up to the present we have been concerned with the motion of bodies on curved lines.
But it may also happen that the body ascends or descend by a right line, and I now go on
to to set out matters relating to motions of this kind.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.

SECTION VII.

Concerning the rectilinear ascent and descent of bodies.

[Newton treats this problem as a limiting case of orbital motion, and there are three cases
to consider: elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic orbits. It is easily shown in modern terms
that in the elliptic case, the total energy of the body is given by
2
1
2
0
r
v

< , while in the
second and third cases the total energy is zero, and >0 respectively, where relates to
the gravitational constant. Newton of course does not follow this approach. The task is to
find the time to fall a given distance in a straight line towards the focus, or to be projected
away likewise, with some given initial velocity and position. The method depends on
finding the equivalent circular motion relating the areas, which are in proportion to the
times as previously. The problem is then essentially a special case of Kepler's problem;
arcs are related to areas.]

PROPOSITION XXXII. PROBLEM XXIV.

Because the centripetal force shall be inversely proportional to the square of the distance
with the position from the centre, to define the intervals which a body by falling in a
straight line will describe in given times.

Case. I. If the body does not fall perpendicularly, it will describe
some conic section (by Corol. I, Prop. XIII.) the focus of which
agrees with the centre of forces. Let that conic section be ARPB, and
S the focus of this . And initially, if the figure is an ellipse, upon the
major axis AB of this the semicircle ADB may be described, and by
falling the body may cross the right line DPC perpendicular to the
axes; and with DS and PS drawn, the area ASD will be [proportional]
to the area ASP, and thus also proportional to the time. With the axes
AB remaining, the width of the ellipse may be continually become
less, and always the area ASD will remain proportional to the time.
That width may be decreased indefinitely : and with the orbit APB now coincident with
the axes AB and the focus S with the end of the axis B, the body will descend on the right
line AC, and the area ABD becomes proportional to the time. And thus there will be given
the interval AC, which the body will describe by falling perpendicularly from the position
A in the given time, but only if the area ABD may be taken proportional to the time, and
the perpendicular DC may be sent from the point D to the right line AB
Q.E.I.
[See Chandrasekhar p.143 and beyond for a modern treatment, Routh & Brougham, p. 77
; Whiteside Vol. VI, p. 325 onwards. In this case, the length of the latus rectum, given by
2
2 1 a e , can approach zero as the eccentricity e approaches 1, making the ellipse more
narrow and keeping the transverse length fixed, while the focus tends towards B, and the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.
time is proportional to the area intercepted by a radius SP on the circle with diameter DB,
where S coincides with B in the limiting case.]

Case 2. If that figure RPB is a hyperbola [second diagram], the rectangular hyperbola
BED may be described according to the same principal diameter AB : and because the
areas CSP, CBfP, SPfB are in proportion to the areas CSD, CBED, SDEB, one to one, in
the given ratio of the heights CP, CD; and the area SPfB is proportional to the time in
which the body P will be moved through the arc PfB; the area SDEB will also be
proportional to the same time. [Note that the here the rectangular hyperbola is the regular
figure equivalent to the auxiliary circle for the ellipse, used in finding the area
corresponding to the time.]The latus rectum of the
hyperbola RPB may be diminished indefinitely with the
transverse width remaining fixed, and the arc PB will
coincide with the right line CB and the focus S with the
vertex B and the right line SD with the right line BD.
Therefore the area BDEB will be proportional to the
time in which the body C by falling in a straight line will
describe the line CB.
Q.E.I.
[In this case, the latus rectum or the focal chord, is given
by
2
2 1 a e , and as e approaches 1, the orbit becomes
narrower, maintaining the same separation of the foci
and centre.]

Case 3. And by a similar argument if the figure RPB is a parabola, and with the same
principal vertex B another parabola BED may be
described, which always may be given, then meanwhile
the first parabola, on the perimeter of which the body P
may be moving, and with the latus rectum of this
reduced to zero, it may agree with the right line CB;
the segment of the parabola BDEB will be proportional
to the time in which both P or C will descend to the
centre.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.
PROPOSITION XXXIII. THEOREM IX.

With the positions now found, I say that the velocity of the falling body at some place C is
to the velocity of a body describing a circle with the centre B and radius BC, in the
square root ratio that AC, the distance of the body from the circle or from the more
distant vertex of the rectangular hyperbola A, has to the principal semi-diameter of the
figure
1
2
AB.

AB may be bisected in O, the diameter of each common figure RPB, DEB; and the
right line PT may be drawn, which may touch the figure RPB in P, and also cuts that
common diameter AB (if there is a need for extending) in T; and let SY be perpendicular
to that right line, and let BQ be perpendicular to this diameter, and L may be put as the
latus rectum of the figure RPB . It may be agreed by Corol. IX, Prop. XVI, that the
velocity at some place P of the body moving on the line RPB about the centre S, shall be
to the velocity of the body being described about the circle with the same centre and
radius SP as the square root of the ratio of the rectangle
1
2
L SP to SY
2
.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.
[Recall that by Corol. IX, Prop. XVI, the velocity at P for the conic is as
1
2
L
SY
, and for
the circle with radius SP, for which the velocity is as
1
SP
[i.e., in modern terms, from
the force equation for motion in a circle, we have
2
2
1 1
or
v
r
r r
v ], we have
2 1
2
2 2 2
conicAPB
cir .rad . SP
L SP v
L
v SY SY
SP
=
= = , where we note that the circle is an ellipse with equal semi-

major and minor axes, and the latus rectum is the diameter, while SY becomes SP.]

But from the theory of conics there is AC.CB to CP
2
as 2AO to L, and thus
2
2CP AO
ACB

equals L.
[To show this analytically for an ellipse, note initially from
2
2
2 2
1
y
x
a b
+ =
that
( )
( )( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
1
x b
a a
y b a x a x = = + ; hence
2
2 2
2 2 AC.CB a a AO
L L
CP b
= = = , hence
2
2 CP AO
AC.CB
L
= , as
2
2b
a
L = .]
Therefore these velocities in turn are in the square root ratio
2
CP AO SP
AC.CB

to SY
2

[ or
2
2
2 2
conic
circle
v
CP AO SP
v AC.CB SY

= ].
Again from the theory of conics CO is to BO as BO to TO, and by adding or taking from
each other as CB to BT. From which either by taking or adding there shall be BO or +
CO to BO as CT to BT, that is, AC to AO as CP to BQ

[i.e. =
CO BO BO CO BC
BO TO TO BO BT
+
+
= = ; then 1
BC TC
BT BT
= , while 1 1
OC OC AC
OB OA OA
= = because of
the similar triangles CPT and BQT,
BQ.AC
OA
CP = ];
and thence
2
CP AO SP
AC.CB

is equal to
2
BQ AC SP
AO BC

. Now with the width CP of the figure

RPB diminished indefinitely, thus so that the point P coincides with the point C; and the
point S with the point B, and the line SP with the line BC, and the line ST with the line
BQ ; and the velocity of the body now descending on the right line CB becomes to the
velocity of the body describing the circle BC with the radius B, in the square root ratio of
2
BQ AC SP
AO BC

to SY
2
, that is (with the equal ratios SP to BC and BQ
2
to SY
2
ignored), in the
square root ratio AC to AO or
1
2
AB , [i.e.
C conic
circle
v
AC
v AO
= .]
Q. E.D.

Corol. I. With the points B and S coinciding, TC shall be to TS as AC to AO.

Corol. 2. With the body rotating in some circle at a given distance from the centre of the
circle, it may rise up by its own motion to twice is distance from the centre.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.

PROPOSITION XXXIV. THEOREM X.

If the figure BED is a parabola, I say that the velocity of the falling body at some place C
is equal to the velocity by which the body can describe
a circle uniformly with centre B and with radius half of
its interval BC.

For the velocity of the body describing a parabola
RPB about a centre S at some place P (by Corol. Prop.
XVI.) is equal to the velocity of the body describing a
circle uniformly about the same centre S, with a radius
half of the interval SP. There the width of the parabola
CP may be diminished indefinitely, so that the arc of
the parabola PfB may coincide with the right line CB,
the centre S with the interval B, and the radius SP with the interval BC, and the
proposition will be agreed upon.
[Recall
2
2
2 2
conic
circle
v
CP AO SP
v AC.CB SY

= ; in this case
2
2 2
2 1
2
AC.CB a a
L
CP b
= = = , and hence
2
2 2
2
1
conic
circle
v
AO SP
v SY

= = when
1
2
AO BC = and SP SY BC = = .]

PROPOSITION XXXV. THEOREM XI.

With the same in place, I say that the area of the figure, described by the indefinite radius
SD, shall be equal to the area that the body can describe in the same time, with a radius
equal to half of the latus rectum of the rectilinear figure DES, by rotating uniformly
about the centre S.

For consider the body C as falling in the shortest interval of time to describe the
element of length Cc, and meanwhile another body K, by rotating uniformly in a circle
OKk about the centre S, to describe the arc Kk. The perpendiculars CD and cd may be
erected meeting the figure DES in D and d. SD, Sd, SK, Sk may be joined and Dd may be
drawn meeting the axis AS in T, and to that the perpendicular SY may be sent.

Case. 1. Now if the figure DES is a circle or a rectangular hyperbola, the diameter AS
may be the transverse bisector of this at O, and SO will be half of the latus rectum. And
because TC is to TD as Cc to Dd, and TD to TS as CD to SY, so that from the equation
there will be TC to TS as CD Cc to SY Dd .

[i.e. = and =
TC Cc CD TD
TD Dd TS ST
, ;
TC CD Cc
TS SY Dd
= ]

But (by Coroll. Prop. XXXIII.) TC is to TS as AC to AO, for example if the final ratios of
the lines may be taken on placing the points D and d together. Therefore AC is to AO or
SK as CD Cc to SY Dd . Again the velocity of the descending body at C is to the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.
velocity of the body described around the circle with radius SC and centre S in the square
root AC to AD or SK (by Prop. XXXIII.) And this velocity to the velocity of the body
describing the circle OKk is in the square root ratio SK to SC (by Corol. VI. Prop. IV.)
and from that equation the first velocity to the final, that is the line element Cc to the arc
Kk is in the square root ratio AC ad SC, that is in the ratio AC to CD. Whereby
CD Cc is equal to AC Kk , and therefore AC to SK asAC Kk to SY Dd , and
thusSK Kk equals SY Dd , and
1
2
SK Kk equals
1
2
SY Dd , that is the area KSk is
equal to the area SDd. Therefore in the individual small increments of time

the small increments of the two areas KSk and SDd may be generated, which, if the
magnitude of these may be diminished and the number increased indefinitely, maintain a
ratio of equality, and therefore (by the Corollaries of Lemma IV.) the whole areas
generated likewise are always equal. Q.E.D.

Case. 2. But if the figure DES shall be a parabola,
there may be found to be as above CD Cc is to
SY Dd as TC to TS, that is as 2 to 1, and thus
1
4
CD Cc is equal as above
1
2
SY Dd . But the
velocity of the falling body at C is equal to the
velocity by which the circle with radius
1
2
SC may be
able to be described uniformly (by Prop. XXXIV.)
And this velocity to the velocity by which the circle
with radius SK may be able to be described, that is,
the element Cc to the arc Kk (by Corol. VI., Prop.
IV.) is in the square root ratio SK to
1
2
SC , that is, in
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.
the ratio SK to
1
2
CD. Whereby
1
2
SK Kk is equal to
1
4
CD Cc and thus equal to
1
2
SY Dd , that is, the area KSk is equal to the area SDd as above. Q.E.D.

PROPOSITION XXXVI. PROBLEM XXV.

With the place of the falling body A given to determine the descent
times.

Upon the diameter AS, describe the semi-circle ADS, the distance
of the body at the start, and so that the semicircle OKH about the
centre S is equal to this. From some position of the body C erect the
applied ordinate CD. J oin SD, and put in place the sector OSK equal
to the area ASD. It is apparent by Prop. XXXV that the body on
falling describes the distance AC in the same time that the other
body, by rotating uniformly about the centre S, can describe the arc
OK in the same time. Q. E. F.

PROPOSITION XXXVII. PROBLEM XXVI.

To find the times of ascent or descent of a body projected from some given place.

[There is as need to classify the motion of a body, projected either up or down, into one
of the three types, corresponding to degenerate motion on and ellipse, hyperbola, or a
parabola. ]
The body may emerge from a given place G along the line GS with some velocity. In
the square ratio of this velocity to the uniform velocity in a circle, by which a body may
be able to rotate about the centre S for a given radius SG,

take GA to
1
2
AS . If that ratio is of the number two to one, the point A infinitely far away,
in which case a parabola is being described with vertex S, axes SG, with some latus
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.
rectum. This is apparent from Prop. XXXIV. But if that ratio were greater or smaller than
2 to 1, in the first case a circle, in the latter a rectangular hyperbola, must be described on
the diameter SA. It is apparent by Prop. XXXIII. Then with centre S, with a radius equal
to half the latus rectum, the circle HkK may be described, and at the position of the body
G either descending or ascending, and at some other place C, the perpendiculars GI and
CD meeting the conic section or the circle in I and D. Then with SI and SD joined, the
sectors HSK and HSk are made equal to the segments SEIS, SEDS, and by Prop. XXXV
the body G describes the interval GC in the same time in which the body K can describe
the arc Kk. Q.E.F.

PROPOSITION XXXVIII. THEOREM XII.

Because the centripetal force may be put proportional to
the height or distance of the places from the centre, I say,
that the times of falling, the velocities and the distances
described, are proportional to the arcs, to the sines of the
arcs and to the versed sines respectively.

[Recall that an inverse square law of force acting on a body
in orbit from the focus of the ellipse may be replaced by
one of proportionality acting from the centre (Prop. IV) ;
thus there is proportional motion between uniform rotation
on the auxiliary circle, on any ellipse with the same semi-major axis, and the S.H.M. on
the vertical line AS in the limiting case. Here the forces are in proportion to the distances
SC, the speeds to the chords CD, and the distances fallen to the versed sines AC.]
A body may fall from some position A along the right line AS; and from the centre of
forces S, with a radius AS, the quadrant of a circlemay be described AE, and let CD be
the [right] sine of any arc AD; and the body A, in the time AD, by falling will describe the
interval AC, and at the place C it will acquire the velocity CD.
In the same manner it may be shown from Proposition X, as by which Proposition
XXXII was demonstrated from Proposition XI.

Corol. I. Hence the times are equal, in which a single body by falling from the place A
arrives at the centre S, and another body by rotating will describe the fourth part of the
arc ADE.

Corol. 2. Hence all the times are equal in which bodies fall from any places as far as the
centre. For all the periodic times of revolution may be equal (by Corol. III. Prop. IV.).

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.

PROPOSITION XXXIX. PROBLEM XXVII.

With centripetal forces of any kind put in place, and with the quadratures of the
curvilinear figures agreed upon, the straight rise or fall of a body is required, as well as
the velocity at individual places , and the time in which the body may arrive at some
place: And conversely.

The body E may fall from some place A on the right line ADEC, and from its place E a
perpendicular line EG may always be put in place, proportional to the centripetal force at
that place tending towards the centre C: And let BFG be the curved line that point G
always touches [i.e. the curve traced out by the centripetal force or acceleration].
Moreover, at the start the line EG may coincide with the perpendicular AB itself, and the
velocity of the body at some place E will be as the right line, [the square of which] can be
as the curvilinear area ABGE. Q.E.I.
[This is essentially an exercise in integration; the first curve BFG is integrated w.r.t. z
from 0 z = at A to some general point, giving the area under the force vs. distance, or the
acceleration vs. distance curve, which we can interpret as the kinetic energy acquired, or
as the work done by the force; we can show this readily starting from ( )
2
ddz
dt
F z = ,
which can be written in the form ( )
dv dz dv
dz dt dz
. v F z = = , or as the indefinite integral
( )
2
1
2
v F z dz =
. Clearly Newton was familiar

with, and indeed was the originator of this
wonderful new approach to solving problems, but
chose not to divulge his method.]
On EG, EM may be taken for the right line,
which can be inversely proportional to [the square
root of] the area ABGE, and VLM shall be the
curved line, that the point N always touches, and
the asymptote of this is the right line AB produced;
and the time will be, in which the body by falling
describes the line AE, as the area under the curve
ABTVME.
Q. E. I.
[Following on from the last note, we now have
( )
1
2
2 1:
dt
dz
z E
F z dz area ABGE
EM.
=

=

=

If we call EM the function ( ) T z , then
( ) t T z dz =
; the limits of integration are chosen to

fit the circumstances, from A to E. There now
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.
follows the verification of these integrations by the inverse process of differentiation.]

And indeed on the right line AE there may be taken that line of the shortest length DE,
and DLF shall be the locus of the line EMG, when the body will be moving through D;
and if this shall be the centripetal force, as the right line, which can be the area ABGE, it
shall be as the velocity of the descent: that area will be in the square ratio of the speed,
that is, if for the velocities at D and E, there may be written V and V I + , the area ABFD
will be as VV, and the area ABGE as 2 VV .VI II + + , and separately the area DFGE as
2.VI II + , and thus
DFGE
DE
as
2VI II
DE
+
, that is, if the ratios are taken of the first vanishing
quantities, the length DF shall be as the quantity
2VI
DE
, and thus also as the quantity of half
of this
I V
DE
. But the time, in which the body falling will describe the element of line DE,
is as that element directly and as the velocity V inversely, and the force is as the velocity
increment I directly and the time inversely, and thus if the first vanishing ratios are taken,
as
I V
DE
, that is, as the length DF. Therefore DF or EG becomes proportional to the force
itself so that the body may descend with that velocity, which shall be as the right line
which can be as the [square root] of the area ABGE.
Q.E.D.
Again since the time, in which, in which any line element DE of a given length may be
described, shall be inversely as the velocity, and thus inversely as the right line which can
become the area ABFV; and let it be DL, and thus the area arising DLME, as the same
right line inversely: the time will be as the area DLME, and the sum of all the times as the
sum of all the areas, that is (by Corol. Lem. IV.) the total time in which the line AE is
described will be as the total area ATVME.
Q.E.D.

Corol. 1. If P shall be the place, from which the body must fall, as urged by some
uniform known centripetal force (such as gravity generally is supposed) it may acquire a
velocity at the place D equal to the velocity, that another body falling by some other
force has acquired at the same place D, and on the perpendicular DF, DR may be taken,
which shall be to DF as that uniform force [PQ] to the other force at the place D; and the
rectangle PDRQ may be completed, and an area ABFD equal to this may be cut off;
[Thus, ( ) PQ PD F z dz =
with suitable limits chosen.]

A will be the place from which the other body has fallen. For with the rectangle DRSE
completed, since there shall be the areaABFD to the area DFGE as VV to 2.VI, and thus
as
1
2
V to I, that is, as of half of the whole velocity to the increment of the velocity of the
body falling by the unequal force; and likewise the area PQRD to the area DRSE as of
half of the whole velocity to the increment of the velocity of the body falling under the
uniform force; and these increments shall be (on account of the equality of the increments
of time arising) as the generating forces, that is, as the applied lines DF, DR in order, and
thus as the areas arising DFGE and DRSE; from the equality of the total area, ABFD
and PQRD are as the half of the total speeds, and therefore, on account of the equal
speeds, equal in turn.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section VII.

Corol. 2. From which if some body may be projected from some place D with some
given velocity either up or down, and the law of the centripetal force may be given, the
velocity of this will be found at any other place e, on erecting the ordinate e.g., and by
taking that velocity at e to the velocity at the place D as the right line, which can become
[on squaring] the rectangular area PQRD either increase by the curved area DFge, if the
place e is below the place D, or decreased by it, if this is above, to the right line which
can become [on squaring] the area PQRD only.

[
2 2
1 2
Thus ( ) ,vel vel F z dz =
.]

Corol. 3. The time too will become known by erecting the ordinate em inversely
proportional to the square root of the side from PQRD + or DFge, and by taking the
time in which the body has described the line De to the time in which the other body fell
with a uniform force from P and on falling arrives at D, as the curvilinear area DLme to
the rectangle 2.PD DL . For the time in which the body falling under the uniform force
has described the line PD, is to the time in which likewise the body has described the line
PE in the square root ratio PD to PE, that is (with the element of the line now arising) in
the ratio PD to
1
2
PD DE + or 2.PD to 2PD DE + , and separately, to the time in which
the same body has described the line element DE as 2PD to DE, and thus as the
rectangle 2PD DL to the area DLME; and the time in which the one body has described
the line element DE to the time in which the other body in the non uniform motion has
described the line De, as the area DLME to the area DLme, and from the equality the first
time to the final time as the rectangle 2PD DL to the area DLme.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section VIII.
SECTION VIII.

Concerning the finding of orbits in which rotating bodies are acted on by any
centripetal forces.

PROPOSITION XL. THEOREM. XIII.

If a body may be moving in some manner, under the action of some centripetal force, and
another body may ascend or descend, and the velocities of these in some case are equal
at some altitude, then the velocities of these shall be equal at all equal altitudes.

[Although Newton of course does not use these exact words, this Proposition embodies
the genesis of the idea of equipotential surfaces surrounding the source of a force field of
some kind; in the diagram DE and EK are parts of such surfaces in the case of gravity,
and a body falling or orbiting in some manner acquires an acceleration in moving from
one surface to another, separated normally from it by an infinitesimal distance, and thus a
change in velocity is produced; thus, the distances considered which Newton calls
minimal are our infinitesimals, and likewise with the times involved. On the other hand,
an orbiting body as well as a dropped body have to conserve the equal areas in equal
times law, which amounts to the conservation of angular momentum, zero in the second
case; all of these matters are attended to here. The same arguments are true of course for
bodies projected upwards.]

Some body may descend from A through D and E to the centre C, and another body
may be moving from V on a curve VIKk. With the centre C, for some radii the concentric
circles DI and EK may be described meeting with the right line AC
in D and E, and with the curve VIK in I and K. IC may be joined
crossing KE at N itself; and onto IK there may be send the
perpendicular NT; and the separation DE or IN of the
circumferences of the circles shall be as a minimum, and the
bodies at D and I may have equal velocities. Because the distances
CD and CI are equal, the centripetal forces at D and I are equal.
These forces may be expressed by the equal line elements DE and
IN; and if the one force IN may be resolved into the two forces NT
and IT (by Corol. 2 of the Laws.); the force NT, by acting along the
line NT perpendicular to the course ITK of the body, will not
change the velocity of the body in that course, but will only draw
the body away from moving in straight line, and it will always act
to deflect the body from the tangent of the orbit itself, and the body
to be progressing along the way of the curved line ITKk. That force
will be completely used up in producing this effect: but the other
force IT, by acting along the course of the body, the whole force
will accelerate that body, and in the given time taken as the
minimum possible will generate an acceleration proportional to
that time itself. Hence the accelerations of the bodies at D and I
rd
Ed.

made in equal times (if the first ratios of the line elements arising are taken DE, IN, IK,
IT, NT ) become as the lines DE and IT: but with unequal times as these lengths and times
jointly. But the times in which DE & IK are described, on account of the equality of the
velocities are as the paths described DE and IK, and thus the accelerations, in the
described paths along the lines DE & IK, are as DE and IT, DE and IK jointly, that is as
DE
2
and the rectangle IT IK .

[If we let v be the common velocity at D and I initially, the first straight down, and the
second along the curve, then after an increment in time
DE
DE
v
t = , the first body has
acquired an extra velocity
2
DE
DE
v
g t g DE = ; as the acceleration g (or force per unit
mass) is expressed by the line DE :
(A lingering source of confusion in force diagrams at this time was that a line segment
could represent a displacement, a velocity, a force, etc; only vector notation eventually
removed some of this confusion.);
hence in this case, what we may call now the impulse or the change in velocity, F t , is
proportional to DE
2
.
For the other body on the curve, it has to travel a longer increment IK, but with the same
initial velocity v as D (from the hypothesis) ; hence in this case
IK
IK
v
t = ; in addition,
the actual component of the force along the curve is diminished by the cosine factor
IT
IN
;
or the impulse above, to which this must be equal, becomes

IT IK IT
IK
IN v IN
g t IN IK IT = .

Chandrasekhar shows this on p. 167 ; he also talks about energy conservation, and it is
quite wrong to do so, as there is no hint of conservation laws in the Principia, at least up
to this point, apart from Kepler's 2
nd
Law, which Newton uses implicitly without naming
it as such.]

But the rectangle IT IK is equal to IN
2
, that is, equal to DE
2
[from the similar triangles
ITN and IKN] and therefore the accelerations in the transition of the bodies from D and I
to E and K are produced equal. Therefore the velocities of the bodies are equal at E and K
: and will always be found equal by the same argument in the subsequent equal distances.
Q.E.D.

In addition by the same argument bodies both equidistant from the centre and with the
same velocity, in ascending to equal distances, are equally retarded. Q.E.D.

Cor. 1. Hence if a body may be oscillating hanging from a thread, or restrained to be
moving on some impediment perfectly lubricated and without friction, and another body
may ascend or descent directly, the velocities of these at the same height shall be equal :
the velocities of these will be equal to any others at all heights. For that same transverse
force NT shall be presented either by the thread or the impediment of the completely
rd
Ed.

slippery vessel. The body may not be retarded nor accelerated by that, but only
constrained by the curve to cease being linear.

Cor. 2. Hence also if the quantity P shall be the maxima distance from the centre to
which the body either oscillating or rotating in some trajectory may ascend, from some
lower point of the trajectory, as here it may be able to rise projected upwards with a
velocity ; and let the quantity A be the distance of the body from the centre at some other
point of the orbit, and the centripetal force always shall be as some power
1 n
A

of A, the
index 1 n of which is any number n diminished by one ; the velocity of the body at any
height A will be as
n n
P A , and therefore is given. For the velocity of the body
ascending and descending on a straight line (by Prop. XXXIX) is in this ratio itself.

PROPOSITION XLI. PROBLEM XXVIII.

With any kind of centripetal force in place, and the quadratures of the figures granted,
then both the trajectories in which bodies are moving are required, as well as the times of
the motions found in the trajectories.

Any force may be drawing [a body] towards the centre C and the trajectory VIKk shall
be required to be found. The circle VR with centre C may be given described with some
radius CV, and from the same centre some other circle [arcs] ID and KE are described
cutting the trajectory in I and K and the right line CV in D and E. Then draw the right line
CNIX cutting the circles KE and VR in N and X, and also the right line CKY meeting with
the circle VR in Y. Moreover let the points I and K themselves in turn be the closest
possible together, and the body may go from V by I and K to k; and the point A shall be
that place from which the other body must fall, so that at the place D it will acquire a
velocity equal to the velocity of the first body at I. And with the matters in place from
Proposition XXXIX, the line element IK, as given described in the shortest time, will be
as the velocity
[In modern terms we may write this velocity using polar coordinates ( ) r, corresponding
to CN and the angle NCK, as ( )
( )
1
2
2 2 2
ds r, dr r d = + and ( )
( )
1
2
2 2 2
v r, r r = +

],

and thus as the right line which can become [on integration] the area ABFD,

[Thus, the area ABFD vds =
; and which now we call the energy integral, corresponding

to the area is :
2
2
2
1
2
2
( )
h
r
r F r dr + =
, where F(r) is the attracting force on the body. This

equation arises from the force equation :
2
3
2 2
( ) since
h
r
r r F r , r h = + = , the
angular momentum equation, which Newton understood to be the 'equal area in equal
rd
Ed.

times' law (of Kepler.) Thus, the radial velocity below becomes
( )
1
2 2
2
2 ( )
h
r
r F r dr ABFD ZZ

= =

.]

and the triangle ICK will be given proportional to the time, and thus KN will be inversely
as the altitude IC, that is, if some [constant] quantity Q may be given, and the altitude IC
may be called A, [not to be confused with the vertex A, then the length KN varies ] as
Q
A
.
Hence we may use the name Z for the quantity
Q
A

[i.e. a length proportional to KN, normal to the radius at that point, so that Z IC is
proportional to the rate of change of area ; this quantity Z, which is just
h
r
, was
introduced by Halley in editing the work, to ease the typesetting, according to Whiteside
p.347 of Vol. VI],

and we may put the magnitude of Q to be that such that in some case there shall
be ABFD to Z, as IK is to KN, and in every case there will be ABFD to Z as IK

to
KN, and ABFD to ZZ as IK
2
to KN
2
, and separately ABFD ZZ to ZZ as IN
2
to KN
2
[i.e.
2 2 2
2 2
IK KN IN ABFDZZ
ZZ
KN KN
= = . ]
[In modern notation this becomes
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
h
r r
h
r
ABFD
v
dr IN
rd v KN
.
= = = ]
and thus ABFD ZZ is to Z (or
Q
A
) is as IN to KN, and therefore A KN equals

Q IN
ABFD ZZ
. From which since YX XC shall be toA KN as CX

2
to AA, XY XC
the rectangle will equal
2
Q IN CX
AA ABFD ZZ

[i.e.
2
2 2
2 2
2

dr
dt
Q IN CX
h dr CX h dt CX
r r AA ABFD ZZ
r d hdt.

= = = = ],

Therefore if Db and Dc may be taken on the perpendicular DF always equal respectively
to
2
Q
ABFD ZZ
and
2
2
Q CX
AA ABFD ZZ
,
[These are in turn
2 2
2
Q
h hdt
r dr
ABFD ZZ
= =
and
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2 2
r
Q CX r CX d
h CX CX
dr
r v r r AA ABFD ZZ
.

= = =

The first quadrature gives an area proportional to the time of descent, while the second
gives an area proportional to the sector angle, and thus locates the position of the body on
the curve.]

and the curved lines may be described ab and ac which always touch the points b and c;
and from the point V to the line AC the perpendicular Va may be drawn cutting the
curved areas VDba and VDca, and also the ordinates may be erected Ez, Ex: because the
rectangle Db IN or DbzE is equal to half of the rectangle A KN , or to the triangle
ICK; and the rectangle Dc IN or DcxE is equal to half of the rectangle TX XC or to
rd
Ed.

the triangle XCT; that is, since the small parts DbzE and ICK always equal the small parts
arising of the areas VDba and VIC, and DcxE and XCY are always equal to the small parts
arising of the areas Dca and VCX, the area generated VDba will always be an area equal
to the area VIC, and thus proportional to the time, and the area produced VDca equal to
the area generated VCX. Therefore with some time given from which the body has
departed from the place V, the area will be given itself proportional to VDba, and thence
the height of the body will be given CD or CI; and the area BDca, and for that the equal
VCX together with the angle of this VCI. But with the angle VCI and theheight CI given,
the place I may be given, in which the body will be found in that time completed. Q. E. I.

[This would have been a very difficult proposition for those of Newton's contemporaries
to follow, who were not conversant with Newton's calculus, and even now it is a little
difficult in the Latin until one knows what is going on; Chandrasekhar sets this out in
more detail on p. 170, where it becomes quite straight forwards as the double integration
derived from the original differential equation, while Whiteside provides a similar
historical enlightenment on p.347 of Vol. VI . Chandrasekhar admits to solving the
problems himself, those he tackles, and then relating his solution to that of Newton,
which has raised questions of anachronism, but these can be taken in one's stride; while
Whiteside digs deep into Newton's methods from a historical standpoint; clearly the latter
is more satisfactory, though the former has a lot to recommend it from the immediate
nature of the solutions provided for the common reader; in note (209) Whiteside sets out
the integrals for the angle and time of the orbiting body under a general force law;
unfortunately for Newton, his solution was poorly received or even understood by his
contemporaries, who went to great lengths subsequently to prove the same results using
Leibniz's notation, which later caused Newton much unhappiness : see Whiteside's notes
for further details on this. ]

Corol. I. Hence the maximum and minimum heights of bodies, that is, the apses of
trajectories may be found conveniently. For the apses are the points in that trajectory in
which the right line IC drawn through the centre falls perpendicularly on the trajectory
VIK : because that will be where the right lines 1K and NK are equal [i.e. 0 r = ], and
thus the area ABFD is equal to ZZ.

Corol. 2. But also the angle KIN, in which the trajectory cuts that line IC somewhere,
may be found conveniently from the height IC of the body; without doubt by taking the
sine of this to the radius as KN to IK, that is, as Z to the square root of the area ABFD.

rd
Ed.

Corol. 3. If from the centre C and from the principal vertex V some conic section VRS
may be described, and from some point R of this the tangent RT may be drawn meeting
the axis CV produced indefinitely at the point T; then with CR joined there may be drawn
the right line CP, which shall be equal to the abscissa CT, and the angle VCP is put in
place proportional to the sector VCR may be put in place ; moreover a centripetal force
may draw towards the centre C inversely proportional to the cube of the distance of the
place [of the body], and the body will emerge from the place V with thejust velocity
along the perpendicular right line CV :
that body may be progressing in the
trajectory VPQ which the point P
always touches ; and thus if the conic
section VRS shall be a hyperbola, the
same may fall to the centre. If that
conic were an ellipse, that body will
always ascend and depart to infinity.
And conversely, if some body may
emerge from the place V with a
velocity, and likewise so that it has
began either to descend obliquely to
the centre, or to ascend obliquely from
that, the figure VRS shall be either a
hyperbola or an ellipse, the trajectory
can be found either by increasing or
diminishing the angle VCP in some given ratio. But also, with the centripetal force
changed into a centrifugal force, the body will ascend obliquely in the trajectory VRC
which is found by taking the angle VCP proportional to the elliptic sector VRC, and the
length CP equal to the length CT as above. All these follow from the preceding
proposition, by the quadrature of some curve, the discovery of which, as that may be
done readily enough, I omit for the sake of brevity.
[Chandrasekhar, circa p.180, is not satisfied with this corollary , as it appears to contain
uncorrected misprints, which do not entirely agree with his own derivations, and the
diagrams have been altered in the third edition from the first two editions. Whiteside goes
to some length to try to remove the confusion. Clearly this is a point in Principia still in
need of complete final elucidation.]

PROPOSITION XLLI. PROBLEM XXIX.

With the law of the centripetal force given, the motion of the body from a given place is
required with a given velocity, arising along a given right line.

With the matters remaining in the three preceding propositions : the body may arise
from the place I along the line element IK, with that velocity which another body may
acquire at D by falling from the place P, acted on by some uniform centripetal force : and
this uniform force shall be to the first force by which the first body is acted on at I, as DR
to DF. But the body may go towards k ; and with centre C and with the radius Ck it may
rd
Ed.

describe the circle ke, meeting the right line PD in e, and there may be erected the
ordinates eg, ev, ew of the curves BFg, abv, acw. From the given rectangle PDRQ, and
with the given law of the centripetal force by which the first body is disturbed, the curved
line BFg is given, by the construction of problem XXVII, and Corol. I of this. Then from
the given angle CIK there is given

the arising proportion IK, KN is given, and thence, by the given construction of Prob.
XXVIII. the quantity Q is given, together with the curved lines abv and acw: and thus, in
some completed time Dbve, both the height of the body Ce or Ck is given, together with
the the area Dcwe, and the sector XCy is equal to that, and the angle ICk, and the place k
at which the body now will be moving. Q. E.I.
Moreover we may suppose the centripetal force in these propositions in receding from
the centre to be varied in some manner according to some law, as with which able to be
imagined at equal distances from the centre to be the same on all sides [i.e. symmetrical].
And up to this stage we have considered the motion of bodies in immoveable orbits. So
that there remains a few things we may add concerning the motion of bodies in orbits,
which are rotating around a centre of force.

[This is the complete problem, given with the starting conditions of the body. The above
integrations, which were indefinite, are now made definite.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
SECTION IX.

Concerning the motion of bodies in moving orbits, and from that the motion of the apses.

PROPOSITION XLIII. PROBLEM XXX.

It is required to bring about, that a body shall be able to move in a trajectory that
likewise rotates about the centre of forces, and another body to remain [moving] in the
same stationary orbit.

In the orbit VPK given stationary, the body
P may be revolving by going from V towards
K. From the centre C there may always be
drawn Cp, which shall be equal to CP itself,
and the angle VCp may be put in place
proportional to the angle VCP; and the area,
that the line Cp will describe, will be to the
area PCP, that the line CP will describe
likewise, as the velocity of the line describing
Cp to the velocity of the line describing CP;
that is, thus so that the angle VCp [will be] in a
given ratio to the angle VCP, and therefore
proportional to the time. Since the area that the
line Cp will describe in the motionless plane
shall be proportional to the time, it is evident
that the body, urged by a centripetal force of
the right size, together with the point p may be able to revolve in that curved line as the
same point p now may be described in the fixed plane in the account established. The
angle VCu is made equal to the angle PCp, and the Cu equal to the line CV, and the figure
uCp equal to the figure VCP, and the body always present at p will be moving on the
perimeter of the revolving figure uCp, and in the same time describes an arc of this up by
which the body P can describe another arc similar and equal to VP in the stationary figure
VPK. Therefore the centripetal force may be sought, by Corollary V of Proposition VI, by
which a body may be able to revolve on that curved line that the point p will describe in
the fixed plane, and the problem will be solved. Q. E.F.

[A number of ideas are to be presented here in succession, that perhaps need to be
examined in more detail; Newton's understanding of a physical system is set out in the
continued evolution of the positions, velocities, etc., of the bodies involved in time;
indeed time is the customary free variable in Newton's differential calculus. Here he
considers initially a stationary orbit, the curve traced out by a point attracted towards the
focus by some force; any point on which line can be described using polar coordinates
( ) r, , with the focus C as origin; such a body sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
Another version of the same orbit is desired, that rotates about the first stationary orbit;
since it is similar to the first orbit at any instant, the only difference is a rotation in the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
coordinates, and hence the corresponding point may be given by the coordinates ( ) r, ,
for some value of ; in this way points in the stationary orbit are imaged onto points in
the other rotating orbit : thus, the vertex V becomes u, a general point P becomes p, while
the polar angle is increased in the ratio , all at the same instant of time ; the identities
involving the areas of the elliptic sectors correspond to the 'equal areas in equal times'
rule for Keplerian orbits (assumed to apply in this case, which we now know to be so
from the conservation of angular momentum), are related by a constant >1 for an anti-
clockwise motion as defined in the diagrams, and clockwise for < 1; clearly in the
moving case the body in the moving orbit sweeps out a larger area in the same time than
the body in the stationary orbit.]

PROPOSITION XLIV. THEOREM XIV.

The difference of the forces, by which a body in a stationary orbit, and another body in a
revolving orbit are able to be moving equally, is in the triplicate ratio [i.e. cube] of the
common inverse altitude.

Take similar and equal parts vp, pk of the revolving orbit with the parts VP and PK of
the stationary orbit; and the separation of the points P and K may be understood to be the
smallest [i.e. increments].
[At this point we note in the diagram, that ; CV Cv CP Cp; = = while the angle between a
stationary orbit line and its rotating image line are rotated through the same angle, so that
VCv PCp = , etc. ]
Send the perpendicular kr from the
point k to the right line pC, and
produce the same to m, so that mr
shall be to kr as the angle VCp to
the angle VCP.
[Note that the infinitesimal rk is the
perpendicular from k to pC, and
hence also is the perpendicular
distance of K from PC, and by hyp.
kC KC = , so that K and k lie on a
circle with centre C; however, in
the time t in which P has
advanced to K, and p would have
advanced to k in the other orbit if
stationary, the rotating orbit has
moved forwards to a new position
m, following the angle
magnification , according to
whichrm rk = . This becomes
clear if we understand that at any
instant, a point p on the moving orbit also at that instant is rotating in a circle with radius
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
Cp and centre C; thus, if we could 'freeze' the position of the body in the rotating orbit,
we would be left with the pure circular motion of the body at p, which would present
itself after the time increment at n ; thus the length mn corresponds to the incremental
extra distance due to the effect of the motion of the body in the rotating ellipse, which
Newton explains in detail.
Another point that emerges, concerning the angle amplification factor , is the area
increase or decrease ratio per unit time : for if h is the rate of change of the area in the
stationary orbit, so that the increment in the area swept out by the body in the time
increment t is h t , then likewise in the rotating orbit, the area swept out per unit time
is h', then the ratio of the areas swept out in the two orbits is
h' t
h t
= , which is the ratio

of the areas of the elliptic sectors in the case of elliptic orbits.]

Because the altitudes of the bodies PC and pC, KC and kC always shall be equal, it is
evident that the increments or decrements of the lines PC and pC always shall be equal,
and thus if at the present places of the bodies P and p, the individual motions may be
separated (by Corol. 2 of the Laws.) into two [motions] : these towards the centre, or
along the lines PC and pC may be determined, and the others which shall be transverse to
the former, and may have a direction perpendicular to the lines PC and pC themselves
may also be determined. The motions towards the centres will be equal [as CP Cp = ],
and the transverse motions of the body p will be to the transverse motion of the body P,
as the angular motion of the line pC to the angular motion of the line PC, that is, as the
angle VCp to the angle VCP. Therefore, in the same time in which the body P arrives at
the point K by its own motion in both directions, the body p will be moved by an equal
amount towards the centre from p towards C equally, and thus in that completed time it
will be found somewhere on the line mkr, which is perpendicular to the line pC through
the point k . From the transverse motion, it will acquire a distance from the line pC,
which shall be to the distance that the other body P acquires from the line PC, as the
transverse motion of the body p is to the transverse motion of the other body P. Whereby
since kr shall be equal to the distance that the body P acquires from the line PC, and mr
shall be to kr as the angle VCp to the angle VCP, that is, as the transverse motion of the
body p to the transverse motion of the body P, it is evident that the body p will be found
in that completed time at the place m.
Thus these [motions] themselves will be in place when the bodies p and P are moving
equably along the lines pC and PC, and thus the bodies are acted on by equal forces
along these lines, [i.e. if the force on the body p in the mobile ellipse is equal to the force
on the other body P in the stationary ellipse, due to the equal distances.] But if the angle
pCn may be taken to the angle pCk as the angle VCp is to the angle VCP, and thus nC
equals kC, and the body p in that time completed may actually be found at n . Thus [since
this is not the case] it [ i.e. p] shall be acted on by a greater force than the body P, but
only if the angle pCn is greater than the angle pCk, that is if the orbit upk either is
advancing, or is moving with a greater speed that shall be double of that by which the line
CP is carried in regression ; and with a smaller force if it is moving slower in the orbit.
And the difference of the forces, so that the interval of the places mn, through which that
body p from the action of this [extra force], in that given interval of time, must be
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
transferred. With the centre C and radius Cn or Ck, a circle may be described cutting the
lines mr and ms product to s and t, and the rectangle mn mt will be described equal to
the rectangle mk ms , and thus mn equals
mk ms
mt
. But since the triangles pCk and pCn

may be given in magnitude at a given time, kr and mr and so their sum and difference mk
and ms are inversely as the altitude pC
[these triangles correspond to the areas swept out by the body in the mobile trajectory
relative to that frame, and the corresponding area swept out by the body in the mobile
trajectory relative to the stationary frame, corresponding to the their respective lengths by
the common altitude Cp],
and thus the rectangle mk ms is inversely as the square of the altitude pC. And mt is
directly as
1
2
mt , that is, as the altitude pC. These are the first ratios of the nascent
lengths
[Note that Newton calls differentials arising in pending integrations nascent, or the
smallest of magnitudes coming into being; while the differentials associated with
differentiation are called evanescent, or vanishing ones.];
and hence
mk ms
mt
shall be, that is, the total increment arising mn, proportional to the
inverse difference of the forces, as the cube of the altitude pC. Q. E. D.

[Thus, an extra force in addition to the central force responsible for the stationary
trajectory, and varying as the inverse cube of the distance from the focus, is introduced in
these circumstances, to produce the rotating orbit. For an analytical solution see, e.g.
Whittaker's Analytical Dynamics, on the solvable problems of particle dynamics, p.83 ;
and also of course Chandrasekhar, circa p.187; Brougham & Routh also treat this
problem, p. 88, known as Newton's theorem of revolving orbits.

In the following Corollaries we find the ratio of the difference of the forces to a
circular force derived from the versed sine is given by
mk ms
mt
to
2
2
rk
kC
. Note that
( ) or 1 ms mk rm rs rm rk rk = = = ; Again, rk is the altitude of the elemental sector
pkC, and the area of this can be related to h' t by being equal to
1
2
pC rk ; hence
( )
( ) 1
1
h
PC
ms rm rs rk t

+
= + = + = and ( )
( ) 1
1
h
PC
mk rm rs rk t
= = = ;
and therefore
( )
( )
2 2
2
3
1
2 2
2
1
h
mk ms rk
mt mt
PC
t
= = , and the result

( )
2 2
3
1
2
2
h
PC
mn t
= follows
on taking mt as almost a diameter equal to 2kC. These results imply that the orbits are
almost circular, for the centre of curvature is taken as C.
This is the total difference in the centripetal forces acting on the bodies in the two orbits,
at the same distance from C, and is established in this manner by Chandrasekhar.]

Corol. I. Hence the difference of the forces at the places P and p, or K and k, to the force
by which the body shall be able to revolve in a circular motion from R to K in the same
time in which the body P will describe the arc PK in the stationary arc, is as the line
element arising mn, to the versed sine of the arc RK arising, that is as
mk ms
mt
to
2
2
rk
kC
, or
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
as mk ms to rk squared [as the latter trajectory is circular.]; this is, if the given
quantities may be taken F, G in that ratio in turn as the angle VCP may have to the angle
VCp, as GGFF to FF.

[These results follow as a simplification above, on taking the ratio G to F as h' to h and in
turn equal to . Again, Chandrasekhar elaborates, and comes to the same conclusion.]

And therefore, if from the centre C with some radius CP or Cp a sector of the circle may
be described equal to the total area VPC, that the body P has described revolving at some
time in the stationary orbit with the radius drawn to the centre of the circle: the difference
of the forces, by which the body P in the stationary orbit and the body p in the mobile
orbit are revolving, will be to the centripetal force, by which some body, with the radius
drawn to the centre, may be able to describe that sector, by which the area VPC will be
described uniformly, as GGFF to FF. And if that sector and area pCk are in turn as the
times in which they are described.

[If we start from Kepler's first and second laws, then we can assume a stationary ellipse
of the form : 1
l
r
ecos = + . Now for an ellipse, the semi-latus rectum is given by
2
b
a
l = the radial acceleration is given by
2
r r , while the angular momentum or area is
changing at a constant rate :
2
1
2
dA
dt
r h = = . The radial acceleration is readily shown to
be
2
2
h
lr
r = ; this result is needed for the next Corollary.]

Corol.2. If the orbit VPK shall be an ellipse having the focus C and the higher apse V; and
similar and equal to that there may be put the ellipse upk, thus so that pC equals PC
always, and the angle VCp shall be in the given ratio G to F to the angle VCP ; but for the
height PC or pC there may be written A, and for the ellipse 2R may be put in place for
the latus rectum: the force will be, by which the body can revolve in the rotating ellipse,
as
3
RGG RFF FF
AA
A
+ and conversely.
[Note that R has been absorbed into the proportionality, as the force should be :
2 2 2
2 3
1 RG RF F
R
A A

+

.]
For the force by which the body may revolve in the stationary ellipse may be set out
by the amount
FF
AA
[from Prop. XI, Section III], and the force at V will be
2
FF
CA
. But the
force by which the body may be able to revolve in a circle at the distance CV with that
velocity that the body may have in the ellipse at V, is to the force by which the body
revolving in the ellipse may be acted on from the apse V, as half of the latus rectum of the
ellipse to the semi diameter of the circle CV, and thus there arises
3
RFF
CV
: and the force
which shall be to that as GGFF as FF, becomes
3
RGG RFF
CV
: and this force (by Corol. I.

of this section) is the difference of the forces at V by which the body P in the stationary
ellipse VPK, and the body p in the moving ellipse upk are revolving. From which since
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
(by this proposition) that difference at some other height A shall be to the that written
height CV as
3
1
A
to
3
1
CV
, the same difference
3
RGG RFF
CV
will prevail at any height A.

Therefore to the force
FF
AA
, by which the body can revolve in the stationary ellipse VPK,
the extra force must be added
3
RGG RFF
A
; and the total force may be put together

3
RGG RFF FF
AA
A
+ , by which the body shall be able to rotate in the moving ellipse upk.

[It appears that someone misread the diagram at some stage, for Whiteside refers to the
vertex of the mobile ellipse as v from Newton's original notes, and it appears as such in
the first 1687 edition, but is taken as u in the two later editions of the Principia.]

Corol.3. It may be deduced in the same manner, if the stationary orbit VPK shall be an
ellipse having the centre of forces at C; and to this there may be put in place the similar,
equal, and concentric mobile ellipse upk; and let 2R be the principle latus rectum of this
ellipse, and 2T transverse side or the major, and the angle VCp always shall be to the
angle VCP as G to F; the forces, by which the bodies in the stationary ellipse and in the
mobile ellipse are able to revolve in equal times, will be as
3 3 3
and
RGG RFF FFA FFA
T T A
+
respectively.

Corol. 4. And generally, if the maximum height CV of some body may be called T, and
the radius of curvature that the orbit VPK has at V, that is the radius of the circle equal to
the curvature, may be called R, and the centripetal force, by which the body can revolve
in some stationary trajectory VPK at the place V, may be called
2
2
F
RT
,
[all the editions of the Principia have the nonsensical
2
2
F V
T
here, which both Whiteside
and Chandrasekhar discretely point out as being in error],
and for the other mobile ellipses may be called indefinitely X at the positions P, with the
altitude CP called A, and G to F may be taken in the given ratio of the angle VCp to the
angle VCP: the centripetal force will be as the sum of the forces
2 2
3
VRG VRF
A
X

+ , by
which the body can move circularly in the same motion in the same trajectory upk in the
same times with the same motions.

Corol. 5. Therefore in some given motion of the body in the stationary orbit, the motion
of this about the centre of forces can be increased or decreased in a given ratio, and
thence new stationary orbits can be found in which bodies may be rotated by new
centripetal forces.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.

Corol. 6. Therefore a perpendicular VP of indefinite
length is erected to the given right line in place CV,
and Cp may be drawn equal to CP itself, making the
angle VCp, which shall be in a given ratio to the
angle VCP; the force by which the body can revolve
on that curve Vpk that the point p always touches,
[or traces out] will be reciprocally as the cube of the
altitude Cp. For the body P by the force of inertia,
with no other force acting, can progress uniformly
along the line VP. A force may be added at the
centre C, inversely proportional to the cube of the
altitude CP or Cp, and (by the present
demonstration) that rectilinear motion will be turned
away into the curved line Vpk. But this curve Vpk is that same curve as that curve VPQ
found in Corol. 3. Prop. XLI , in which we have said there bodies attracted by forces of
this kind ascend obliquely.

PROPOSITION XLV. PROBLEM XXXI.

The motions of the apses are required of orbits that are especially close to circles.

The problem is required to be solved by using arithmetic because the orbit, that the
body revolving in the mobile ellipse (as in Corol. 2. or 3. of the above proposition) will
describe in the stationary place, may approach to the form of this orbit of which the apses
are required, and by seeking the apses of the orbit that the body will describe in that
stationary plane. But the orbits may acquire the same form, if the centripetal forces by
which they are described, gathered together, may return proportionals with equal
altitudes. Let the point V be the upper apse, and there may be written, T for the maximum
altitude CV, A for some other altitude CP or Cp, and X for the difference of the altitudes
CV CP; and the force, by which the body is moving in an ellipse about its focus C (as in
Corol. 2.), and which in Corol. 2. was as
2 2 2
2 3
RG RF F
A A
+ , that is as
2 2 2
3
F A RG RF
A
+
, by
substituting T X for A, will be as
2 2 2 2
3
RG RF TF F X
A
+
. Any other centripetal force may
be reduced similarly to a fraction whose denominator shall be
3
A and the numerators,
made from the gathering of the homogeneous terms, may be put in place in an analogous
manner. The matter will be apparent from examples.

Example 1. We may put the centripetal force to be uniform [in the two cases, some
rotating apse u is compared with the upper apse V], and thus the force to be as
3
3
A
A
, or (by
writing T X for the height A in the numerator), as
3 2 2 3
3
3 3 T T X TX X
A
+
;
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
[The use of T X is just a computational convenience for the distance A, which is to be
expanded out in the numerator of
3
3
A
A
, while the denominator is taken as constant, so that
small differences from the maximum value T can be found easily; here :
T denotes the max. height of the body in the stationary ellipse;
A denotes the altitude CP or Cp at some time; and
X denotes the differenceCP CV A T = , which can be made infinitesimally small.]

and with the corresponding terms of the numerators gathered together [for this particular
arrangement in comparison with the general above], without doubt 'the given' with 'the
given' and the 'not given' with 'not given', the expression becomes
2 2 2
RG RF TF + to
3
T ; as
2
F X to
2 2 3
3 3 T X TX X +
or, as
2
F to
2 2
3 3 T TX X + .

Now since the orbit may be put as especially close to being circular, the orbit may begin
with a circle and on account of R and T made equal, and X diminished indefinitely, the
final ratios become RG
2
to T
3
as
2
F to
2
3T , or G
2
to T
2
as F
2
to 3T
2
, and in turn G
2
to F
2
as T
2
to 3T
2
, that is, as 1 to 3; and thus G to F, that is the angle VCp is to the angle
VCP, as 1 to 3.
[i.e.
2 2
2 2
3
=
G F
T T
or
2 2
2 2
1
3
3
=
G T
F T
= . Also, the rate of change of the respective areas is
CVp
h'
h CVP
= = .]
Therefore since the body in the stationary ellipse, by descending from the highest apse to
the lowest may make the angle VCP (thus as I may say) 180 degrees ; the other body in
the mobile ellipse, and thus in the stationary orbit on which we have acted, from the
upper apse to the lower apse on descending may make an angle VCp of
180
3
that therefore
on account of the similitude of which orbit, that the body will describe with a uniform
centripetal force acting, and will be described performed in the plane at rest by rotating in
the revolving ellipse. Through the above collection of the similar terms these orbits are
returned, not universally but on that occasion since they may approach especially to the
circular form. Therefore a body revolving with a uniform centripetal force in an almost
circular orbit, between the upper and lower apses may always make an angle of
180
3
degrees, or 103 gr. 55 m. 23 sec. to the centre ; arriving from the upper apse to the
lower apse once this angle has been made, and thence returning to the upper apse when
again it has made the same angle ; and thus henceforth indefinitely.

Example 2. We may put the centripetal force
3 n
A

to be as some power of the altitude A
or as
3
n
A
A
where 3 n and n indicate some whole numbers or fractional indices of the
powers, either rational or irrational, positive or negative. That number
n
A or
n
T X may be reduced into a converging infinite series, and the series
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
1 2
2
etc
n n n
nn n
T nXT XXT .

+ emerges. And with the terms of this collected together

with the terms of the other numerator RGG RFF TFF FFX + , there shall be
RGG RFF TFF + to
n
T as FF to
1 2
2
etc
n n
nn n
nXT XXT .

+ And with the final

ratios taken when the orbits approach to a circular form, there shall be RGG to
n
T as FF
to
1 n
nXT

, or GG to
1 n
T

as FF to
1 n
nT

, and in turn GG to FF as
1 n
T

to
1 n
nT

; that
is as I to n; and thus G to F, that is the angle VCp to the angle VCP, as 1 to n . Whereby
the angle VCP, in the falling of the body performed in the ellipse from the upper apse to
the lower apse, shall be 180 degrees; the angle VCp will be made, in the descent of the
body from the upper apse to the lower apse, that the body will describe in an almost
circular orbit proportional to some centripetal force of the power
3 n
A

, equal to an angle
of
180
n
; and with this angle repeated the body will return from the lower apse to the
higher apse, and thus henceforth indefinitely. So that if the centripetal force shall be as
the distance of the body from the centre, that is, as A or
4
3
A
A
, n will be equal to 4 and n
equals 2; and thus the angle between the upper apse and the lower apse equals
180
2
or
90 degrees. Therefore with a fourth part of one revolution completed the body will arrive
at the lower apse, and with another quarter part at the upper apse, and thus henceforth in
turn indefinitely. That which also had been shown from proposition X : for the body may
be revolving in the stationary ellipse, acted on by this centripetal force, whose centre is at
the centre of the forces. But if the centripetal force shall be reciprocally as the distance,
that is directly as
1
A
or
2
3
A
A
, n will be equal to 2, and thus between the upper apse and the
lower apse the angle will be
180
2
degrees, or 127 degrees, 16m., 45 sec. and therefore
will be revolving by such a force, always by the repetition of this angle, in turns with the
others, from the upper apse to the lower apse, and eternally may arrive at the lower apse
from. Again if the centripetal force shall be reciprocally as the square root of the square
root of the eleventh power of the altitude, that is inversely as
11
4
A , and thus directly as
11
4
1
A
, or as
1
4
3
A
A
n will be equal to
1
4
and
180
n
degrees equals 360 degrees and therefore the
body descending from the upper apse and thus perpetually descending, it will arrive at the
lower apse when it will have completed a whole revolution, then by completing another
revolution by ascending always, it will return to the upper apse : and thus eternally in
turn.

Example 3. We may take m and n for any indices of the powers of the altitude, and
taking b and c for any given numbers, we may put the centripetal force to be as
3

m n
bA cA
A
+
, that is as
3

m n
b T X c T X
A
+
, or (by the same method of our converging
series) as

rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
1 1 2 2
2 2
3
+ etc.
m n m n m n
mm m nn n
bT cT mbXT ncXT bXXT cXXT
A

+ +

and with the terms of the numerator gathered together, it becomes RGG RFF TFF + to
m n
bT cT + , as FF to
1 1 2 2
2 2
+ etc.
m n m n
mm m nn n
mbT ncT bXT cXT

+
And on
taking the final ratios which arise, here the orbits may approach to a circular form , let G
2
be to
1 1 m n
bT cT

+ , as F
2
to
1 1 m n
mbT ncT

+ , and in turn G
2
to F
2
as
1 1 m n
bT cT

+ to
1 1 m n
mbT ncT

+ . Which proportion, by setting the maximum altitude CP or T
arithmetically to one, shall be G
2
to F
2
as b c + to mb+nc, and thus as 1 to
mb nc
b c
+
+
. From
which G shall be to F, which shall be the angle VCp to the angle VCP, as 1 to
mb nc
b c
+
+
.
And therefore since the angle VCP between the upper apse and the lower apse of the
stationary ellipse shall be 180 degrees, the angle VCp between the same apses, in the
orbit that the body described by a centripetal force proportional to the quantity
m n
bA cA
A cub.
+
,
is equal to an angle of 180
b c
mb nc
+
+
degrees. And by the same argument if the centripetal
force shall be as
3
m n
bA cA
A
, an angle of 180
b c
mb nc
may be found between the apses. Nor

will problems be resolved otherwise in difficult cases. A quantity, to which the
centripetal force is proportional, must always be resolved into a converging series having
the denominator A
3
. Then the given part of the numerator which arises from that
operation to the other part of this which is not given, and the part given of the numerator
of this
2 2 2 2
RG RF TF F X + to the other part of this not given, are to be put in the
same ratio: And by deleting the superfluous quantities, and on writing one for T, the
proportion G to F will be obtained.

Corol. I. Hence if the centripetal force shall be as some power of the altitude, it is
possible to find that power from the motion of the apses; and conversely. Without doubt
if the whole of the angular motion, by which a body returns to the same apse, shall be to
the angular motion of one revolution, or of 360 degrees, as some number m to another
number n, and the altitude may be called A : the force will be as that power of the altitude
2
2
3
n
m
A

, the index of which is
2
2
3
n
m

. That which has been shown by the second
example. From which it is clear that that force, in receding from the centre, cannot
decrease in a ratio greater than the cube of the altitude. A body acted on by such a force
revolving and descending from that apse, if it begins to descent, at no time will arrive at
the lower apse or the minimum altitude, but will descend as far as the centre, describing
that curved line which we have discussed in Corol. 3. Prop. XII. But if that body should
have started from the descending [i.e. lower] apse, or to ascend minimally, it will ascend
indefinitely, nor at any time will it arrive at the upper apse. For it describes that curved
line which have been discussed in the same Corol. and in Corol. VI. of Prop. XLIV. And
thus where the force, in receding from the centre, decreases in a ratio greater than the
cube of the altitude, the body descending from the lower apse, likewise as it may have
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
started either to descend or ascend, descends to the centre or ascend to infinity. But if the
force, in receding from the centre either may decrease to be less than the cube of the
altitude, or increase in some ratio of the altitude ; the body at no time may descend as far
as the centre, but will arrive at some lower apse: and conversely, if a body is ascending
and descending from one apse to the other in turn, then at no time will it be called to the
centre; the force in receding from the centre either will be greater, or may decrease in a
ratio less than the cube of the altitude: and from which the body will have returned
quicker from one apse to the other, there the further the ratio of the forces recedes from
that cubic ratio. So that if the body may be returned in revolving either 8 , 4 , 2 or
1
2
1 times from the upper apse to the upper apse by ascending and descending ; that is, if m
to n were as 8, 4, 2 or
1
2
1 to 1, and thus 3
nn
mm
may give rise to
1
64
3 ,
1
16
3 ,
1
4
3 , or
4
9
3 : the force will be as
1
64
3
A

,
1
16
3
A

,
1
4
3
A

, or
4
9
3
A

, that is,
reciprocally as
1
64
3
A

,
1
16
3
A

,
1
4
3
A

or
4
9
3
A

. If the body in individual rotations may have
returned to the same stationary apse; there will be m to n as 1 to 1, and thus
3
nn
mm
A

equals
2
A
or
2
1
A
; and therefore the decrease of the forces are in the square ratio of the
altitudes, as has been shown in the preceding. If the body may return to the same apse in
the parts of a revolution, either in three quarters, or two thirds, or one third, or in one
quarter ; m to n will be as
1
4
or
2
3
or
1
3
or
1
4
to 1, and thus
3
nn
mm
A

equals either
16
9
3
A

,
9
4
3
A

,
9 3
A

, or
16 3
A

; and therefore the force varies reciprocally either as
11
9
A ,
3
4
A , or
directly as
6
A ,
13
A . And then if the body on progressing from the upper apse to the
same upper apse has completed a whole number of revolutions, and three degrees
beyond, and therefore that apse by a single revolution of the body will have been
completed as a consequence in three degrees; m to n will be as 363 degrees to 360
degrees or as 121 to I20, and thus the force
3
nn
mm
A

will be equal to
29523
14641
A
; and therefore
the centripetal force varies reciprocally as
29523
14641
A or reciprocally as
4
243
2
A approximately.
Therefore the centripetal force decreases in a ratio a little greater than the square, but
which in turn approaches
3
4
59 closer to the square than to the cube.

Corol. 2. Hence also if the body, by a centripetal force which shall be reciprocally as the
square of the altitude, may be rotating in an ellipse having a focus at the centre of forces,
and to this centripetal force there may be added or taken away some other external force ;
the motion of the apses can be known (by example three) which may arise from that
external force: and conversely. So that if the force by which the body shall be revolving
in an ellipse shall be as
2
1
A
and the external force taken away shall be as cA, and thus the
force remaining shall be as
4
A cA
A cub.
; there will be (in the third example) b equals 1, m

equals 1, and n equals 4, and thus the angle of rotation between the apses equals an angle
of
1
1 4
180
c
c
. We may put that external force to be 357.45 less in parts than the other
rd
Ed.

Book I Section IX.
force by which the body is rotating in the ellipse, that is c becomes
100
35745
, with A or T
present equaling 1, and
1
1 4
180
c
c
may become
35645
35345
180 , or 180.7623, that is,
180 degrees, 45m. 44sec. Therefore the body descending from the upper apse, by
moving through an angle of 180 degrees, 45m. 44sec , will reach the lower apse, and
with this motion doubled it will return to the upper apse : and thus the upper apse by
progressing will make 1 degree. 31 m. 28 sec. in individual rotations
The apses of the moon progress around twice as fast.
Up until now we have been concerned with the motion of bodies in orbits of which the
planes pass through the centre of forces. It remains that the motion of bodies also may be
determined in eccentric planes. For the writers who treat the motion of weights, are
accustomed to consider the oblique ascent and descent of weights in any planes given, as
well as straight up and down: and equally to judge the motions of bodies with any forces
for whatever centres desired, and of the dependence on eccentric planes this comes to be
considered. Moreover we may suppose the planes to be the most polished and completely
slippery lest they may retard bodies. Certainly, in these demonstrations, on whatever of
these planes on which in turn the bodies touch by pressing on, we may take the planes
parallel to these, in which the centres of the bodies are moving and the orbits they may
describe by moving. And at once we may determine by the same law the motions of
bodies carried out on curves surfaces.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.

SECTION X.
Concerning the motion of bodies on given surfaces, and from that the repeating motions
of string pendulums.

PROPOSITION XLVI. PROBLEM XXXII.
With some general kind of centripetal force in place, and with both a given centre of
forces as well as some plane on which the body is revolving, and with the quadratures of
curvilinear figures granted : the motion of a body is required starting out along a right
line in that given plane from some given place, and with some given velocity,.

S shall be the centre of forces, SC the shortest distance of this centre from a given
plane, P the body setting out from some place P along the right line PZ, Q the same body
revolving in its trajectory, and PQR that trajectory described in the given plane, that it is
required to find. CQ and QS are joined, and if on
QS, SV may be taken proportional to the centripetal
force by which the body is drawn towards the
centre S, and VT may be drawn which shall be
parallel to CQ and meeting SC in T. The force SV
may be resolved (by Corol 2. of the laws) into the
forces ST, TV; of which ST by acting on the body
along a line perpendicular to the plane, will not
change the motion of that body in this plane. But
the other force TV, by acting the position of the
plane, draws the body directly towards the point C
in the given plane, and likewise it comes about, so
that the body may be moving in this plane in the same manner, and if the force ST may be
removed, and the body may be revolving about the centre C in free space acted on by the
force TV alone. Moreover with the given centripetal force TV by which the body Q is
revolving in free space about the given centre C, then both the trajectory PQR is given
(by Prop. XLII.) that the body will describe, the place Q, in which the body will be
rotating at some given time, as well as the velocity of the body at that place Q; and
conversely. Q E.1.

[We should bear in mind here, that if the body travels in an elliptic orbit in a gravitational
field, then the length CS cannot remain constant, and when the body is at the maximum
distance Q from C, it has risen to its greatest height, being lowest at the minimum
distance, assuming the length of the string remains unchanged. Thus Kepler's criterion of
the motion of the body always being in the same plane is not satisfied, and hence one
cannot use the Kepler criterion of equal areas in equal times ; or, there is an unbalanced
torque acting which changes the angular momentum during the course of the orbit. Thus,
Newton's Proposition XLVI relates to a zero gravity situation, or, as Newton states, C is
the only centre of force present. Hence we are not looking at a conical pendulum, which
only applies to circular motions.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.

PROPOSITION XLVII. THEOREM XV.

Because a centripetal force may be put in place proportional to the distance of the
body from the centre; all bodies in any planes revolving in some manner describe
ellipses, and the ellipses are performed in equal times ; and those moving on right lines,
and also running to and fro, may complete the individual coming and going motions in
the same periods of time.

For, with which things in place from the above proposition, the force SV, by
which the body Q rotating in some plane PQR is drawn towards the centre S, is as the
distance SQ; and thus on account of the proportionals SV and SQ , TV and CQ the force
TV, by which the body is drawn towards the point C given in the plane of the orbit, is as
the distance CQ. Therefore the forces, by which bodies turning in the plane PQR are
drawn towards the point C, on account of the distances, are equal to the forces by which
any bodies are drawn in some manner towards the centre S; and therefore bodies are
moving in the same times, in the same figures, in some plane PQR about the point Q and
in the free space about the centre S; and thus (by Corol. 2, Prop. X. and Corol. 2, Prop.
XXXVIII.) in equal times always they describe either ellipses in that plane about the
centre C, or besides they will furnish periods by moving to and fro in right lines through
the centre C drawn in that plane. Q.E.D.

Scholium.
The ascent and descent of bodies on curved surfaces are related to these. Consider
curved lines described in a plane, then to be revolved around some axis given passing
through the centre of the forces, and from that revolution to describe curved surfaces ;
then bodies thus can move so that the centres of these may always be found on these
surfaces. If bodies by ascending and descending these obliquely besides can run to and
fro, the motions of these will be carried out in planes crossing the axis, and thus on
curved lines, by the rotation of which these curves surfaces have arisen. Therefore for
these it will suffice to consider the motion in these curved line cases.

[ The two following propositions are handled by similar reasoning, on separate
diagrams, in what follows. Newton calls all his curves cycloids or epicycloids (the
evolute or epicycloid of any cycloid is a similar equal figure with its cusps translated
through half the arc of the original curve).
According to Proctor, in his interesting book: A Treatise on Cycloids, (1878), which
touches on some of the material in this sections, the best way to define such curves is as
follows :
The epicycloid/hypocycloid is the curve traced out by a point on the circumference of
a circle which rolls without sliding on a fixed circle in the same plane, the rolling circle
touching the outside/inside of the fixed circle. Different values of the two radii give rise
to different curves, some of which are well-known. Full descriptions of such curves can
be found, e.g. in the CRC Handbook of Mathematics, and of course on the web.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
We are interested in particular in the geometric method used by Newton in finding a
geometric relation for such a curve, where he puts in place a finite figure derived from
the geometry available, tangents, diameters, etc., and from this he constructs a similar
figure composed of infinitesimal lengths both from linear and curvilinear increments, the
vanishing ratio of which, for some chosen lengths, is equal to a fixed ratio in the
macroscopic figure. Thus a differentiation has been performed, or fluxion found.
I have added some labels in red to Newton's diagram, to make reading a little easier;
however, if you wish, you can look at the unadulterated diagram in the Latin section.]

PROPOSITION XLVIII. THEOREM XVI.

If a wheel may stand at right angles on the outside of a sphere, and in the manner of
rotation it may progress in a great circle ; the length of the curvilinear path, that some
given point on the perimeter of the wheel made, from where it touched the sphere, (and
which it is usual to call a cycloid or epicycloid) will be to double the versed sine of half
the arc which it made in contact going between in this total time, as the sum of the
diameters of the sphere and the wheel, to the radius of the sphere.

PROPOSITION XLIX. THEOREM XVII.
If a wheel may stand at right angles on the concave inside of a sphere and by
rotating it may progress on a great circle; the length of the curved path that some given
point on the perimeter of the wheel made, from where it touched the sphere during this
total time, will be to twice the versed sine of half the arc which it made in contact going
between in the whole time, as the difference of the diameters of the sphere and the wheel
to the radius of the sphere.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
ABL shall be the sphere, C the centre of this, BPV the wheel resting on this, E the
centre of the sphere, B the point of contact, and P the given point on the perimeter of the
wheel. Consider that the wheel to go on a great circle ABL from A through B towards L,
and thus to rotate going between so that the arcs AB and PB themselves in turn will
always be equal, and that point P given on the perimeter of the wheel meanwhile
describes the curvilinear path AP. Moreover AP shall have described the whole
curvilinear path from where the wheel touched the sphere at A, and the length AP of this
path to twice the versed sine of the arc
1
2
PB , shall be as 2CE to CB. For the right line CE
(produced if there is a need) meets the wheel at V, and CP, BP, EP and VP may be
joined, and the normal VF may be sent to CP produced. PH and VH may touch the circle
at P and V meeting at H, and PH may cut VF in G, and the normals GI and HK may be
sent to VP. Likewise from C and with some radius the circle onm may be drawn cutting
the right line CP in n, the perimeter of the wheel BP in o, and the curved path AP in m;
and with centre V and with the radius Vo a circle may be described cutting VP produced
at q.
Because the wheel, by always moving is rotating about the point of contact B, it is
evident that the right line BP is perpendicular to that curved line AP that the point of
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
rotation P has described, and thus so that the right line VP may touch this curve at the
point P. The radius of the [arc of the] circle nom , gradually increased or diminished is
equal finally to the distance CP; and, because of the similarity of the vanishing figure
Pnomq and the figure PFGVI, the final ratio of the vanishing line elements Pm, Pn, Po,
Pq, that is, the ratio of the momentary changes of the curve AP, of the right line CP, of
the circular arc BP, and of the right line VP, will be the same as of the lines PV, PF, PG,
PI respectively. But since VF shall be perpendicular to CF and likewise VH to CV, and
the angles HVG and VCF therefore equal ; and the angle VHG (on account of the right
angles of the quadrilateral HVEP at V and P ) is equal to the angle CEP, the triangles
VHG and CEP are similar; and thence it comes about that EP to CE thus as HG to HV or
HP and thus as KI to KP, and on adding together or separately, as CB to CE thus PI to
PK, and on doubling in the following as CB to 2CE thus PI to PV, and thus Pq to Pm.

[i.e.
HG HG EP KI
EC HV HP KP
= = = (HV and HP are the common tangents from H) then
1 1or
EP[ EB]
CB KI PI
EC KP EC PK
,
=
+ = + = ; hence
2
Pq
CB PI
EC PV Pm
= = . ]

Therefore the decrement of the line VP, that is, the increment of the line BVVP to the
increment of the curve AP is in the given ratio CB to 2CE, and therefore (by the Corol. of
Lem. IV.) the lengths BVVP and AP, arising from these increments, are in the same
ratio. But, with the interval BV present, PV is the cosine of the angle BVP or
1
2
BEP, and
thus BVVP is the versed sine of the same angle ; and therefore in this wheel, the radius
of which is
1
2
BV , BVVP will be twice the versed sine of the arc
1
2
BP . Therefore AP is
to twice the versed sine of the arc
1
2
BP as 2CE to CB.
[ We may write this proportionality in the form :
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
; giving
d PV d BV VP
CB CB
CE CE d AP d AP
BV VP AP

= = = ; hence the arc length of the
rectifiable curve ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 1 2
2 2
1 2 1
CE CE R
CB CB R
AP BV VP BV cos BEP sin

+
= = = ,
starting from A, as required (see Whiteside, note 275 Vol. VI, for the outline of a
comparable, but far more complicated, analytical derivation).]

But we will call the line AP the cycloid outside the sphere in the first proposition and
the cycloid inside the sphere in the following for the sake of distinction.

Corol. I. Hence if the whole cycloid ASL is described and that may be bisected at S, the
length of the part PS to the length VP (which is twice the sine of the angle VBP, with the
radius EB present) is as 2CE to CB, and thus in the given ratio.

Corol. 2. And the length of the semi-perimeter of the cycloid AS will be equal to the right
line which is to the diameter of the wheel BV as 2CE to CB.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
PROPOSITION L. PROBLEM XXXIII.

To arrange it so that the body of the pendulum may swing in a given cycloid.

Within a sphere QVS, described from the C, the cycloid QRS may be given bisected in
R and with its end points Q and S hence meeting the spherical surface there. CR may be
drawn bisecting the arc QS in O, and that may
be produced to A, so that CA shall be to CO as
CO to CR.
[Thus, if we let R CO = , and the radii of the
two generating circles be given by
2 2 r AO & OR = = the above terms
introduced for the radii, this becomes
2
2
R r R
R R
+
= , in turn giving
2
2
2
r
R R

= ,
2
2
; =
R r R Rr
r R r

+
+
= and
2 2
2
r
R r
r R r
+
+
+
= .]
With centre C and radius CA, the external
sphere DAF may be described, and within this
sphere by the rotation of a wheel, the diameter
of which shall be AO, two semi-cycloids AQ and AS may be described, which touch the
interior sphere at Q and S and meet the external sphere at A. From that point A, by a
thread AR equaling the length APT, the body Q may be suspended and thus may swing
between the semi-cycloids AQ and AS, so that as often as the pendulum is moving away
from the perpendicular AR, with the upper part AP applied to that semi-cycloid APS
towards which the motion is directed, and around that it may be wrapped as an obstacle,
and with the remaining part PT to which the semi-cycloid has not yet got in the way, it
may stretch out in a straight line; and the weight T is swinging on the given cycloid QRS.
Q.E.F.

[The cycloid and the lower evolute cycloid obey the normal/tangent to normal relation at
any points T and P on this pair of curves. We have included the generating circles in red,
not present in the original figure.]

For the thread PT first may meet the cycloid QRS at T, and then the circle QOS at V,
and CV may be drawn; and the perpendiculars BP and TW may be erected to the right
line part of the thread PT from the end points P and T, crossing the right line CV in B and
W. It is apparent, from the construction, and from the similar figures AS and SR arising,
that these perpendiculars PB and TW cut off from CV the lengths VB and VW of the
wheels with diameters equal to OA and OR. Therefore TP is to VP (twice the sine of the
angle VBP multiplied by the radius
1
2
BV present [Both Cohen and Whiteside have
misunderstood this point in their translations: you cannot equate a length to the sine of an
angle.]) as BW to BV, or AO OR + to AO, that is (since CA to CO, CO to CR, and AO to
OR separately shall be proportionals) as CA CO + to CA, or, if BV may be bisected in E,
as 2CE to CB.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
[
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
; or,
r
BW BW AO OR CA CO CE TP R r
VP BV BV AO r CA R r CB
+
+ + +
+
= = = = = = , as above.]
Hence (by Corol I. Prop. XLIX.) the length of the part of the right line of the thread PT is
equal always to the arc PS of the cycloid, and the whole length [of the thread] APT is
always equal to the arc APS of half the cycloid, that is (by Corol. 2. Prop. XLIX.), to the
length AR. And therefore in turn if the thread always remains equal to the length AR, the
point T will always be moving on the given cycloid QRS. Q.E.D.

Corol. The thread AR is equal to the semi-cycloid arc AS, and thus has the same ratio
to the radius of the external sphere AC as that similar semi-cycloid SR has to the radius of
the internal radius CO. [
SR AR
AC CO
= ]
.
PROPOSITION LI. THEOREM XVIII.
If a centripetal force acting in any direction towards the centre C of the sphere shall
be as the distance of this place from the centre, and the body T may be oscillating by this
force acting alone (in the manner described just now) on the perimeter of the cycloid
QRS: I say that any whatever of the unequal oscillations are completed in equal intervals
of time.

For the perpendicular CX may fall on the tangent TW of the cycloid produced
indefinitely and CT may be joined. Because the centripetal force by which the body T is
impelled towards C is as the distance CT, and this (by Corol. 2 of the laws) is resolved
into the parts CX and TX, of which CX by
impelling the body directly from P stretches the
thread PT and by the resistance of this it may
cease to act completely, producing no other effect;
but the other part TX, by acting on the body
transversely or towards X, directly accelerates the
motion of this on the cycloid; clearly because the
acceleration of the body, proportional to this
accelerating force, shall be as the length TX at
individual instants, that is, on account of CV and
WV given and TX and TW proportional to these
[for we have the similar triangles VTW and CXW
and
CV TX
TW VW
= ], as the length TW, that is (by
Corol. I, Prop. XLIX.) as the length of the arc of
the cycloid TR. Therefore with the two pendulums
APT and Apt unequally drawn from the
perpendicular AR and sent off at the same time,
the accelerations of these always will be as the arcs to be described TR and tR. But the
parts described from the start are as the accelerations, that is, as the whole [arcs] to be
described at the start, and thereupon the parts which remain to be described and the
subsequent accelerations, from these proportional parts, also are as the total [parts to be
described subsequently] ; and thus henceforth. Therefore both the accelerations and the
velocities arising from the parts and the parts requiring to be described, are as the whole
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
[arc remaining]; and thus the parts requiring to be described obey the given ratio, and to
likewise vanish in turn, that is, the two oscillating bodies arrive at the perpendicular AR at
the same time [i.e. both bodies arrive at R with the same speed and in the same time; a
hall-mark of in-phase simple harmonic motion, where the period is independent of the
amplitude]. Whenever in turn the ascents of the pendulums from the lowest place R,
through the same cycloidal arcs made in a backwards motion, may be retarded separately
by the same forces by which they were accelerated in the descent, it is apparent that the
velocities of ascent and descent made through the same arcs are equal and thus for the
times to become equal ; and therefore, since both parts of the cycloid RS and RQ lying
on either side of the perpendicular shall be equal and similar, the two pendulums always
complete their oscillations at the same times for a whole as well as for a half [oscillation].
Q.E.D.

Corol. The force by which the body T is accelerated or retarded at some place T on the
cycloid, is to the whole weight of the same body in the place with the greatest altitude S
or Q, as the arc TR of the cycloid to the arc of the same SR or QR.

[
Digression.

Note from earlier, we have shown that an arc
length
( )
4
2
1
R
R
AP sin

+
= , where the
angle is subtended by the contact chord at
the centre of the generating circle, this is also
the angle between the tangent and the chord.
We indicate here the common cycloid
inverted with the angle now as customarily
shown twice the above, rolling on the upper
horizontal line, for which, with a generating circle of radius a, the coordinates are
( ) ( ) 2 2 ; 1 2 x a sin y a cos = + = . The gradient at some point on the curve is tan ,
and it is readily shown that the intrinsic equation of this curve is 4 s a sin = , taking
0 s = when 0 = . It is seen that the added complication of rotating the generating circle
on or in another circle of greater radius R to produce an epicycloid changes the constant
4a in the arc length formula to become
4aR
R a
s sin
= in our definition of the angle; and

the formula depends on where the origin has been chosen. Thus the length of a whole
section of a simple cycloid from vertex to trough is 4a, with a similar formula for the
epicycloid. We may consider such formulas in general to be of the form s k sin = .
Note that a body P on a string acting as a pendulum drawn towards the point C,
between the cusps of such a cycloid, of total length k, may have part of the string of
length ( ) 1 s k sin = wrapped round the curve, while the remainder of length
s k sin = is free, with corresponding results for Newton's epicycloids. We are interested
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
in the velocities of points along and perpendicular to both curves : it is clear that the
components of the velocity and acceleration of the point P along the tangent of the
Newton's upper cycloid are equal and opposite to the components of the velocity and
acceleration of the point T along the normal of the lower curve.]

PROPOSITION LII. PROBLEM XXXIV.
To define both the velocities of pendulums at individual places and the times in which
both whole oscillations as well as individual parts of oscillations may be completed.

With some centre G, and with the radius GH equal to the arc of the cycloid RS,
describe the semicircle HKM bisected by the radius GK.
[At this point we have to imagine the sphere HKM, of which we see a portion, to be
endowed with an abstract absolute force field of a special kind, so that a body L has the
same force acting on it as the body T, the abstract force acting along the radius GH (so
performing pure S.H.M. with the simplest possible geometry), while the other acts along
the tangent at T on the cycloid; these centripetal forces are also equal on the periphery
MKH of the circle and on the sphere SOQ. The idea being that both bodies will execute
S.H.M. ; in addition, the lengths GK, LI, and YZ represent the velocities of a body
released from H towards G. Such a situation might arise for a particle that could pass
through a hypothetical uniform earth without hindrance, such as a mass dropped through
a hole passing all the way through a diameter of the earth, affected only by gravity, which
in this case varies directly as the distance from centre.]

And if a centripetal force proportional to the distances of the places from the centre,
may tend towards the centre G, and let that force on the perimeter HIK be equal to the
centripetal force on the perimeter of the sphere QOS tending towards the centre of this;
and in the same time in which the pendulum T may be sent off from the highest place S,
some body L may fall from H to G, because the forces by which the bodies may be acted
on are equal from the beginning and with the intervals described TR and LG always
proportional, and thus, if TR and LG may be equal at the places T and L; it is apparent
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
that the bodies describe the equal intervals ST and HL from the beginning, and thus from
that at once to be urged on to progress equally , and to describe equal intervals. Whereby
(by Prop. XXXVIII.) the time in which the body will describe the arc ST is to the time of
one oscillation, as the arc HI, the time in which the body H may arrive at L, is to the
semi-perimeter HKM, the time in which the body H may arrive at M.

[Thus :
arcST arcHI
SQ HKM
T T
T T
= ;
( )
( )
( )
( )
T L
R G
d HL / dt d ST / dt v v
v v d HG / dt d SR / dt
= = = .]

And the velocity of the body of the pendulum at the place T it to the velocity of this at the
lowest place R, (that is, the velocity of the body H at the place L to the velocity of this at
the place G, or the instantaneous increment of the line HL to the instantaneous increment
of the line HG, with the arcs HI and HK increasing by equal fluxes) as the applied
ordinate LI to the radius GK, or as
2 2
SR TR to SR.

[ We have already considered the accelerations along the tangent PT . The free straight
length PT is equal to the arc PS at any instant, and the arc described by the body P , or
RT can be given by s k sin = , choosing the angle as above, and we may take the
velocity along the curve to be s k cos = , while the acceleration along the orbit is
s k sin ks = = . This can be written in terms of the tangential velocity v as :
( )
2 2
1
2
0
d v ks
dv
ds ds
v ks
+
+ = = , and hence
( )
2 2 2
1 1
2 2
constant v ks kS + = = , since the velocity of
P is zero when the arcs S = ; we now regard first integration as the conservation of
energy equation. Hence,
( )
2 2
ds
dt
v k S s LI . k = = = ; thus, the velocity at the point T
has been found. The time to travel from S to s, is given by the indefinite integral:
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
1 1 1
1
ds du s
S
k k k
S s u
t arccos

= = =

, where limits can be applied as needed,
and
s
S
u = ; (see Whiteside's note 286). Note that in the abstract force diagram, the radius
GH S = and we can write s S cos kt = , in which case the angle kt = , and we can
identify k as the angular frequency, from which the period of the oscillation is given
by
2
k
T

= , where we recall that
4rR
R r
k
+
= ; note especially that the period is independent of
the amplitude. Thus we have Newton's results; note also that the part of the string
wrapped round the cycloid arc behaves as a store of gravitational potential energy, for as
the weight falls, more kinetic energy is fed into the system by the weight being allowed
to fall further, and vice versa when it rises, than by the weight moving in a circular arc;
and again, the centre of forces is at a finite distance C, and so we do not have a uniform
gravitational field.]

From which, since in the unequal oscillations, the arcs of the whole oscillations may be
described in equal times proportional to the whole arcs of the oscillations; from the given
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
times, both the velocities and the arcs may be had, to be described in all the oscillations.
Which were to be found first.
Now bodies hanging from strings may be swinging in diverse cycloids described
between different spheres, of which the absolute forces are different also [i.e. those
abstract forces giving rise to an S.H.M. above that do not specify the mechanism of the
force]: and, if the absolute force of some sphere QOS may be called V, the accelerating
force by which the pendulum is urged on the circumference of this sphere, where it
begins to be moving directly towards the centre of this sphere, will be as the distance of
that hanging body from that centre and the absolute force jointly on the sphere, that is, as
CO V [i.e. the original absolute force corresponding to CO is magnified by some factor
V; now we have ( ) dv k. ds HY dt CO Vdt = = = ]. And thus the incremental line HY;
which shall be as this accelerating force CO V , described in the given time ; and if the
normal YZ is erected to the circumference crossing at Z, the nascent arc HZ will denote
that given time . But this nascent arc HZ is as GH HY , [from similar triangles
involving increments, HY:ZH :: ZH:MH , or
2
2 2 ZH Sds GH.YH = = as the arc tends to
zero] and thus the arc varies as GH CO V . [As dt d GH CO V ].
From which the time of a whole oscillation in the cycloid QRS (since it shall be as the
semi-periphery HKM, which [angle] may denote the time for that whole oscillation
directly ; and as the arc HZ directly, which similarly may denote the given time inversely)
shall be as GH directly and as GH CO V inversely, that is, on account of the equal
quantities GH and SR, as
SR
CO V
or (by the Coral. Prop. L.) as
AR
AC V
.
[Thus,
GH GH SR AR
QRS
CO V CO V AC V
GH CO V
T

= = = , since GH SR = ,
and
SR AR
AC CO
= ]
And thus the oscillations on the spheres and with all the cycloids, made with whatever
absolute forces, are in a ratio composed directly from the square root ratio of the lengths
of the string, and inversely in the square root ratio of the distances between the point of
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
suspension and centre of the sphere, and also inversely in the square root ratio of the
force of the sphere. Q.E.D.

Corol. 1. Hence also the times of the oscillations, of the falling and of the revolutions
of the bodies can be compared among themselves. For if for the wheel, by which the
cycloid will be described between the spheres, diameter may be put in place equal to the
radius of the sphere, the cycloid becomes a right line passing through the centre of the
sphere, and the oscillation now will be a descent and accent on this right line. From
which both the descent time from some place to the centre, as well as the time for this
equally by which a body may describe the quadrant of an arc by revolving uniformly
about the centre of the sphere at some distance. For this time (by the second case) is to
the time of a semi-oscillation on some cycloid QRS as I to
AR
AC
.

Corol. 2. Hence also these propositions lead to what Wren and Huygens had found
concerning the common cycloid. For if the diameter of the sphere may be increased
indefinitely: the surface of this will be changed into a plane, and the centripetal force will
act uniformly along lines perpendicular to this plane, and our cycloid will change into a
cycloid of the common kind. But in this case the length of the arc of the cycloid, between
that plane and the describing point, will emerge equal to four times the versed sine of half
the arc between the plane and the point of the wheel describing the same ; as Wren found:
And the pendulum between two cycloids of this kind will be oscillating in a similar and
equal cycloid in equal times, as Huygens demonstrated. And also the time of descent of
the weight, in the time of one oscillation, this will be as Huygens indicated.
But the propositions from our demonstrations are adapted to the true constitution of
the earth , just as wheels describe cycloids outside the sphere by going in great circles by
the motion of nails fixed in the perimeters, and pendulums suspended lower in mines and
caverns, must oscillate in cycloids within spheres, so that all the oscillations become
isochronous. For gravity (as we will be teaching in the third book) decreases in
progressing from the surface of the earth, upwards indeed in the square ratio of the
distances from the centre of the earth, downwards truly in a simple ratio.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.

PROPOSITION LIII. PROBLEM XXXV.
With the quadratures of the curvilinear figures granted, to find the forces by which
bodies on the given curves may perform isochronous oscillations.

The body T may be oscillating on some curved line
STRQ, the axis of which shall be AR passing through
the centre of forces C. The line TX may be drawn
which may touch the curve at any place of the body T,
and on this tangent TX there may be taken TY equal to
the arc TR. For the length of that arc will be known
from the quadrature of the figure by common methods.
[Thus, Newton's criterion for isochronous motion is
that the acceleration at T is in proportion to the length
of the arc TR]. From the point Y there may be drawn
the right line YZ perpendicular to the tangent. CT may
be crossing that perpendicular in Z, and the centripetal
force [parallel to AT] shall be proportional to the right
line TZ.
Q E.I.
For if the force, by which the body is drawn from T
towards C, may be represented by the right line TZ
taken proportional to this, this may be resolved into the
forces TY, YZ; of which YZ by drawing the body along the length of the thread PT, no
motion of this changes, but the other force TY directly either accelerates or decelerates
the motion of this body on the curve STRQ. Hence, since this path TR requiring to be
described shall always be as the accelerations or retardations of the body to be described
in the proportional parts of two oscillations, which shall always be as these parts (of the
greater and lesser), and therefore [these accelerations and decelerations] may be made as
these parts likewise may be described, [as in the modern equivalent S.H.M. view, the
acceleration is proportional to the negative
displacement; note that Newton considers an
oscillation or swing to be a single motion clockwise or
anticlockwise.] But bodies which at the same time
always describe the proportional parts of the whole,
likewise describe the whole. Q E.D.
Corol. 1. Hence if the body T, hanging by the
rectilinear thread AT from the centre A, may describe
the circular arc STRQ, [we must assume the angle TAN
is small, so that isochronous motion occurs for this
simple pendulum] and meanwhile it may be urged
downwards along parallel lines in turn by a certain
force, which shall be to the uniform force of gravity,
as the arc TR to the sine of this TN: the times of the
individual oscillations shall be equal. And indeed on account of the parallel lines TZ, AR,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
the triangles ATN and ZTY are similar ; and therefore TZ will be to AT as TY to TN; that
is, if the uniform force of gravity may be proposed by the given length AT; the force TZ,
by which the isochronous oscillations may be produced, will be to the force of gravity
AT, as the arc TR ,itself equal to TY, to the sine TN of that arc.
[Note that the isochronous accelerating force is proportional to the arc TR, which is
almost equal to the semi-chord TN for small oscillations, while AT and ZY are almost
vertically downwards, with the tension AT as the weight of the pendulum bob; hence

=
weight of bob
TZ AT
TY TN restoring force
]

Corol. 2. And therefore in clocks, if the forces impressed on the pendulum by the
machinery to preserve the motion thus since with the force of gravity may be compared,
so that the total force downwards always shall be as the line arising by dividing the
multiple of the arc TR [ TY = ] and the radius AR[ AT = ] by the sine TN, all the
oscillations will be isochronous.

PROPOSITION LIV. PROBLEM XXXVI.
With the quadrature of the curvilinear figures granted, to find the times, by which
bodies acted on by some centripetal force on some curved lines, described in a plane
passing through the centre of forces, may descend or ascend.

The body may descend from some place S, by a certain curve STtR in the plane
passing through the given centre of forces C. Now CS may be joined and that divided into
an innumerable number of equal parts, and Dd
shall be some of these parts. With centre C and
with the radii CD, Cd circles may be described,
DT, dt, crossing the curved line STtR in T and t.
And then from the given law of the centripetal
force, and from the given height CS by which
the body has fallen, the velocity of the body will
be given at some other height CT (by Prop.
XXXIX.).
[We are to consider a body to slide along the
given curve without friction from rest at S,
under the action of a radial force f(r) acting
along CT, at the point T, so that the velocity at
the distance r is given by along the curve in the
line element Tt shall be
1
2
2 ( )
r
R
v f r dr

=

,
whatever the shape of the curve. Hence, this [energy] integral has to be evaluated to
obtain the velocity at T. Consequently, the time to arrive at T is given by a second
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
integration, and
ds
vcos tTC
dt = , where the component of the radial velocity down the slope
is taken.]
But the time, in which the body will describe the line element Tt, is as the length of that
element, that is, directly as the secant of that angle tTC ; and inversely as the velocity.
The applied ordinate DN perpendicular to the right line CS through the point D shall be
proportional to this time, and on account of Dd given, the rectangle Dd DN , that is the
area DNnd, will be in the same proportion to the time. Therefore if PNn shall be that
curved line that the point N always touches, and the asymptote of which shall be the right
line SQ, standing perpendicularly on the right line CS: the area SQPND will be
proportional to the time in which the body by falling has described the line; and therefore
from that area found the time will given. Q.E.I.

PROPOSITION LV. THEOREM XIX.
If a body may be moving on some curved surface, the axis of which passes through the
centre of the forces, and a perpendicular is sent from the body to the axis, and from some
point a line parallel and equal to this line is drawn: I say that parallel line will describe
an area proportional to the time.

BKL shall be the curved surface, T the body revolving on that, STR the trajectory, that
the body will describe on the same, S the start of the trajectory, OMK theaxis of the
curved surface, TN the right line perpendicular to
the axis from the body, OP drawn equal and
parallel to this from the point O, which is given on
the axis ; AP the track of the trajectory described
by the point P by the winding of OP in the plane
AOP ; A corresponding to the start of the trace
from the point S ; TC a right line drawn from the
body to the centre ; TG the proportional part of the
centripetal forceTC, by which the body is urged
to the centre C; TM a right line perpendicular to the
curved surface; TI the proportional part of this
pressing force, by which the body may be acted on
in turn by the surface towards M; PTF a line
passing through the body parallel to the axis, and
GF and IH parallel right lines sent perpendicularly
from the points G and I on that parallel line PRTF.
Now I say, that the area AOP, described from the start of the motion by the radius OP,
shall be proportional to the time. For if the force TG (by Corol. 2. of the laws) is resolved
into the forces TF and FG; and the force TI into the forces TH and HI: But the forces TF
and TH acting along the line PF perpendicular to the plane AOP in as much as they only
change the motion of the body perpendicular to this plane. And thus in as much as the
motion of this is body is made along the position of this plane; that is, the motion of the
point P, by which the trace of the trajectory AP is described in this plane, is the same as if
the forces TF and TR may be removed, and the body is being acted on by the forces FG
and HI only ; and that is, likewise if the body in the plane AOP may describe the curve
rd
Ed.

Book I Section X.
AP, by a centripetal force tending towards the centre O and equal to the sum of the forces
FG and HI,. But such a force will describe the area AOP (by Prop. I.) proportional to the
time. Q E.D.

Corol. By the same argument if the body, acted on forces tending towards two or more
centres on the same given right line CO, may describe in free space some curved line ST;
the area AOP always becomes proportional to the time.

PROPOSITION LVI. PROBLEM XXXVII.
With the quadrature of the curvilinear figure given, and with the law of the centripetal
force tending towards the centre given, as well as the curved surface whose axis passes
through that centre ;the trajectory is required to be found that the body describes on that
same surface, advancing from a given place with a given velocity in a given direction on
the surface.

With everything in place which have been constructed in the above proposition, the
body T may emerge from a given place S
following a given right line in place in a
trajectory required to be found STR, the trace
of which in the plane BDO [D is called L in
the previous diagram, and is used here in the
original text] shall be AP. And from the given
velocity of the body at the height SC, the
velocity of this will be given at some other
height TC. Since with that velocity, in the
shortest time given, the body may describe a
small part of its trajectory Tt, and let Pp be
the trace of this described in the plane AOP.
Op may be joined, and with the centre T of a
small circle with the radius Tt of the trace
described on the curved surface, in the plane
AOP the ellipse pQ shall be described. And
on account of the given circle with magnitude
Tt, and the given distance TN or PO of this
from the axis CO, that ellipse pQ will be given in kind and magnitude, and so in place
according to the right line PO. And since the area POp shall be proportional to the time,
and thus the angle POp may be given from the given time. And thence the common
intersection p of the ellipse and of the right line OP will be given, together with the angle
OPp in which the trace of the trajectory APp cuts the line OP. Hence truly (on bringing
together Prop. XLI. with its Corol. 2.) an account of determining the curve APp may be
readily apparent. Moreover from the individual points P of the trace, by raising
perpendiculars PT to the plane AOP of the surface of the curve meeting in Q, the
individual points T of the trajectory will be given. Q.E.I.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
SECTION XI.

Concerning the motion of bodies with centripetal forces mutually attracting each other.

Up to the present, I have explained the motion of bodies attracted to a fixed centre of
force, yet scarcely such a force is extant in the nature of things. For the attractions are
accustomed to be for bodies ; and the actions of pulling and attracting are always mutual
and equal, by the third law: thus, if there shall be two bodies, so that neither shall it be
possible to be attracting or to be attracted and to be at rest, but both shall be rotating
around the common centre of gravity (by the fourth corollary of the laws), as if by mutual
attraction : and if there shall be several bodies, which either may be attracted by a single
body, and which likewise they may attract, or all may mutually attract each other; thus
these must be moving among themselves, so that the common centre of gravity may be at
rest, or may be moving uniformly in a direction. From which reason I now go on to
explain the motion of bodies mutually attracting each other, by considering the
centripetal forces as attractions, although perhaps more truly they may be called
impulses, if we may speak physically. For now we may turn to mathematics, and
therefore, with the physical arguments dismissed, we use familiar speech, by which we
shall be able to be understood more clearly by mathematical readers.

[The stand adopted by Newton has been explained in detail by Cohen in the introduction
to his translation; essentially the physical world is to be understood from mathematical
laws and considerations, and forces such as gravity, acting at a distance with no visible
means of communicating forces, are to be understood by the mathematical relations they
satisfy, rather than from some physical model involving unseen fluids and vortices, as in
Descartes' model.]
PROPOSITION LVII. THEOREM XX.
Two bodies attracting each other in turn describe similar figures, both around the
common centre of gravity and mutually around each other.

For the distances of the bodies from the common centre of gravity are inversely
proportional to the bodies [Newton means masses of bodies when he refers to bodies];
and thus in a given ratio one to the other, and on being put together in a given ratio to the
total distance between the bodies. But these distances are carried around their common
end [i.e. the centre of mass or gravity] by an equal angular motion, so that they do not
therefore change their mutual inclination, always lying on a line. But right lines, which
are reciprocally in a given ratio, and which are carried around their ends by an equal
angular motion, describe completely similar figures about these same ends in planes,
which together with these ends either are at rest, or may be moving in some non angular
motion [i.e. the linear motion of the centre of mass.] Hence these figures which are
described from the distances being turned through are similar.
Q.E.D.

[The analytical solutions of the two body problem now presented in this section are
solved to some extent in modern texts on dynamics, and Chandrasekhar gives proofs in
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
his work on Newton, from p. 207, onwards. Chandrasekhar thus solves the dynamical
problem in the reference frame of a body P, and finds that the original force is
augmented, for what Newton states depends on the bodies being in an inertial reference
frame in which the forces and accelerations remain the same (thus, a kinematic change of
viewpoint can be adopted) ; what we find in non-inertial frames, of course, is not
surprising, as the rotating body P below is itself accelerating, and so 'fictitious' forces
must be added to P to accommodate the correct motion, if we are to consider S as an
inertial frame : for S's frame likewise is an accelerating reference; Chandrasekhar goes on
to state that, ' Newton's proof, again couched in words, it is essentially the same....' .
Thus, it seems appropriate to add some variables in red to Newton's diagrams that
follow, and to indicate briefly the mathematical origins of the statements made and not
demonstrated fully by Newton. We may note in modern terms that the left-hand diagram
(a) refers either to an inertial frame in which the centre of mass of the system is at rest or
moving uniformly in a straight line (note that Newton refrains from talking about straight
lines, and discusses only directions, because otherwise it begs the question of the first law
of motion, as discussed in the definitions and axioms of this work), while the right-hand
diagram (b) considers s as a reference frame at rest. So we begin....]

PROPOSITION LVIII. THEOREM XXI.
If two bodies attract each other by forces of some kind, and meanwhile they rotate about
their common centre of gravity: I say of the figure, which the bodies describe around
each other mutually by moving thus, that it shall be similar and equal to the figure,
around either body at rest, to be described by the same forces.

The bodies S and P are revolving around the common centre of gravity C, by going
from S to T; and from P to Q . From a given point s, sp and sq may always be drawn
equal and parallel to SP and TQ themselves ; and the curve pqv, that the point p will
describe by revolving around the fixed point s, will be similar and equal to the curves,
which the bodies S and P describe around each other mutually: and hence (by Theorem
XX) similar to the curves ST and PQV,
which the same bodies will describe around the common centre of gravity C: and that
because the proportions of the lines SC, CP, and SP or sp may be given in turn.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
[Note from (a) that the orbits of the conic sections S and P generally are of differing sizes
(here we will concentrate on ellipses), and the mass m
1
in the case shown is greater than
the mass m
2
: if the force is proportional to the distance from the centre, then the two
orbits will be concentric ellipses with the centre at the centre of gravity. In the inverse
square case, the centre of mass is a common focus, the ellipses may intersect, but the
bodies themselves must always be at opposite ends of a line such as TQ, intersecting both
orbits. In both cases, the areas swept out by a radius are proportional to the times. In (b),
according to C, the orbit of p is similar to that of P, but viewed from the stationary
reference frame S, and a similar remark can be made about the orbit of s relative to p.
If O is an arbitrary origin in (a), then the positions of S and P are given by
1 2
and R r R r + +

, where we consider
1 2
and OC R, CS r , CP r = = =

as the vectors
shown; and the centre of gravity or mass is given by
11 2 2
1 2
m r m r
m m
R
+
+
=

. If the centre of
gravity is at rest, then 0 R =
and
11 2 2
0 m r m r = + , dispensing with vector notation, as the
bodies lie on a straight line. We also have
11 2 2
0 m r m r = + , on differentiating again, so that
the forces acting on S and P are equal and opposite, as required by the third law. If we
choose C to be the origin, then we can write
11 2 2
m r m r = , dispensing with signs : a useful
relation. The force between the masses meanwhile may be represented by F, and this is a
symmetric function of the masses, and depends on the distance between them. Hence we
may write
11 2 2
and F m r F m r = = , acting along the line joining SP in an attractive
manner, positive going from left to right, so that S is urged forwards by a positive force,
whileP is urged backwards by an equal and opposite negative force at the instant shown.
We also observe that though the forces are equal and opposite, the acceleration of the
body varies inversely with its mass, and thus the larger mass accelerates less and
produces the smaller orbit than the smaller mass.
Now if we wish to consider the motion of P relative to S, then the relative
displacement can be written as
2 1
r r

, and once more dispensing with vectors, we have
the acceleration of P relative to S given by
2 1
r r , and this can be written as
1 2
2 1 1 2
2 1
= =
m m
F F
SP sp
m m mm
a a r r F
+
= = , acting towards S. Hence, the force acting on P
relative to S in (a), or as p relative to s in (b), which is seen to be reduced to the previous
immoveable cases treated, is given by ( )
1 2
1
2 2 1
= =
m m
PS ps
m
F F m r r F
+
= towards s : that
is, the force F for the motion relative to C, has been augmented by the factor
1 2
2
m m
m
+
for
the motion of s relative to p. In a similar manner, we can write
( )
1 2
2
1 1 2
=
m m
SP
m
F m r r F
+
= , which is the augmented force on S due to P, now considered
at rest. Notice that these forces on P and p in diagrams (a) and (b) are no longer equal to
each other, the one is given by
2 2 CP
F m r F = = and the other by
1 2
1
=
m m
ps
m
F F
+
; hence
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
the ratio of the accelerations on the same mass P is given by
1
1 2
=
m
PC
m m
ps
a
a
+
; while the
nascent distances are given in the ratio
( )
( )( )
2
1 1
2
1 2 2
=
m t
CP
sp
m m t
RQ
rq
+
= , and the velocities are in
the ratio
( )
( )( )
1 1
1 2 2
=
m t
P
m m t
p
v
v
+
, where we consider the forces to act for different times.

Following Newton's arguments presented in case 1 below, due to the similar figures,
we have :
2
1 2
r RQ
CP
rq sp r r +
= = ; hence if we had the forces in this ratio [corresponding to
forces proportional to distance from the centre of the ellipses], then we would have
:
2
1 2
CP
sp
F r
CP CP
F r r SP sp +
= = = acting for the same small interval of time t , giving rise to the
same centripetal accelerations, either
2
2
or
p
P
CP sp
v
v
, from which =
p
P
sp
v
v
CP
, giving rise to the
similar curves pqv and PQV, and the revolutions would be completed in the same time.
But according to Newton, the forces are considered to be the same in each case, [we
may presume that he means in the centre of mass inertial frame], so that the accelerations
produced on P and p are equal, and the distances through which the body is drawn
inwards is RQ in one case, and rq in the other, where rq RQ > , and hence the same
acceleration must act for a longer interval to produce these nascent or infinitesimal
displacements QR and qr ; thus we have, since ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
1 2
2 2
and QR a t qr a t = = ,
then
1 1 2
2 1 2
1 2
m QR t r
CP
t r r
qr sp m m
+
+
= = = = . In this case, we have the similar curves pqv and
PQV produced, but not in the same times; as in this case, the time for one body to orbit
the other t is not the same as the time T for both bodies to orbit around the centre of mass
C.
We can continue to apply the dynamic analysis to the situation with modified forces,
and retaining Newton's insightful way of dealing with the nascent distances, to consider
the ratio of the forces acting on P and p, which is the same as the ratio of the
accelerations, augmented as discussed above :
1
2
CP P
p ps
a t v
v a t
= , where
( )
( )
( )
( )( )
2 2
1 1 1 1
2 2
1 2
2 1 2 2
and
CP CP
ps
ps
a t m t a m QR
CP
a m m qr ps
a t m m t

+
+
= = = = and thus giving
( )
1 2
1
2
1
;
m m CP
t
t
m ps
+
= and
( )
( )
2
1 2 1 1 1 1 2
2
2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1
1 2
= = = ;
CP P
p ps
m m QR m a t v m m r
v a t m m m m r r
mqr
m m
+
+ + +
+
= = which Newton deduces below,
and thus it seems that Newton was using this formulation of the problem after all. ]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.

Case 1. That common centre of gravity C, by the fourth corollary of the laws, either is at
rest or moving uniformly in a direction. We may put that initially to be at rest, and the
two bodies may be located at s and p, with the immobile body at s, the mobile one at p,
with the bodies S and P similar and equal to the bodies s and p. Then the right lines PR
and pr may touch the curves PQ and pq in P and p, and CQ and sq may be produced to R
and r. And on account of the similitude of the figures CPRQ and sprq, RQ will be to rq as
CP to sp, and thus in a given ratio [indeed,
2
1 2
r RQ
CP
rq sp r r +
= = ]. Hence if the force, by which
the body P is attracted towards the body S, and thus towards the intermediate centre C,
should be in that same given ratio to the force, by which the body p is attracted towards
the centre s [i.e. the above ratio
2
1 2
CP
sp
F r
F r r +
= ] ; these forces in equal times always attract
the bodies from the tangents PR and Pr to the arcs PQ and pq by intervals proportional to
RQ and rq themselves, and thus the latter force effects, that the body p may rotate in the
curve pqv, which shall be similar to the curve PQV, in which the former force effects that
the body P may be revolving; and the revolutions may be completed in the same time.
But since these forces are not inversely in the ratio CP to sp, rather (on account of the
similitude and equality of the bodies S and s, P and p, and the equality of the distances SP
and sp) but mutually equal to each other [as discussed above]; the bodies will be drawn
equally in equal times from the tangents: and therefore, so that the latter body p may be
drawn by the greater interval rq, a greater time is required, and that in the square root
ratio of the intervals; therefore (by the tenth lemma) because the distances have been
described in the squares ratio of the times from the beginning of the motion itself.
Therefore we may put the velocity of the body p to be as the velocity of the body P in the
square root ratio of the distance sp to the distance CP, thus so that in the times, which
shall be in the same square root ratio, the arcs pq and PQ may be described, which are in
a whole [ordinary] ratio : And the bodies P and p always attracted by equal forces
describe the similar figures PQV, pqv, around the centres C and s at rest, of which the
latter pqv is similar and equal to the figure, that the body P will describe about the mobile
centre S. Q.E.D.

Case 2. Now we may consider that the common centre of gravity, together with the
distance in which the bodies may be moving among themselves, is progressing uniformly
along a direction; and (by the law of the sixth corollary) all the motions may advance in
this space as before, and thus the bodies describe the same figures around each other as at
first, and therefore to the similar and equal figure pqv. Q.E.D.

Corol. I. Hence two bodies with the forces proportional to their distances attracting
each other mutually, (by Prop. X.) describe concentric ellipses both around the common
centre of gravity and around each other, and vice versa, if such figures are described, then
the forces are proportional to the distances.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.

Corol. 2. And two bodies, with forces inversely proportional to the square of the
distance, describe (by Prop. XI. XII. XIII.) both around the common centre of gravity and
about each other, conic sections having the focus at the centre, around which the figures
are described. And conversely, if such figures are described, the centripetal forces are
reciprocally as the squares of the distance.

Corol. 3. Any two bodies rotating about the common centre of gravity, with the radii
drawn both to that centre and between themselves, describe areas proportional to the
times.

PROPOSITION LIX. THEOREM XXII.
The periodic time of two bodies S and P, rotating about their common centre of gravity
C, is to the periodic time of rotation of either of the bodies P, rotating about the other
stationary body S, and with the figures, which the bodies describe mutually around each
other, similar and equal to the figure described, as the square root ratio of [the mass of]
the other body S, to the sum of the [masses of the] bodies S P + .

Indeed, from the demonstration of the above proposition, the times, in which any
similar arcs PQ and pq are described, are in the square root ratio of the distances CP and
SP or sp, that is, in the square root ratio of the body S to the sum of the bodies S P + .
And on adding together, the sum of all the times in which all the similar arcs PQ and pq
are describes, that is, the total time, in which the whole similar figures may be described,
are in the same square root ratio. Q.E.D.
[See notes above. ]
PROPOSITION LX. THEOREM XXIII.
If two bodies S and P, with forces inversely proportional to the square of their distance,
mutually attract each other about the common centre of gravity: I say that ellipse, which
one of the bodies P will describe about the other ellipse in this motion S, the principal
axis is to that principal axis, which the same body P will describe around the other body
S at rest, in the same periodic time, shall be as the sum of the two bodies S P + to the first
of the two mean proportionals between this sum and that other body S.

For if the ellipses were to be described equal to each other, the periodic times (by the
above theorem) would be in the square root ratio of the body S to the sum of the bodies
S P + . The periodic time of the latter ellipse may be diminished in this ratio, and the
periodic times may become; [i.e. and 1
S
P S
S t t
T
P S T
,
+
+
= = ] ; but the principal axis of the
ellipse (by Prop. XV.) will be diminished in a ratio, which is in the three on two ratio of
this, that is in a ratio which is the triplicate of S to S P +
[ For
2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
: and : : whereby by Kepler III, : = : T t S P : S T t A X , A X S P S = + = + ;
now if two mean proportional B and C are taken between S P + and S, then
S P C B
B C S
+
= =

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
hence S P + will be in the triplicate ratio to B, that is ( )
3
3
: : S P S S P B + = + , and hence
( )
3
3 3 3
: : A X S P B = + , and thus ( ) ( ) : : or : : A X S P B X A B S P = + = + ];

and thus the principal axis will be to the principal axis of the other ellipse, as the first of
the two mean proportionals between S P + and S to S P + . And conversely, the principal
axis of the ellipse described about the mobile body will be to the principal axis described
about the stationary ellipse, as S P + to the first of the two mean proportions between
S P + and S. Q.E.D.

PROPOSITION LXI. THEOREM XXIV.
If two bodies may be mutually attracted by any forces, and neither disturbed nor impeded
by any others, in whatever manner they may be moving ; the motions of these thus may be
had, and, as if they may not attract with each other mutually, but each may be attracted
by the same forces by some third body established at the common centre of gravity. And
the law of the attracting forces will be with respect to the distance of the bodies from that
common centre, and with respect to the whole distance between the bodies.

For these forces, by which the bodies mutually pull on each other, stretch towards the
common intermediate centre of gravity ; and thus they are the same, as if they spring
from an intermediate body. Q.E.D.

And since the ratio of the distance of whichever body from that common centre to the
distance between the bodies may be given, the ratio will be given of any power of one
distance to the same power of the other distance; and so that the ratio of whatever
quantity, which may be derived from one distance and with whatever quantities given, to
another quantity, which from the other distance and from just as many given quantities,
and that given ratio of the distances to the former had similarly may be derived. Hence if
the force, by which one body is pulled by the other, shall be directly or inversely as the
distance of the bodies in turn ; either as any power of this distance ; or finally so that
some quantity may be derived in some manner from this given distance and given
quantities: the force will be the same, by which the body likewise is drawn to the
common centre of gravity, likewise directly or inversely as the distance of attraction from
that common centre, either as the same power of this distance, or finally as a quantity
similarly derived from this distance and with similar given quantities. That is, the force of
attraction will be the same law with respect to each distance. Q.E.D.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.

PROPOSITION LXII. PROBLEM XXXVIII.
To determine the motion of two bodies, which mutually attract each other with forces
inversely proportional to the square of their distances, and which are sent off from given
places.

Bodies (by the latest theorem) may be moved in the same way, as if they may be
attracted by a third body put in place at the common centre of gravity ; and that centre
from its own initial motion by hypothesis remains at rest; and therefore (by Corol. 4 of
the laws) will always remain at rest. Therefore the motions of the bodies are required to
be determined (by Prob. XXV.) in the same manner as if they may be urged by attracting
forces at the centre, and the motions of the bodies mutually attracting each other will be
found. Q.E.D.

PROPOSITION LXIII. PROBLEM XXXIX.
To determine the motion of two bodies which attract each other with forces inversely
proportional to the square of their distance, and with the places given, and the bodies
leave along given straight lines with given velocities.

At the beginning with the given motions of the bodies, the uniform motion of the
common centre of gravity is given, and so that the motion of the space, which together
with this centre is moved uniformly in a direction, without any motion of the bodies with
respect to this space. But the subsequent motions (by the fifth corollary of the laws, and
the latest theorem) happen in this space in the same way, as if the space itself together
with that common centre of gravity were at rest, and the bodies are not attracting each
other mutually, but were attracted by a third body situated at that centre. Therefore the
motion of either body is to be determined (by Problems 9 and 26) in this moving space,
from the place given, along a given right line, with the given departure speed, and acted
on by the centripetal force tending towards that centre: and likewise the motion of the
other body about the same centre will be known. Since to this motion it is required to add
the uniform motion of the space, and in that space the progressive rotational motion of
the bodies found above, and the absolute motions of the bodies will be known in
immobile space.
Q.E.D.

[Recall that Newton believes in the existence of a universal rest frame, that of the fixed
stars, and relative to which all motions are absolute. Newton now proceeds from the
generally soluble two-body problem to the only-soluble n-body problem.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.

PROPOSITION LXIV. PROBLEM XL.
The motions of several bodies among themselves are required, with the forces by which
the bodies mutually attract each other increasing in a simple ratio from the centres.

At first two bodies T and L, having a common centre of gravity D, may be put in
place. These describe ellipses (by the first corollary of Theorem XXI.) having centres at
D, the magnitude of which becomes
known from Problem X.
Now a third body S may attract the first
two T and L with the accelerating forces
ST and SL, and it may be attracted by
these in turn. The force ST (by Corol. 2. of
the laws) is resolved into the forces SD
and DT; and the force SL into the forces
SD and DL. But the forces DT and DL,
which are as their sum TL, and thus as the
accelerating forces by which the bodies T and L are attracted mutually, add to these the
forces of the bodies T and L, each to the other in turn, composing forces proportional to
the distances DT and DL, as at first, but with the forces greater than with the former
forces; and thus (by Prop. X, Corol. I. and Prop. IV, Corol's.1. and 8) have the effect that
these bodies will describe ellipses as before, but with a faster motion. The remaining
accelerating forces SD and SD [contributed from the forces ST and SL], from the motive
actions and SD T SD L ,

[i.e. in an analytical approach, such forces between the bodies 1 and 2 may be given by a
generalised Hooke's law type formula : motive force displacement , provided there
are only two bodies present, where the masse M
1
and M
2
may be incorporated into the
constant of proportionality; or by considering a motive
3
force displacement M for
forces that involve either body 1 or 2 but always body 3, some such scheme Newton has
adopted, as this constant of proportionality must change if a third mass M
3
is present,
unless the masses are equal, etc.]

which are as the bodies, by attracting these bodies equally and along the lines TI, LK,
themselves parallel to DS, and in turn do not change the situation of these, but act so that
they accelerate equally to the line IK; that taken drawn through the middle of the body S,
and perpendicular to the line DS. But that access to the line IK may be impeding by
arranging so that the system of bodies T and L from one side, and the body S from the
other, with the correct velocities, may be rotating around the common centre of gravity C.
From such a motion the body S, because with that the sum of the motive forces
and SD T SD L , of the proportional distance CS, tends towards the centre C, will
describe an ellipse around the same C; and the point D, on account of the proportionals
CS, CD, describes a similar ellipse out of the region. But the bodies T and L attracted by
the motive forces and SD T SD L , the first body by the first force, the second by the
second, equally and along the parallel lines TI and LK, as it has been said, proceed to
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
describe their own ellipses around the moving centre D (by the 5
th
and 6
th
corollaries of
the laws), as at first.
Q.E.D.

Now a fourth body V may be added, and by a similar argument it may be concluded
that this body and the point C describe ellipses about the common centre of gravity of all
the bodies B ; with the former motions of the bodies T, L and S about the centres D and C
remaining, but with an acceleration. And by the same method more bodies are allowed to
be added. Q.E.D.

Thus these may be themselves considered, as if the bodies T and L attract each other
with greater or less accelerations than by which the remaining bodies for a [given] ratio
of the distances. Let all the mutual accelerative attractions be in turn as the distances by
the [masses of the] bodies attracted, and from the proceeding it may be readily deduced
that all the bodies describe different ellipses in equal periodic times, around the common
centre of gravity B, in a fixed plane. Q.E.D.

[On page 217, Chandrasekhar produces the analytical solution that Newton must have
worked through, by reducing the motion of each mass to an attraction about the common
centre of mass, without any other accelerations needed, and these motions for each body
are S.H.M.'s of the form :
acceleration of body total mass of all bodies displacement of body .
Thus the basis is set for treating a three or more body problem where the forces follow an
inverse square law, having established the reliability of a method of adding the forces.]

PROPOSITION LXV. THEOREM XXV.
Several bodies, the forces of which decrease in the inverse square ratio of the distance
from their common centre of gravity, can move in ellipses amongst themselves ; and with
the radii drawn to the focus describe areas almost proportional to the times.

In the above proposition the case has been shown where several bodies are moving
forwards precisely in ellipses. From which the more the law of the forces departs from
the law put in place there, from that the more the bodies mutually disturb the motions ;
nor can it happen, following the law put in place here that bodies by mutually attracting
each other, can be moving precisely in ellipses, unless by obeying in turn a certain
proportion of the distances. But in the following cases it will not differ much from
ellipses.

Case: I. Put several smaller bodies to revolve around some large body at various
distances from that body, and the bodies are attracted by the same body according to
proportional individual absolute forces. And because the common centre of gravity of all
is either at rest or may be moving in a direction uniformly (by the fourth Corollary of the
laws), we may set the bodies in place to be rather small, so that the large body at no time
departs sensibly from this centre : and the large body may be at rest, or moving uniformly
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
in a direction, without sensible error; but the smaller bodies may be revolving around this
large body in ellipses, and with radii drawn to the same, they describe areas proportional
to the times ; unless in so far as errors are induced, either by the large body receding
from that common centre of gravity, or by the actions of the smaller bodies mutually
between each other. But the smaller bodies can be diminished , until this error and the
mutual interactions themselves, shall be less than in any given amount ; and thus the
orbits can be made to agree with ellipses, and the areas may correspond to the times, with
no tangible errors. Q.E.O.

Case 2. Now we may put in place a system of smaller bodies revolving around some
very large body in the manner now described, or some other system of two bodies
revolving around each other progressing uniformly in direction, and meanwhile to be
acted on laterally by the force of another by far greater body at a great distance. And
because the equal accelerating forces do not act by changing the positions of the bodies in
turn among themselves, with the motions of the parts maintained between themselves, but
affect the system as a whole, by which the small bodies may be acted on along parallel
lines, and may be moved together ; it is clear that, by the attractions from the great body,
no change in the motion of the attraction of the bodies between themselves may arise,
unless either from the inequality of the attracting accelerations or from the inclination of
the lines in turn, along which the attractions happen. Therefore put all the attractive
accelerations due to the great body to be inversely as the square of the distances between
themselves ; and by increasing the distance of the great body, until the differences of the
right lines drawn from that body to the rest of the bodies in respect of the length of these,
and the inclinations in turn, may be made smaller than any given amount; then the
motions of the parts of the system may persevere among themselves with minimal errors
given, which may not be given any smaller. And because, on account of the smallness of
the parts of these in turn with the great distance, the whole system is attracted in the
manner of a single body ; and will be moved likewise by this attraction in the manner of a
single body ; that is, it may describe with its centre of gravity some conic section about
the great body (viz. a hyperbola or a parabola from a weaker attraction, an ellipse from a
stronger attraction) and with a radius drawn to the great body, areas will be described
proportional to the times, without any errors, except those arising from the distances of
the parts, reasonably small, and to be minimized as it pleases. Q.E.O.

It is permitted to proceed indefinitely to more composite cases.

Corol. 1. In the second case, in which the greatest body of all approaches closer to the
system of two or more bodies, the motions of the parts of the system among themselves
are more disturbed by that ; because now the inclination of the lines drawn from the great
body to these in turn is greater, and the greater the inequality of the proportion.

Corol.2. Moreover the small bodies will be disturbed the most, on being put in place,
in such a way that the attractive accelerations of the parts of the system towards the
greatest body of all shall not be inversely in turn as the squares of the distances from that
great body ; especially if the inequality of this proportion shall be greater than the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
inequality of the proportions of the distances from the great body. For if the accelerative
force [of the great body], by acting equally along parallel lines, disturbs nothing in the
motion between themselves, it is necessary that a perturbation may arise from the
inequality of the action, either it shall be a smaller disturbance for a greater body, or one
of greater inequality for a lesser body. The excess of the impulses of the greater body, by
acting on some bodies and by not acting on others, by necessity will change the position
of these amongst themselves. And this perturbation added to the perturbation, which
arises from the inclination and inequality of the lines, may return the whole major
perturbation.

Corol. 3. From which if the parts of this system may be moving in ellipses or in circles
without significant disturbance ; it is evident, that the same bodies on attracting other
bodies by accelerative forces, either may not to be acted on unless they are the lightest,
or to be acted on equally, and approximately along parallel lines.

PROPOSITION LXVI. THEOREM XXVI.
If three bodies, the forces of which decrease in the square ratio of the distances, mutually
attract each other; and the accelerative attractions of any two on the third shall be
reciprocally as the square of the distances; moreover with the smaller ones revolving
around the greatest : I say that the inner of the two bodies revolving about the innermost
and greatest body, by the radii drawn to the innermost itself, describes areas more
proportional to the times, and a figure of an elliptic form, by having more of the radii
meeting at the focus, if the greatest body may be disturbed by these attractions, than it
would if that greatest body either was at rest and not attracted by the smaller bodies, or if
it were attracted much more or much less, or disturbed much more or much less.

It may almost be evident from the demonstration of the second corollary of the
foregoing proposition ; but it may be established thus by a more widely compelling and
distinct argument.

Case 1 The smaller bodies P and S may be revolving in the same plane about the greatest
body T, of which P may be described in the inner orbit PAB, and S in the outer orbit ESE.
[Note that S may be presumed to be the sun, and is small only because of the great
distance, while P is the moon revolving around the earth T in an almost circular orbit;
also, point masses are assumed for these bodies.]
Let SK be the mean distance of the bodies P and S; and the attractive acceleration of the
body P towards S, at that average distance, may be expressed by the same line SK;

[Thus, as in all of Newton's dynamics, some lines are geometrical lengths, others are
forces or attractive accelerations, and some act as both, we will prefix some line sections
by a word or short phrase not present in the original text, containing the word line or
attractive acceleration or simply force if there is confusion ; in this case the line SK
defines the unit of attractive acceleration, or force per unit mass.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.

The ratio of the attractive accelerations SL to SK may be taken in the same square ratio
SK to SP, and SL will be the attractive acceleration of the body P towards S at some
distance SP.
[i.e. the attractive accelerations on the body P due to S are :
2
2
SL
SK
SP SK
=
, so that when P is
at the average distance, the force SL
is equal to the forceSK
; if the distance SP < SK ,

the force SL
is greater than the average and if P is more distant, i.e. if SP > SK, then the
force SL
is less than the average.]

J oin PT, and the line LM acts parallel to that line crossing ST in M, [which may need to
be extended as here when SP < SK ]; and the attractive acceleration SL may be resolved
(by Corol. 2 of the laws) into the attractions and SM LM

. And thus the body P will be
urged by three accelerative forces.

[i.e. LS LM MS = +

gives two of the forces, and PT
is the other.]

One force [ PT
] attracts P towards T, and arises from the mutual attraction of the

bodies T and P. By this force alone the body P must describe equal areas in proportional
times with the radius PT about the body T, either fixed, or disturbed by this attraction,
and in an ellipse the focus for which is at the centre of the body T. This is apparent from
Prop. XI, and the Corollaries 2 and 3 of Theorem XXI.
The second force is by the attraction of the force LM, which because it attracts from P
to T, may be added onto the first force and will coincide with that [in direction], and thus
might bring about that the areas even still may be described in proportional times by
Corol. 3 of Theorem XXI. But because it is not inversely proportional to the square of the
distance PT, this force adding together with the first force differs from that proportion,
and this with a greater variation; by which the proportion of this force is greater than the
first force, with all else being equal.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
[Note 495 adapted, L & J . : For from the construction,
2
2
SL
SK SL
SK
SP SK
= =
, and thus
3
3
SK SL SK SL
SK SP SP
SP
.
= = But on account of the similar triangles MLS, TPS :

SL LM
SP PT
= ; hence
3
3
SK LM
PT
SP
= , and therefore the force LM
is as
3
3
SK
SP
PT
, or with SK given, as
3
1
SP
PT
;
from which with the distance PT increased, so the force LM
will increase]

Hence since (by Prop. XI, and by Corol. 2 of Theorem XXI.) the force, by which an
ellipse will be described about a focus T must attract towards that focus, and to be in the
inverse square ratio of the distance PT; but that composite force, erring from that
proportion, so makes the orbit PAB err from the elliptic form having a focus at T; and
with that the more, so that from which the departure is greater from that proportion ; and
thus also by how much greater is the proportion of the second force LM to the first force,
with all else being equal.

Now indeed the third force SM, by attracting the body P along a line parallel to the
line ST itself, together with the previous forces comprises a force, which is no longer
directed from P to T; and which may differ so much more from this determination, when
the proportion of this third force to the former forces is greater, with all else being equal
: and thus which will cause the areas no longer to be described by the body P in
proportional times, with the radius TP ; and as the aberration from this proportionality
may be so much greater, when the proportion of this third force to the other forces is
greater. Truly the third force will increase the aberration of the orbit PAB from the
previous elliptic form in a two fold manner, because that force is not directed from P to
T, and also because it shall not be inversely proportional to the square of the distance PT.

[Note 496, L & J . : For PT is to ST as the force LM is to the force SM, but from the
previous note, the force LM is as
3
3
SK PT
SP
, and hence the force SM is as

3
3
SK ST
SP
. Whereby
the force SM, with SK and ST given, is as
3
1
SP
.]

With which understood, it is evident, that the areas are made maximally in proportion to
the times when the third force shall be a minimum, with the rest of the forces remaining
constant; and so that the orbit PAB then can approach maximally to the previous elliptic
form, where both the second force as well as the third, but particularly the third force,
shall be a minimum, with the first force remaining.

[Extra diagram and notes for this T based system : Black lines are geometric lines; green
lines are forces exerted by S on T and on P; red lines are components of the excess or
deficient force of S on P, resolved along PT and SN; PT and ST are overlapping lines.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.

Here we have detached the components of the PS force acting on P in our coloured
diagram, showing the three forces considered acting on P ; we note that T(erra) the
earth, is acted on by the S(un) directly at a great distance, by the force SN
, moving
slowly at a great distance, and so slowly pulling the two-body system slowly through a
complete circle; and by the moon directly at P by the force variable force PT
, while the
force of the sun on the moon at P, (with the average force SK
), gives rise on resolution,

during its orbit, to the indirect forces acting on the earth, and LM SN

. These are the
three forces per unit mass acting on P, and so really are accelerations, or gravitational
field strengths. Also, the perturbing force on P at the position shown is LT LS TS =

, the
difference of the moon-sun and the earth-sun accelerations ;and note that T is the centre
of gravity of the body, while N is the position of the focus of the elliptical orbit of P.

It is interesting to
observe the
progression of
Newton's figure,
of which he must
have been very
proud, as it
provides so much
information, and it expresses one of these happy moments in physics where a lot of ideas
suddenly tumble out into the light from some obscure place, and at least a qualitative
understanding of a situation can be grasped. Above is the diagram from the first edition
of the Principia, where SL is the
perturbing force.
And here on the left is the diagram
from Brougham and Routh's book,
where the original quadrilateral
PLSM has become the parallelogram
MLNE. However, they have not
shown the resultant perturbing force.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
And here is a later diagram from a 19
th
century book, that I have borrowed from the
useful article on Lunar Theory, from
that wonderful resource Wikipedia,
for which we must thank the
anonymous provider. Note that two
opposite positions have now been put
in place, one with the gravitational
acceleration of the sun on the moon
greater, and other less, than the
gravitational acceleration of the earth.

Finally, here is a modern diagram from the same source,
showing essentially the tidal forces on a particle in orbit or
on the earth's surface at various positions.

End of translator's note. Back to Newton]

The attractive acceleration of the body T towards S may be represented by the line SN;
and if the accelerative attractions SM and SN were equal to each other; these, by
attracting the bodies T and P equally along parallel lines, would make no change in the
positions of these relative to each other. Now the motions of these bodies would be the
same between each other (by Corol. VI of the laws) as if these attractions were removed.
And by similar reasoning, if the attraction SN were less than with the attraction SM, that
part of the attractive force SN of SM itself may be removed, and only the part MN may
remain, by which the proportions of the times and of the areas, and by which the elliptic
form may be disturbed. And similarly if the attraction SN should be greater than the
attraction SM, there may arise from the difference only the perturbation force MN of the
proportionality of the orbit.
Thus, by the attraction SN,
the attraction of the third
body always reduces the
third attraction SM above to
the attraction MN, with the
first and second attractions
completely unchanged [thus, the common part of the attraction can be ignored, leaving
only the part corresponding to the force MN] : and therefore the proportionality for the
areas and the times also remain unchanged, and the orbit PAB then approaches as close as
possible to the previous elliptic form, when the attraction MN either is zero, or that shall
be made as small as possible ; or, when the accelerative attractions of the bodies P and T,
made towards the body S approach as close as possible to being equal ; i.e., when the
attraction SN is not zero, nor smaller than the minimum attraction of all SM, but as if it
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
were a mean between all of the maximum and minimum attractions of SM, not much
greater nor much less than the attraction SK. Q.E.D.

Case 2. Now the smaller bodies P and S may rotate about the largest body T in
different planes [or, the new plane of the ellipse PAB is inclined to the above plane STP,
which we can imagine as fixed]; and the force LM, by acting along the line PT situated in
the plane of the orbit PAB, will have the same effect as before, nor will the body P be
disturbed from its orbital plane
[by this force]. [That is, the
force SP is now resolved into
components in the new plane
SPT .] But the other force NM,
by acting along a line which
shall be parallel to ST itself, is
(and therefore when the body S
may be situated beyond the line of the nodes, to be inclined to the orbital plane PAB)
besides the perturbation of the motion in longitude that now has explained before, may
lead to a perturbation of the motion in latitude, by drawing the body P from its own
orbital plane. [Thus, the forces and ST MN

no longer lie in the same plane, and an extra
perturbation arises changing the angle of this plane to the fixed plane]. And this
perturbation, in some given situation of the bodies P and T to one another, will be as that
force generating MN, and thus may emerge the minimum when MN is minimal, that is (as
I have just explained) where the attraction SN is not much greater, nor much less than the
attraction SK. Q.E.D.

[The first ten corollaries that follow give qualitative arguments about the kinds of
motions that can arise between the three bodies. People normally agree that the
explanations supplied by Newton are quite inadequate for a proper understanding of the
subject, and that he retained the accompanying analytical derivations that he had worked
out; see Chandrasekhar on this point, at least until Book III. We offer here as part of this
qualitative understanding, some of the notes supplied by Leseur & J anquier in their
edition of the Principia. We will indicate briefly what each corollary sets out to establish
if this is not apparent at once ; the whole theory can be applied to the moon as P, S as the
sun, and T as the earth, but is presented in a more general way. Most of the technical
terms used in the following can be found on line in the 1911 eleventh edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica (Cambridge University Press), and from various astronomy
websites. ]

Corol. 1. [This corollary indicates that the inner body is affected less by the disturbing
force; Newton show in Prop. XXVI of Book III that the components of this force acting
along and perpendicular to the radius at a given point, for each body in orbit around T,
are in fact proportional to this radius.]
From these it is easily deduced, that if several smaller bodies P, S, R, &c. may be
revolving around the greatest body T, the motions of the innermost body P will be
disturbed minimally by the attractions of the exterior bodies, where the greatest body T
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
with all other things being equal, for a given ratio of the accelerative forces, is attracted
and disturbed by the others, and as are the lesser bodies mutually between themselves.

Corol.2. [This corollary indicates that the 'constant' areas are in fact slightly more at the
syzygies and slightly less by the same amount at the quadratures.]
For in a system of three bodies T, P, S, if the accelerative attractions of any two on the
third shall be to each other inversely as the square of the distances ; the body P, with the
radius PT, describes an area about the body T faster on account of the nearby conjunction
A and the opposition B, than near the quadratures [i.e. the perpendicular positions on the
diagram above] C, D. For all the force by which the body P may be acted on, (and the
body T is not acted on, and which does not act along the line PT), either accelerates or
retards the description of the areas, thus as the bodies come together or are moving apart.
Such is the force NM. This, in the passage of the body P fromC to A, attracts as a
forward motion, and the motion accelerates; then as far as to D in moving apart, the
motion is retarded; then acting together as far as to B, and finally by acting in opposition
in passing from B to C.

[Note 498 from L & J : Such is the force NM.... If we may suppose the orbit CADB to be
almost a circle, and the distance SD a maximum with respect to the radius PT, there will
be almost SC SK ST SN = = = , and hence NM TM = . Again with the body P at the
quadratures C and D, there is SC SP SK = = ; whereby since there shall be
2
2
SL SK
SP SK
=
,
by the construction of
Prop.66, , there will be
SL SK SC = = at the
quadratures and LM
coincides with CT or PT,
and thus TM or NM
vanishes. Therefore there
will be no difference in the forces SM and SN at the quadratures, and thus the body P is
disturbed by the remaining forces, and is attracted towards the centre T, describes there
by the radius drawn, areas proportional to the times : [we can think of both T and P
accelerating equally towards S at these points, and the non-central force corresponding to
LM is taken as negligible.] Moreover, when the body P is in the hemisphere CAD beyond
the quadratures, the force SM is greater than the force SN and the body P is drawn by the
difference of the forces along a direction parallel to TS itself.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
Let Pm be equal and parallel to NM itself, and by sending from m a perpendicular to
the radius TP produced, the force Pm, or NM, is resolved into the two forces Pn and nm,
the former of which Pn by drawing along the direction of the radius TP, the motion of the
body P does not change in longitude i.e. the rate at which the angle P rotates through in
its orbit, nor will it disturb the equality of the area described; truly the latter force nm, by
attracting along the direction of the line nm, perpendicular to the radius TP, that is, along
the direction of the tangent at P, accelerates the motion in the longitude in the first
quadrant CA and retards it in the second quadrant AD. [Assuming the northern
hemisphere view as an anticlockwise rotation of P about T.]
In the other hemisphere DBC, the force SM is less than the force SN, because the body
P is at a greater distance from the body S than the body T, from which if the perturbing
forces may be considering only on the body P, the difference of the forces SM and SN
will be negative or taken away, or because it is the same force, acting in the opposite
direction. For both the bodies T and P may be considered to be urged by the force SN
equal and parallel to itself everywhere, and they can move among themselves as if all that
force were absent, by Cor. 6. of the laws of motion; The body P may be drawn by the
force NM along the opposite direction to the force SN, and by that action the motion of
the bodies will be changed between themselves; but also by that action the force SN
which was being considered to draw the body P, has been reduced to the force SM ,
which is the reverse force acting while the force SN acts on T. Therefore if the motion of
the bodies T and P may be judged between themselves, so that the body P may be urged
by the difference of the forces NM, acting in the opposite direction in the hemisphere, the
true changes in the motions of the bodies T and P between themselves will be obtained.
arising from the actions SN and SM. Finally, the body P may be considered in the
hemisphere DBC as if urged by the force NM along the direction Pm parallel to NM itself
by acting from P towards m; and thus, if the force Pm may be resolved into two forces as
has been done in the other hemisphere, it is evident the longitudinal motion will be
accelerated in the quadrant DB, and retarded in the quadrant BC.]

Corol.3. And by the same argument it is apparent that the body P, with all else being
equal, will be moving faster in conjunction and in opposition than at quadrature. [But as
we have seen above, in opposite directions.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
Corol. 4. For the orbit of the body P, with all else being equal, is more curved at
quadrature than in conjunction and opposition. For swifter bodies are deflected less from
a straight path. And in addition the force KL, or NM, in conjunction and in opposition is
opposite to the force, by which the body T attracts the body P; and thus that force is
decreased; but the body P is deflected less from a right path, where it is less urged
towards the body T.

[Note 499, L & J : And besides the force KL......With everything in place as above, the
right lines SL and SM are almost parallel, and hence TM PL = and
LM PT = approximately; whereby P coincides with A and K with T, there becomes
LM AT PK = = , and NM or TM PL AT KL = + + , and NM LM KL = , that is, the
whole disturbing force by which the body P in conjunction with A is withdrawn from the
body towards S, is as KL approximately ; for the force LM attracting P towards T and by
the force NM is withdrawn from the body T towards S. Likewise it may be shown in the
same manner, with the body P in opposition to the position B. ]

Corol. 5. From which the body P, with all else being equal, departs further from the body
T at the quadratures, than at conjunction and at opposition [i.e. the elliptical shape is
made slightly prolate from perturbation]. These thus are considered with the exclusion of
the eccentricity from the motion. For if the orbit of the body P shall be exocentric, the
eccentricity of that (as will be shown in Corol. 9 of this work soon) emerges the
maximum when the apsides are at the syzygies ; and thus it is possible to happen that the
body P, calling at the greater apside, may be further from the body T at the syzygies than
at the quadratures.

[Note 499q, L & J : From which the body P, ...... For since the orbit of the body P shall be
more curved at the quadratures C or D than at the syzygies A and B (by Corollary 4), it is
necessary, with all else equal, that at the syzygies A and B shall be more squeezed than at
the quadratures C and D to the image of the ellipse, the centre of which shall be T, CD
the major axis, and AB the minor axis. Thus, these may be found if , with the exclusion of
the perturbing forces, the orbit of the body P were a circle of which the centre were T.]

Corol. 6. [In which changes in the Kepler Law III are accounted for in terms of
perturbing factors. This is really a 'second order' effect : see Chandrasekhar p. 245 for a
detailed account.]
Because the centripetal force of the central body T, by which the body P may be held
in its orbit, is increased at the quadratures by the addition of the force LM, and
diminished at the syzygies by taking away the force KL, and on account of the magnitude
of the force KL being greater than LM, it is more diminished more [at A and B ]than
increased [at C and D]; but that centripetal force (by Corol. 1. Prop. IV.) is in a ratio
compounded from the simple ratio of the radius TP directly and from the ratio of the
inverse of the square of the time [i.e.
2
radius
period
PT
C.F. ]: it is apparent that the
compounded ratio be diminished by the action of the force KL; and thus the periodic
time, if the radius of the orbit TP may remain, to be increased, and that in the square root
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
ratio, by which that centripetal force is diminished: and thus by diminishing or increasing
this radius, the periodic time becomes greater, or to be diminished less than in the three
on two power of this radius (by Corol. VI. Prop. IV.) If that force of the central body
were to become gradually weaker, the body P attracted always less and less continually
recedes further from the centre T; and on the other hand, if that force were increased it
would draw closer. Therefore if the action of the distant body S, by which that force is
diminished, were increased and diminished in turn: likewise the radius TP will be
increased and diminished in turn; and the periodic time will be increased and diminished
in a ratio composed from the three on two power of the radius, and from the square root
ratio by which that centripetal force of the central body T; by increasing or decreasing the
action of the distant body S, is diminished or increased.

[Note 500, L & J : And because the magnitude of the force KL, ...... If the mean distance
SK or ST were made large with respect to the radius of the orbit TP of the orbit PAB, in
some position of the body P, the force LM will be approximately to the force NM as the
whole sine to the triple sine of the angle of the distance of the body P from the
quadrature. For on account of the increase of the distance of the body S (by hypothesis)
the lines SL and SM are almost parallel and hence
or and LM PT , NM TM PL, SP SK = = = ; and since ST shall be perpendicular to the line
of the quadratures CD, also SK will be normal to the same line, and with the radius PT
present, PK will be the sine of the angle PTC, that is, the sine of the of the angle of the
distance of the body P from the quadrature C approximately. Again (by Prop. 66)
2
2
SL SK
SK
SP
= , and thus
2 2
2
SL SK SK SP
SK
SP

= , that is,
2 2
2 2 2 SP SP KL PK PK
SK SP SK
SP SP
PK SK PK = + = = = , on account of
and 2 SK SP, SK SP SP. = + = Whereby there will be 2 KL PK = , and PL or 3 NM PK = ,
that is, the force LM or PT to the force NM or PL as the whole sine PT to 3PK the triple
sine of the angle of the distance of the body P from the nearby quadrature.

Extra L & J Corollary: The (extra) force KL at the conjunction A, is to the similar force
K'L' at the opposition B K' and L' are not shown, almost as AT to TB; i.e.
KL AT
K' M TB
= ,
[for the extra force F
A
at A is proportional to
( )
2 2 2 2
1 1
AT ST SA
SA ST SA .ST
+
= , while the extra force
F
B
at B is proportional in the same way to
( )
2 2 2 2
1 1
BT ST SB
SB ST SB .ST
+
= in the opposite direction
; hence
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
1
1
AT ST SA
ST
SA SA .ST A
BT ST SB ST
B
SB
SB .ST
F
SB TA TA
F TB SA TB
+
+
+
+
= = , as SA, ST, and ST are almost equal. ] and if
the orbit PAB were circular or almost circular, the force KL at the syzygies will be almost
twice as great as the force LM at the quadratures. For with the body P turning about the
syzygies, there shall be PK AT PT LM = = = , and hence NM or PL becomes
3 and 2 LM, KL LM. = = Yet with the same positions, the force NM is a maximum at the
syzygies, because there PK becomes a maximum or it emerges AT = , and 3 NM AT. =
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
From which on account of the magnitude of the forceKL, the centripetal force of the
central body T is more diminished than augmented, and thus is to be thought to be
diminished by the action of the body S.]

Corol. 7. [In which the detailed motion of the apsidal line is discussed.]
Also from what has been
presented it follows, that the
axis of the ellipse described by
the body P, or the line of the
apsides, as far as the angular
motion is concerned, in turn
moves forwards and
backwards, but yet it progresses more forwards than backwards, and by the excess of the
progression in succession it is carried forwards. For the force which acts on the body T at
the quadratures, where the force MN vanishes, is composed from the force LM and the
centripetal force, by which the body T attracts the body P. The former force LM, if the
distance PT may be increased, may be increased in almost the same ratio with this
distance, and the latter force decreases in that square ratio, and thus the sum of the two
forces decreases in less than in the square ratio of the distance PT, and therefore (by
Corol. I. Prop. XLV.) effects that the upper or greater apside, may be regressing. Truly in
conjunction and in opposition the force, by which the body P is urged towards the body
T, is the difference between the forces, by which the body T attracts the body P, and the
force KL ; and that difference, because that force KL may be increased approximately in
the ratio of the distance PT, decreases in more than the inverse square of the distance PT,
and thus (by Corol. I Prop. XLV.) has the effect that the greater apside progresses. In the
places between the syzygies [or conjunctions] and the quadratures the motion may
depend on increases from both causes taken together, and thus so that either from the
excess of one or the other it may progress or regress. From which since the force KL at
the syzygies shall be as if twice as large as the force LM at the quadratures, the excess
will belong to the force KL, and an increase will be carried forwards in succession. But
the truth of this and of the preceding corollary may be understood more easily by
considering the system of the two bodies T and P with several bodies S, S, S, &c. in place
in the orbit ESE, surrounded on every side. In as much as the action of T with the actions
of these may reduce the action of T on both sides, and it may decrease in a ratio more
than the square of the distance.

Corol. 8. [In which the motion of the apsidal line is discussed at the syzygies and at the
quadratures].
But since the progression or regression of the apsides depends on the decrease of the
centripetal force, that is, being made in either a greater or lesser ratio than in the square
ratio of the distanceTP, in the transition of the body from the lower apside [i.e. closer to
the focus of the ellipse] to the higher apside; and thus it shall be a maximum when the
proportion of the force at the higher apside to the force at the lower apside departs in the
inverse square of the distances ; it is evident that the apsides in the conjunctions of this,
by removing the force KL orNM LM , to be progressing faster, and at their quadratures
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
to recede slower, by the addition of the force LM. Truly on account of the long period of
time, in which the velocity of the progression or the slow regression may be continued,
this inequality becomes maximally long.

Corol. 9. [In which the variation of the eccentricity is discussed].
If some body, by some force inversely proportional to the square of its distance from
the centre, may be revolving about this centre in an ellipse ; and soon, in descending from
the upper apside or by increasing from the lower apside, that force may be increasing to a
new force by always approaching in a ratio diminishing more than the square of the
distance: it is evident that the body, by always approaching towards the centre by the
impulse of that new force, may be inclined more towards the centre, than if it were acted
on only by the decrease in the square ratio of the distance ; and thus it may describe a
more inner elliptic orbit, and at the inner apside it may accelerate closer to the centre than
before. Therefore this orbit by the influence of this new force, may become more
exocentric. If now the force, in the recession of the body from the lower apside to the
upper apside, may decrease in the same steps by which before it had increased, may
return the body to the former distance, and thus if the force may decrease in a greater
ratio, now the body attracted less may ascend to a greater distance and thus the
eccentricity of the orbit will be increased even more at this stage. Whereby if the ratio of
the increase and decrease of the individual centripetal force may be increased in the
rotations, the eccentricity will always be increased; and on the other hand, that will be
decreased the same, if that ratio may decrease.
Now truly in a system of bodies T, P, S, when the apsides of the orbit PAB are at the
quadratures, that ratio of the increase and decrease is a minimum, and it shall be a
maximum when the apsides are in conjunction [syzygies]. If the apsides may be set up at
the quadratures, the ratio near the apsides is smaller, and near the syzygies greater than
the square of the distances, and
from that increased ratio a direct
motion or the line of the apsides
arises, as had been said just
now. But if the ratio of all the
increase or decrease may be
considered in the motion
between the apsides, this is less than the square of the distances. The force at the lower
apside is to the force at the upper apside in a ratio less than the square of the distance of
the upper apside from the focus of the ellipse to the distance of the lower apside from the
same focus: and conversely, when the apsides may be put in place at the syzygies, the
force at the lower apside is to the force at the upper in a ratio greater than the square of
the distances. For the forces LM added at the quadratures to the forces of the body T
compound forces in a smaller ratio, and the forces KL at the syzygies taken from the
forces of the body T leave forces in a greater ratio. Therefore the ratio of the whole
decrease and increase, in passing between the apsides, is a minimum at the quadratures
and a maximum at the syzygies: and therefore it will always be increased in the passing
of the apsides from the quadratures to the syzygies, and the ellipse increases in
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
eccentricity; and in the transition from the syzygies to the quadratures the ratio will
always be diminished, and the eccentricity diminished.

Corol.10. [In which the variation of the inclination is discussed].
In order that we may enter into the error [i.e. the nature of the disturbing forces] in the
latitude, we may imagine the plane of the orbit EST to remain at rest; and the cause of the
errors is evident from the exposition, because from the forces NM and ML, which are that
whole cause, the force ML by always acting along the plane of the orbit PAB, at no time
disturbs the motion in the latitude ; each force NM, when the nodes are at the syzygies,
also may be acting along the same plane of the orbit, and so does not disturb this motion
either ; truly when the bodies are at the quadratures, this force disturbs these motions
greatly, and the body P is always attracted from the plane of its orbit, it diminishes the
inclination of the plane in the passage of the body from the quadratures to the syzygies,
and it may augment the same in turn in the passage from the syzygies to the quadratures.
From which it may be that with the body present at the syzygies the smallest inclination
of all may emerge, and it may be returned to the former magnitude almost, when the body
approaches close to a node. But if the nodes may be put in place at the octants after the
quadrants, that is between C and A, V and H, it may be understood from the manner
shown, that in the transition of the body P from either body thus to 90
0
, the inclination of
the plane is continually diminished; then in a transition through approximately 45
0
, as far
as to the nearest quadrant, the inclination will be increased, and again it is diminished
after passing through another transition of 45
0
, as far as to the nearest node. And thus the
inclination is diminished more than it is increased, and therefore it is always less in the
subsequent node than at the preceding one. An by similar reasoning, the inclination is
increased more than it is diminished, when the nodes are in the alternate octants between
A and D, B and C. Therefore the greatest inclination of all is when the nodes are at the
syzygies. In the passage of these from the syzygies to the quadratures, the inclination of
the body is diminished by the individual influences to the nodes ; and it shall be the least
all when the nodes are at the quadrants, and the body at the syzygies: then the inclination
increases by the same steps by which previously it decreased; and under the influences
[of the other bodies acting] it reverts to the original magnitude with the nodes at the
nearby syzygies.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
[Note 507 L & J : If the nodes of the body P are situated at the quadratures C and D, the
angle of inclination of the orbit to the fixed plane EST is always diminished in the
passage of the body from the quadratures to the syzygies, truly to be enlarged in the
passage of the body from the syzygies to the quadratures, and in each passage the nodes
are regressed. For let CAD be the part of the orbit PAB raised higher above the fixed
plane of the orbit EST, and truly CBD may be understood to be the part depressed below ;
through the place of the body P the right line Pm acts parallel to the line TS, showing the
direction of the force NM, and the body P may be carried first from a node or quadrature
to the conjunction A, and because the body P is urged by the force of rotation through the
arc Pp, in an element of time, by the force put in place, it will describe the line element
P which is not in the plane CPT, but curved away from that towards Pm, and thus the
body is moving in the plane TP that produced with the plane EST does not cross at C
but beyond C towards the opposition B. With centre C and interval TP the circle CaDb is
described in the plane EST, in the plane CPD the arc of the circle PC, and in the plane
TP the arc Pc crossing the circle CaDb at c. And because the force NM is a minimum
with respect to the force of rotation of the body P, the angle CPc, of the inclination of the
planes CPT and cPT is the smallest possible or infinitesimal, and the arc Pc only differs
from the arc PC by an infinitesimal quantity; whereby since, by hypothesis, the arc PC
differs from the quadrant CA by a finite amount PA, the sum of the arcs PC and Pc is less
than a semicircle, and hence in the spherical triangle CPC, the exterior angle PCa (by
Prop.13 of the Sphericorum of Menelaus, or by the Sphericorum of Wolf) is greater than
the internal angle PcC, that is, the inclination of the plane cPT to the plane EST is less
than the inclination of the plane CPT to the same plane EST. Therefore in the passage of
the body P from the quadrature C to the conjunction A the inclination of the orbit is
always diminished, and because the node C is transferred to c, there becomes because of
the way in which the rotation of the body, the nodes are returned. In the same way the
diminution of the inclination and the nodes to be returned in the passage of the body from
the quadrature D to the opposite B is demonstrated. Now the body may be carried from
the conjunction A to the vicinity of the quadrature D, and at some place P, by the squared
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
force, certainly it is urged by the
force of rotation through the arc Pp
and by the force NM along the
right line Pm, and thus it will
describe the line element P ,
which leans towards Pm from the
arc Pp. Whereby if from the centre
T and with the radius TP, three
arcs PD, aD, and Pd are described, in the same way it will be shown that the node D to
be transferred to the previous at d, and the angle Pda to be greater than the angle the
internal angle PDd, that is, the inclination of the orbit is to be augmented in the transition
of the body P, from the conjunction to the nearby quadrature, and in the same way it is
shown to happen in the transition from the opposition B to the quadrature C. Q.e.d.]

Corol. 11. [In which the variation of the ascending node is discussed].
Because the body P, when the nodes are in the quadratures, are perpetually attracted
from the plane of its orbit, and that in part towards S in its transition from the node C
through the conjunction A to the node D ; and in the opposite part in the transition from
the node D through the opposition B to the node C : it is evident, that in its motion from
the node C the body constantly recedes from the orbit of its first plane CD, until then it
has arrived at the nearest node; and thus at this node, with the greatest distance from that
first plane CD, it passes through the plane of the orbit EST not in its plane with the other
node D, but at some point thence it turns in the direction of the body S, each hence is
turning towards the new position of a node. And by a similar argument the nodes go on to
recede in the transition of the body from this node to the neighbouring node. Therefore
the nodes continually recede from the quadratures put in place; the nodes are at rest at the
syzygies, where nothing in the latitude disturbs the motion; at the intermediate positions,
participants of each condition, the nodes recede more slowly: and thus, always either by
receding, or by stationary individual revolutions, they are carried to the preceding nodes.

Corol.12. All these errors described in these corollaries are a little greater at the
conjunction of the bodies P and S, than at the opposition of these; and that on account of
the greater generating forces NM and ML.

Corol. 13. [In which the motion of the body S, so far ignored, is discussed].
Whenever ratios of these corollaries do not depend on the magnitude of the body S, all
the preceding will be obtained, when only the magnitude of the body S is put in place, so
that the system of the two bodies T and P may be rotating about the centre of this. And
from the increase in the body S, and thus with the increase of the centripetal force, from
which the errors of the body P arise, all these errors emerge, with the distances greater in
this case than in the other, where the body S is revolving around the system of the bodies
P and T.

Corol.14. [In which the formula for S's perturbation is introduced].
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
But since the forces NM and ML, when the body S is remote, shall be approximately
as the force SK and the ratio PT to ST conjointly, that is, if there may be given both the
distance PT, as well as the absolute force of the body S, inversely as ST cubed ; but these
forces NM and ML the cause of all the errors and effects, which have been acted on in
the preceding corollaries: it is evident, that these have affected everything, with the
system of the bodies T and P in place, and only with the distance ST chanced and with the
absolute force of the body S, shall be composed approximately in the ratio from the direct
ratio of the absolute force of the body S, and inversely in the triplicate ratio of the inverse
distance ST. From which if the system of bodies T and P may be revolving about the
distant body S; these forces NM and ML, and the effects of these will be will be (by
Corol. 2. and 6, Prop. IV.) reciprocally in the square ratio of the periodic times. And
thence also, if the magnitude of the body S shall be the proportional of the absolute force
itself, these forces NM and ML and the effects of these, shall be directly as the cube of
the apparent diameter of the distant body S observed from the body T, and conversely.
For these ratios are the same, and composed from the above ratio.

[Note 512, L & J : On account of the great distance of the body S, LS will be almost
parallel to MS, and SN ST SK = = , and ML PT = ; and because NM at the syzygies is as
ML at the quadratures. If increased or diminished by the action of the body S, the orbit
CADB hence together with the depending lines PT, NM, ML may be increased or
diminished (by Cor.6 of this Prop. 66) , these three lines will be increased or diminished
in almost the same ratio between themselves (with all else being equal). But the force ML
to the force SK is as the right line ML to the right line SK, or approximately as PT to ST ;
whereby the force ML (and thus also the force NM) is nearly as the force SK and the ratio
PT to AD, jointly that is, if the accelerative force SK may be called A, as
A PT
ST
. Again
with the given absolute force of the body S, the accelerative force A at the distance SK or
ST is as
2
1
ST
( by hypothesis). Whereby the forces NM, ML, with the given absolute force
of the body S, are as
3
PT
ST
; that is (if the distance PT may be given), inversely as
3
ST .
Indeed if the variable shall be the absolute force V of the body S, the accelerative force A
will be as directly as the absolute force and inversely as the square of the distance ST, (for
with the absolute force of the body S, the accelerative force is inversely as
2
ST , and with
the distance ST remaining, the accelerative force is as the absolute force directly, and
therefore likewise with the variations of the absolute force and the distance, the
accelerative force is as the absolute force directly and the square of the distance
inversely). Whereby if in place of the accelerative force A that ratio composed from the
factor
A PT
ST
may be put in place, the forces NM, ML will be approximately as

3
V PT
ST
, or
with PT given, as
3
V
ST
, that is in a ratio composed from the direct ratio of the absolute
force of the body S, and from the inverse cube of the distance ST. But the absolute force
of the body S, is as shown in the ratio composed of the accelerative force A and the
square of the distance ST, and the accelerative force A at the distance ST is (by Corol.2
Prop. 4) in a ratio composed from the direct ratio of the distance ST and in the inverse
square ratio of the periodic time of the body T around S to the distance ST of the circle
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
described, and thus the absolute force of the body S is as the cube of the distance ST
directly, and the square of the periodic time of the body T inversely. Whereby the forces
NM, ML (and the effects of these) which are directly as the absolute force, and inversely
as the cube of the distances, are inversely in the square ratio of the periodic times of the
body T. End of note.]

Corol. 15. [In which Newton infers
the proportionality of perturbing
force to the radius of the orbit of P
about T.]
And because if, with the forms
of the orbits ESE and PAB, with
the proportions and inclination to each other remaining constant, the magnitude of these
may be changed, and if the forces on the bodies S and T may either remain or be changed
in some given ratio; these forces (that is, the force of the body T, by which the body may
be deflected from a straight path into the orbit PAB, and the force of the body S, from
which the same body P is forced to deviate from that) always act in the same way, and in
the same proportion: it is necessary that all effects shall be similar and the times of the
effects to be proportional; that is, so that all linear errors shall be as the diameters of the
orbits, truly the angles shall be as at first, and the times of similar linear errors, or equal
angular errors, shall be as the periodic times of the orbits.

[Note from L & J : That is, if the absolute forces of the bodies S and T either may remain
or be changed in some given ratio, and the magnitude thus may change of the orbits ESE
and PAB, so that it may always remain similar to the orbit ESE itself, thus also so that of
the orbit PAB itself, and the inclination of these orbits may not change, nor the proportion
of the ratio of the axis of one orbit to the axes of another or of any lines whatever in one
orbit to the homologous lines in another orbit. End of L & J note.
Translator's note : these are not errors as we now understand the word, but disturbances
by forces that alter the orbits in some way.]

Corol.16. [In which the mean motion of the increase of the line of apses and the mean
regression of the line of ascending nodes are to be the same, apart from sign].
From which, if the forms of the orbits and the inclination to each other may be given,
and the magnitudes, forces and distances of the bodies may be changed in some manner ;
from the given errors and from the errors in the times in one case, the errors and the error
in the time can be deduced closely : but this is shorter by this method. The forces NM and
ML, with the rest remaining, are as the radius TP, and the periodic effects of these (by
Corol. 2, Lemma X.) as the forces and the squares of the periodic times of the body P
taken together. These are the linear errors [disturbing the orbit] of the body P; and hence
the angular errors have been viewed from the centre T (that is, both the motion of the
apsides and of the nodes, as well as all the errors appearing from the longitude and
latitude), in whatever revolution of the body P, as the square of the time of revolution
approximately. These ratios may be taken together with the ratios of Corollary XlV and
in some system of the bodies T, P, S, where P is revolving around the vicinity of T itself,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
and T around the distant body S, the angular errors of the body P, appearing from the
centre T, will be, in the individual revolutions of that body P, as the squares of the
periodic times of the body P directly and the square of the periodic time of the body T
inversely. And thence the mean motion of the apsides will be in a given ratio to the mean
motion of the nodes ; and each motion will be as the periodic time of the body P directly
and the square of the periodic time of the body T inversely. By increasing or lessening the
eccentricity and the inclination of the orbit PAB, the motion of the apsides and of the
nodes are not changed appreciably, unless where the same are exceedingly large.

Corol. 17. [In which the gravitational
forces of S and T may be compared
with their distances and periods].
But since the line LM may now be
greater, then less than the radius PT,
the mean force LM may be expressed
by that radius PT; and [from the
similar triangles SPT and SLM] this will be to the mean force SK or SN (that is allowed to
express by ST [recall that N is the focus of the elliptical orbit of P, T the centre of gravity
of the fixed body T ]) as the length PT to the length ST.
[i.e.
LM PT
SK ST
= ]
But the mean force SN or ST, by which the body T is held in its orbit around S, to the
force, by which the body P is held in its orbit around in T, is in a ratio compounded from
the ratio of the radius ST to the radius PT, and the square ratio of the periodic time of the
body P around T [which confusingly I have called T], to the periodic time of the body T
[t] around S.
[i.e.
( )
2 ST
ST T
PT t
PT

.]
And from the equality, the mean force LM to the force, by which the body P in held in its
orbit around T (or by which the same body P, in the same periodic time may be able to
revolve around some fixed point T at a distance PT) is in that square ratio of the periodic
times. Therefore with the given periodic times together with the distance PT, the mean
force LM may be given; and with that given, the force MN is also given approximately
by the analogy of the lines PT and MN.

Corol. 18. [Some relevant outcomes of the theory are now discussed, relating to the tides
and associated matters, in the final corollaries. These are of considerable interest].
From the same laws, by which the body P is revolving about the body T, we may
imagine many fluid bodies to be moving around the same body T at equal distances from
that; then from these made touching each other a ring of fluid may be formed, round and
concentric to the body T; and the individual parts of the ring, on completing all their
motion according to the law of the body P, approach closer to the body T, and faster at
the conjunction and opposition of these and the body S, than at the quadratures. And the
nodes of this annulus, or the intersections of this with the plane of the orbiting body S or
T, are at rest at the syzygies ; truly beyond the syzygies they will be moving as before,
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
and most quickly indeed at the quadratures, more slowly at other places. Also the
inclination of the annulus will vary in inclination, and the axis of this will oscillate in the
individual revolutions, and with a complete revolution completed it will return to the
former position, unless as far as it will be carried around by the precession of the nodes.

Corol. 19. We may now consider the globe of the body T; agreed not to be fluid matter,
to be made bigger and to be extended as far as to this annulus, and with the hollow
evacuated around to contain water, and with the same motion to revolve with the same
period around its axis uniformly. This liquid will be accelerated and retarded (as in the
above corollary) in turn ; at the syzygies it will be faster, and at the quadratures slower
than the surface of the globe, and thus it will flow to and fro in the manner of the sea.
Water, by revolving around the centre of a globe at rest, if the attraction of the body S
may be taken away, will acquire no motion of flowing backwards and forwards. The
reasoning is the same for a globe progressing uniformly in a direction, and meanwhile
turning about its centre (by Corol. 5 of the laws) and as of a globe drawn uniformly from
its course (by Corol. 6. of the laws). But the body S may approach, and from the
inequality of this attraction soon the water will be disturbed. And also the water to be
attracted more nearer than the body, lesser with that more remote. Moreover the force LM
pulls the water down at the quadratures, and will make that descend as far as the syzygies
; and the force KL draws the same water up at the syzygies, and stop the descent of this,
and will make that ascend as far as the quadratures: unless in so far as the motion of flux
and reflux of the water may be directed by the channel, and may be retarded a little by
friction.

Corol. 20. If the annulus now may be rigid, and the globe may be made smaller, the flow
to and fro will stop ; but that inclination of the motion and of the precession of the nodes
will still remain. The globe may have the same axis with the annulus, and the gyrations
may be completed in the same times, and the annulus may touch the interior itself with its
own surface, and may adhere to that; and by sharing the motion of this each structure will
be oscillating, and the nodes will be regressing. For the globe, as soon will be said [Cor.
XXII], may be indifferent to all forces being accepted. The maximum angle of the
inclination of the annulus with the globe of the orbit is when the nodes are at the
syzygies. Thence in the progression of the nodes to the quadratures the annulus tries to
minimize its own inclination, and by that trial it impresses the motion on the whole globe.
The globe retains the impressed motion, until the annulus then by attempting motion in
the opposite sense may hence remove that motion, and a new motion is impressed in the
opposite direction: And on this account the maximum motion of the decrease of the
inclination shall be at the quadrature of the nodes, and the smallest angle of inclination in
the octants after the quadratures; then the maximum motion of re-inclination at the
syzygies, and the maximum angle in the next octant. And the same account is given of
the globe with the ring removed, which is a little higher at the equatorial or higher
regions than near the poles, or is made from a slightly denser material. For this excess of
the material in the equatorial regions supplies that of the ring. And nevertheless, with any
increase of the centripetal force of this globe, all the parts of this are supposed to be
attracted downwards, according to the manner of the gravitating parts of the earth, yet
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
the phenomena of this and of the preceding corollary hence scarcely are changed, except
that the places of the maxima and minima height of the water will be different. For now
the water will be sustained and remain in its own orbit, not by its centrifugal force, but by
the hollow in which is flows. And in addition the force LM pulls the water downwards
maximally at the quadratures, and the force KL or NM LM draws the same upwards
maximally at the syzygies. And these forces taken together stop the water being drawn
downwards and begin to draw the water upwards in the octants before the syzygies, and
they stop drawing the water upwards and begin to draw the water downwards at the
octant after the syzygies. And hence the maximum height of the water can come about in
the octants after the syzygies, and the minima in the octants after the quadrutures
approximately; unless as it were the motion of rising or falling impressed by these forces,
for the water to persist with a little daily motion, either by a force in place or by the
hindrance of some channel it might have stopped a little quicker.

Corol. 21. By the same account, by which the excess matter of the globe lying around the
equator caused the nodes move backwards [or regress], and thus by the increase of this
matter this regression in turn may be increased, again truly with diminution it is
diminished, and on being removed is completely removed; if more than the excess matter
may be removed, that is, if the globe near the equator is either further lowered, or rarer
than around the poles, the motion of the nodes will arises in succession.

Corol. 22. And thus in turn, the constitution of the globe is understood from the motion
of the nodes. Without doubt if the same poles of the globe are maintained constantly, and
the motion shall be as previously [i.e. retrograde], there is an excess of matter near the
equator ; if it is in succession, there is deficiency. Put a uniform and perfectly round
globe first at rest in free space; then propelled from its place by some oblique impulse on
its surface, and the motion thence considered partially to be circular and partially along a
direction. Because this globe has all axis passing through its centre indifferently, there is
no propensity for one axis or any other axis to be in place, it is evident that neither this
particular axis, nor the inclination of the axis, at any time will be changed by its own
force. Now the globe may be impelled obliquely, in the same part of the surface, as the
first, by some new impulse; and since the effect of impulses coming sooner or later
changes nothing, it is evident that these two successive impulses impressed in succession
produce the same motion, as if they were impressed together, that is , the same [motion is
produced], as if the globe had been struck by a simple force composed from each impulse
(by Corol. 2 of the laws), and thus a simple force about the given inclination of the axis.
And the reasoning is the same of a second impulse made at some other place on the
equator of the first motion ; or of the first impulse made at some place on the equator of
the motion generated by the second impulse without the first ; and of both impulses made
at any places : these will generate the same circular motion as if they were impressed
once simultaneously at the intersection of the equators of their motions, which they
would generate by themselves. Therefore a homogeneous and perfect globe will not
retain several distinct motions, but adds together all the impressed forces and reduces that
to one, and just as within itself, it always rotates in a simple and uniform motion about a
single axis, always with an invariable inclination given. Moreover neither will a
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
centripetal force be able to change the inclination of the axis, nor the velocity of the
rotation. If a globe may be considered to be divided into two hemispheres by some plane
through its centre, and in which a force is directed passing through its centre ; that force
will always urge each of the hemispheres equally, and therefore the globe, by which the
motion of rotation, will be inclined in no direction. Truly there may be added at some
place between the pole and the equator new matter in the form of raised mountains, and
these, by always trying to be receding from the centre of its motion, will disturb the
motion of the globe, and it may happen that the poles of this globe may wander on the
surface, and they may always describe circles about themselves and about the points
opposite to themselves. Nor may the immensity of these wanderings be themselves
corrected, except by locating that mountain either at one pole or the other, in which case
(by Corol. XXI.) the nodes of the equator will be progressing ; or at the equator, by which
account the nodes will be regressing (by Corol. XX.) ; or finally by adding new matter to
the other part of the axis, by which the mountain will be balanced in its motion, and with
this agreed upon the nodes either will be progressing, or receding, provided that the
mountain and these new matters are either nearer to the pole or to the equator.

PROPOSITION LXVII. THEOREM XXVII.
With the same laws of attraction in place, I say that a body beyond S, around the common
centre of gravity O between P and T, by radii drawn to
that centre, will describe areas more proportional to
the times and the orbit approaching more to the form
of an ellipse having the focus at the centre, than can
be described around the innermost and greatest body
T, with radii drawn to that itself.

For the attractions of the body S towards T and P are composed of this absolute
attraction, which is directed more to the common centre of gravity O of the bodies T and
P , than to the greatest body T , with every square of the distance SO more inversely
proportional, than to the square of the distance ST: as the matter on examination will be
readily agreed upon.

PROPOSITION LXVIII. THEOREM XXVIII.

With the same laws of attraction in places , I say that the external body S, with radii
drawn to that centre, will describe areas more proportional to the times, about the
common centre of gravity O of the interior bodies P and T, and an orbit more
approaching to the form of an ellipse having the focus at the same centre, if the
innermost body and greatest body and the others thus may be disturbed by these
attractions, than if that either were at rest and not being attracted, or much less or much
more attracted, and consequently either much more or much less disturbed.

This may be shown in almost the same manner as Prop. LXVI, by a more lengthy
argument, which therefore I shall pass by. It will suffice to consider the matter thus. From
the demonstration of the latest proposition it is apparent that the centre, towards which
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
the body S is urged by the forces conjointly, is very close to the common centre of gravity
of these two. If this centre should coincide with that common centre, and the common
centre of gravity of the three bodies may remain at rest; accurate ellipses are described by
the body from the one side, and the common centre of gravity of the other two from the
other side, about the common centre of gravity of everything at rest. This may be
apparent from the second corollary of Proposition LVIII, taken with the demonstrations
in Prop. LXIV. & LXV. This elliptical motion may itself be disturbed a little by the
distance of the centre of the two from the centre, to which the third body S is attracted.
Besides a motion may be given to the common centre of the three, and it will be
increased by the perturbation, Hence the perturbation is a minimum, when the common
centre of the three is at rest ; that is, when the innermost and largest body T is attracted by
the law of the others: and the perturbation shall always be the largest, when that common
centre of the three, by the smallest decrease in the motion of the body T , begins to move,
and it is disturbed more and more henceforth.

Corol. And hence, if several small bodies were revolving around the largest, it is possible
to deduce that the orbits described approach closer and closer to ellipses, and the
descriptions of the areas become more equal, if all the bodies by accelerative forces,
which are as the absolute forces of these directly and inversely as the square of the
distances, and may mutually attract and perturb each other, and also the focus of each
orbit may be deduced to be at the common centre of gravity of all the interior bodies
(without doubt the focus of the first and innermost at the centre of gravity of the first and
largest body; that of the second orbit, at the common centre of gravity of the two
innermost bodies; that of the third, at the common centre of gravity of the three innermost
, and thus henceforth), as if the innermost body were at rest and may be situated at the
common focus of all the orbits.

PROPOSITION LXIX. THEOREM XXIX.
In a system of several bodies A, B, C, D, &., if some body A shall attract all the others B,
C, D, &c. by accelerative forces which are inversely as the squares of the distances from
the attracting body; and another B also attracts the others A, C, D, &c. by forces which
are inversely as the squares of the distances from the attracting body: the absolute forces
of attraction of the bodies A, B to each other, as are the bodies themselves A, B, of which
they are the forces.

For the accelerative attractions of all the bodies B, C, D towards A, with equal
distances, by hypothesis are equal to each other; and similarly the acclerative attractions
of all the bodies towards B, with equal distances, in turn are equal to each other.
Moreover the absolute force of attraction of the body A is to the absolute force of
attraction of the body B, as the accelerative attraction of all the bodies towards A to the
accelerative attraction of all the bodies towards B, with the distances equal; and thus is
the accelerative attraction of the body B towards A, to the accelerative attraction of the
body A towards B. But the accelerative attraction of the body B towards A is to the
accelerative attraction of the body A towards B, as the mass of the body A to the mass of
the body B ; therefore because the motive forces, which (by the second, seventh and
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
eighth definitions) are as the accelerative forces and the bodies attracted jointly, here they
are (by the third law of motion) in turn equal to each other. Therefore the absolute
attractive force of the body A is to the absolute attractive force of the body B, as the mass
of the body A to the mass of the body B.
Q. E. D.

Corol. I. Hence if the individual bodies of the system A, B, C, D, &c. seen to attract all
the rest separately by accelerative forces, which are inversely as the squares of the
distances from the attracting body ; the absolute forces of all the bodies will be in turn as
the bodies themselves.

Corol. 2. By the same argument, if the individual bodies of the system A, B,C, D, &c.
separately observed attract all the others with accelerative forces, which are either
inversely, or directly in the ratio of any powers of the distances from the attracting body,
or which are defined to be following some common law by attracting each other from the
distances ; it is agreed that the absolute forces of these bodies are as the bodies.

Corol.3. In a system of bodies, the forces of which decrease in the square ratio of the
distances, if the lesser may be revolving around the largest one in ellipses, having the
common focus of which at the centre of the largest of these, as it can happen that they are
revolving most accurately ; and with the radii drawn to that largest body, areas may be
described exactly proportional to the times : the absolute forces of these bodies will be in
turn, either accurately or approximately, in the ratio of the bodies; and conversely. This is
apparent from the Corollary of Prop. LXVIII, taken with the corollary I of this Prop.

Scholium.

We are led by these propositions to an analogy between the centripetal forces, and the
central bodies, to which these forces are accustomed to be directed. For it is agreeable to
the reason, that the forces which are directed towards the bodies, depend on the nature
and quantity of the same, as happens in experiments with magnets. And as often as cases
of this kind arise, the attractions of the bodies are to be considered, by designating
appropriate forces to the individual members of these, and by gathering together the sum
of the forces. I may talk about this attraction generally by taking some known attempt of
the bodies to approach each other: either that attempt comes about itself from the action
of the bodies, or they reach towards each other mutually, or by some agent [spirit in the
original] of agitation sent between themselves in turn; or this arises from the action of the
ether, or of the air, or by some medium whatsoever, originating either from bodies or not
from bodies, by impelling the floating bodies in some manner towards each other in turn.
In the same general sense used I may talk not about the kind of forces and physical
quantities. but the amounts and mathematical proportions of these set out in this tract; as
I have explained in the definitions. In mathematics it is required to investigate the
magnitudes of forces and the ratios of these , which follow from some conditions put in
place: then, when we descend to the level of physics, we compare these ratios with the
phenomena; so that it may become known which conditions may be agreed upon with the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XI.
kinds of the individual attractive forces of the bodies. And then finally concerning the
kinds of bodies, it will be allowed to argue without risk about the causes and reasons
from physics. Therefore we may see by which forces spherical bodies, now agreed upon
in the manner established from the attraction of small bodies, must act mutually on each
other ; and thus what kind of motions they may thence follow.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
SECTION XII.
Concerning the attractive forces of spherical bodies.

PROPOSITION LXX. THEOREM XXX.
If the individual points of the surface of a some sphere may be drawn to the centre by
equal forces inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the points : I say
that a corpuscle within the surface agreed upon is not attracted by these forces in any
direction.

Let HIKL be that spherical surface, and P a corpuscle placed within. Through P there
may be drawn two lines to this surface HK and IL, the intercepting arcs HI and KL as
minimum; and, on account of the similar triangles HPI. LPK
(by Corol. 3, Lem. VII.), these arcs will be proportional to
the distances HP and LP , and whatever the small parts of
the spherical surface, proportional to HI and KL, with right
lines drawn passing through the point P and terminating
there on all sides, and they will be in that duplicate ratio.
Therefore the forces of these particles acting on the body P
are equal to each other. For they are directly as the particles,
and inversely as the square of the distances. And these two
ratios compound a ratio of equality. Therefore the
attractions, acting equally on the opposite parts, mutually cancel each other out. And by a
similar argument, all the attractions from the contrary parts for the whole spherical
surface cancel each other by opposite attractions. Therefore the body P in no part is
impelled by these attractions. Q.E,D.

[Note 515 (o) L & J : For the angles HPI , LPK vertically opposite are equal; and the
angles HIL, LKH resting on the same arc are equal, (by Prop. 27. Book 3, Eucl.) For the
evanescent arcs IH, KL, can be taken for the chords themselves (by Cor. 3. Lem. 7)
Whereby the arcs HI, KL with the distances HP, LP are proportional, and hence if an
innumerable number of right lines may be understood to be drawn to the spherical surface
through the point P to the smallest possible arcs as terminals HI, KL, these right lines will
form similar solid figures pyramids or cones, the bases of which will be similar on the
surface of the sphere, and hence (by Lemma 5) they will be in the duplicate ratio of the
sides HI, HL, or of the distances HP, LP. Hence the forces, etc..... ]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

PROPOSITION LXXI. THEOREM XXXI.
With the same in place, I say that a corpuscle put in place outside the surface of the
sphere is attracted to the centre of the sphere, by a force inversely proportional to the
square of its distance from the same centre.

Let AHKB, abhk be two spherical surfaces described, with centres S, s, diameters AB,
ab, & P, p corpuscles situated outside, on these diameters produced [in the case shown,
PA pa > ]. The lines PHK, PIL, phk, pil may be drawn from the corpuscles, taking the
equal arcs HK, hk and IL, il from the great circles AHB, ahb. And the perpendiculars
SD, sd; SE, se; IR, ir; may be sent to these of which SD, sd may cut PL, pl in F and f:
also the perpendiculars IQ, iq may be sent to the diameters. The angles DPE, dpe may be
vanishing: and on account of the equality DS and ds, ES and es, the lines PE, PF and pe,
pf and the smallest lines DF, df may be considered as equal;
[We have taken the liberty of marking these equal chords and perpendiculars in different
colours on both diagrams; unmarked diagrams are of course available in the Latin section
of this file];
evidently the ultimate ratio of these is equality, with the angles DPE, dpe likewise
evanescent. And thus with these put in place, PI to PF will be as RI to DF, & pf to pi as
df or DF to ri
[i.e. ;
pi
ri PI RI
PF DF pf df
= = ] ;
and from the equality, to PI pf PF pi is as RI to ri,
[i.e. ;
PI pf RI df
RI HI
PF pi DF ri ri hi

= = = ]
that is (by Corol. 3. Lem. VII.) as the arc IH to the arc ih [since ;
RI HI
ri hi
= from the similar
triangles RHI and rhi] . Again, PI is to PS as IQ to SE, and ps to pi as se or SE to iq;
[i.e.
or
= ; and
IQ ps
se SE PI
PS SE pi iq
= ],
and from the equality is to PI ps PS pi , as IQ to iq;
[i.e. = ;
PI ps IQ
PS pi iq
],
And with the ratios taken together
2
PI pf ps to
2
pi PF PS , as to IH IQ ih iq ;
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

[i.e.
2
2
;
PI ps PI pf PI pf ps IH IQ
PS pi PF pi ih iq
pi PF PS

= = ],

that is, as the circular surface, that the arc IH will describe by rotating about the diameter
AB of the semicircle AKB, to the circular surface, that the arc ih will describe by rotating
about the diameter ab of the semicircle akb. And the forces, by which these surfaces
attract the corpuscles P and p along the lines tending towards themselves, are (by
hypothesis) directly as the surfaces themselves, and inversely as the squares of the
distances of the surfaces from the bodies, that is, as to pf ps PF PS .
[i.e.
2 2
: ;
IH IQ ih iq pf ps
PF PS
PI pi

= ]
And these forces are to the oblique parts of these, which (by the resolution of the forces
made according to Corol 2. of the laws by resolution of the forces) act along the lines PS,
Ps to the centre, as PI to PQ, and pi to pq; that is (on account of the similar triangles PIQ
and PSF, piq and psf) as PS to PF and ps to pf. Thus, from the equality, the attraction of
the corpuscle P towards S shall be to the attraction of the corpuscle p towards s, as
to
PF pf ps pf PF PS
PS ps

that is, as
2 2
to ps PS .
[i.e.
2
2
horizontal attraction of left segment
horizontal attraction of right segment
PF
PS
pf
ps
pf ps
pf ps cos PFS ps
PF PS cos pfs
PF PF PS

= = = .]

And by a similar argument the forces, by which the surfaces by the rotation of the
described arcs KL, kl pull on the corpuscles, will be as
2 2
to ps PS . And it will be
possible to distinguish the forces of all the circular surfaces in the same ratio in which
each spherical surface will be, by always taking sd equal to SD and se equal to SE. And,
by putting these together, the forces of all the spherical surfaces exercised on the bodies
will be in the same ratio. Q.E.D.

[When this proof is understood, it is seen to be very simple, and this was probably the
only way in which the problem could be solved at the time, without resorting to a full
integration ; the distances of the corpuscles from the shells is the only variable, and other
chords and perpendiculars, etc. maintain the same lengths in each shell, allowing the
summation to proceed, and the final ratio required to emerge.]
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

PROPOSITION LXXII. THEOREM XXXII.
If equal centripetal forces attract particular points of some sphere decreasing in the
inverse ratio of the distance from these points; and both the density of the sphere may be
given, as well as the ratio of the diameter of the sphere to the distance of [such]a
corpuscle from the centre of this : I say that the force, by which the corpuscle is
attracted, will be proportional to the radius of the sphere.

For consider two separate corpuscles attracted by two spheres, one corpuscle by the
one sphere, and the other corpuscle by the other sphere, and the distances of these from
the centres of the spheres are proportional to the diameters of the spheres respectively,
the spheres moreover are resolved into similar particles and similarly put in place with
the corpuscles. And the attractions of the one corpuscle made towards the individual
particles of the one sphere, will be to the attraction of the other corpuscle towards just as
many particles of the other sphere, in a ratio compounded from the ratio of the particles
directly, and in the ratio of the inverse squares of the distances. But the [number of the]
particles are as the [volumes or masses of the] spheres, that is, in the triplicate [i.e. cubic]
ratio of the diameters, and the distances are as the diameters ; and the first ratio directly
together with the second ratio inversely twice is the ratio of the diameter to the diameter.
Q.E.D.
[Consider two spheres A and B with radii R
A
and R
B
; corpuscles are situated at distances
C
A
and C
B
from their respective spheres, then by hypothesis, =
A A
B B
C R
C R
; let N
A
and N
B
be
the number of particles or corpuscles in the respective spheres, then the respective F
A
and
F
B
forces will be in the ratio
2 2 3 2
2 2 3 2
=
A A B A B A B A
B B B
A A B A B
F N C M C R R R
F N M
C C R R R
= = = .]

Corol. I. Hence if the corpuscles may be revolving in circles about the spheres constantly
attracted equally by the matter ; and the distances from the centres shall be proportional
to the diameters of the same: The periodic times shall be equal.
[Recall from previously, such S.H.M. motion has the period independent of the amplitude
or radius.]

Corol. 2. And conversely, if the periodic times are equal; the distances shall be
proportional to the diameters. These two are in agreement by Corol. 3. Prop. IV.

Corol. 3. If equal centripetal forces may attract the individual points [corpuscles] of any
two similar solids of equal density, decreasing in the squared ratio of the distances from
the points ; the forces, by which the corpuscles will be attracted by the same, by these
two similar solids in place, will be in turn as the diameters of the solids.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

PROPOSITION LXXIII. THEOREM XXXIII.
If for some given sphere, equal centripetal forces attract particular points decreasing in
the square ratio of the distances from the points : I say that a corpuscle within the sphere
constituted is attracted by a force proportional to its distance from the centre.

A corpuscle P will be located in the sphere ABCD
described with centre S; and from the same centre S, with
the interval SP, consider the spherical interior PEQF to be
described. It is evident, (by Prop. LXX.) that the
concentric spherical surfaces, from which the difference of
the spheres AEBF is composed, with their attractions
destroyed by opposing attractions, do not act on the body
P. Only the attraction of the interior sphere PEQF
remains. And (by Prop. LXXII.) this is as the distance PS.
Q.E.D.
[ In the diagram constructed here, the original sphere is
replaced by two spheres of the same material having
radii OB and O'B', while the corpuscles considered
are at the positions P and P' with the radii OA and
O'A' . From the first proposition in this section (no.
70), the corpuscles at P and P' experience no force
from the outer particles beyond the radii OB and
OB', considering these outer particles as lying on
concentric shells; meanwhile, from the second
proposition in this section (no. 71), theinner
particles lying in their concentric shells can be replaced by equivalent masses at the
origins O and O', exerting forces proportional to their respective masses, and inversely as
the distances OP and O'P' squared in turn. The ratio of these forces in an obvious
notation is given by :

3 3
2 2
OP A A A B
O' P' A B
A A
F R R' R R
F' R' R'
R R'
.

= = = ]

Scholium.
The surfaces, from which the solids are composed, here are not purely mathematical,
but thus tenuous shells [orbs], so that the thickness of these shall be equivalent to zero;
without doubt the evanescent shells, from which the sphere finally will be composed
when the number of these shells may be increased indefinitely and the thickness is
minimised. Similarly the points, from which the lines, surfaces, and volumes are said to
be composed, are understood to equal particles of insignificant magnitude.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

PROPOSITION LXXIV. THEOREM XXXIV.
With the same in place, I say that a corpuscle constituted beyond the sphere is attracted
by a force inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the centre of this
sphere.

For the sphere may be separated into innumerable concentric spherical surfaces,
and the attractions of the corpuscle arising from the individual surfaces will be inversely
as the square of the distance from the centre (by prop. LXXI.) And on compounding, the
sum of the attractions, that is the attraction of the corpuscle by the whole sphere, happens
in the same ratio.
Q. E. D.
[Thus, the attractive force
2
1
distance
]
Corol. I. Hence at equal distances from the centres of homogeneous spheres, the
attractions are as the [masses of the] spheres. For (by Prop. LXXII.) if the distances are
proportional to the diameters of the spheres, the forces will be as the diameters. The
greater distance may be reduced into that ratio [of the radii]; and with the distances now
made equal [to those of the respective spheres], the attraction will be increased in that
ratio squared ; and thus it will be to the other attraction in that ratio cubed, that is, in the
ratio of the spheres.
[ See Chandrasekhar on this point : i.e. the forces are in the ratio of the cubes of the radii
for equal distances from the spheres.]

Corol. 2. In which any attractions are as the [masses of the] applicable spheres to the
squares of the distances.

Corol. 3. If a corpuscle, situated outside a homogenous sphere, is drawn by a force
inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the centre itself, but the sphere
may be constructed from attracting particles ; the force of each particle will decrease in
the square ratio of the distance from the particle.

[As Chandrasakher points out on p. 278, this amounts to a statement of the universal law
of gravitation, but applied to this circumstance.]

PROPOSITION LXXV. THEOREM XXXV.
If equal centripetal forces may extend to the individual particles of a given sphere,
decreasing in the inverse square ratio of the distances from the points ; I say that any
other similar sphere, by the same is attracted by a force inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of the centres.

For the attraction of each particle is inversely as the square of its distance from the
centre of the attracting sphere, (by Prop. LXXIV.) and therefore [the attraction of the
particles in a sphere between themselves] is the same, as if the total attracting force may
spring from a single corpuscle situated at the centre of this sphere. But this attraction is
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
just as great, as would be the case as if in turn it were attracted by a force of the same size
by all the other particles of the sphere. But the attraction of that sphere would be (by
Prop. LXXIV.) inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the centre of the
other sphere; and thus the attraction of the sphere is equal to this in the same ratio. Q.E.D.

Corol. I. The attractions of spheres, towards other homogeneous spheres, are as the
applied attracting spheres to the squares of the distances of their centres from the centres
of these which they attract.

Corol.2. The same becomes apparent, when the attracted sphere also attracts. In as much
as the individual points of this will attract the individual points of the other sphere with
the same force, from which by these themselves in turn they are attracted; and thus as in
any attraction both the attracting point, as well as the attracted point, may be acted on
by law 3, there will be a mutual pair of attracting forces with the proportions conserved.

Corol. 3. Everything prevails the same, which have been shown above concerning the
motions of bodies about the focal points of conic sections, when the attracting sphere is
located at the focus, and the bodies will be moving outside the sphere.

Corol. 4. That truly, which may be shown concerning the motion of bodies about the
centre of a conic section, will prevail when the motions are taking place within the
sphere.

PROPOSITION LXXVI. THEOREM XXXVI.

If spheres, in a progression from the centre to the circumference, dissimilar in some
manner (as far as the density of the material and the attractive force are concerned), by
progressing around, are all alike on all sides at a given distance from the centre; and he
attractive force of each point decreases in the square ratio of the attracting body : I say
that the total force, by which one sphere of this kind attracts another, shall be inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the centre.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
Let AB, CD, E F, &c. be some similar concentric spheres the interiors of which added
to the outsides put together a material denser towards the centre, or taken away leave
behind a more tenuous medium; and these individual spheres (by Prop. LXXV.) will
attract other individual similar concentric spheres GH, IK, LM, &c., with forces inversely
proportional to the distance SP. And by adding together or by dividing apart, the sum of
the forces of all these, or the excess of some above the others, that is the force by which
the whole sphere, composed from any number of concentric spheres or differences AB,
attracts the whole composed from some number of concentric spheres or differences GH,
will bein the same ratio. Thus the number of concentric spheres may be increased
indefinitely, to that the density of the material together with the attractive force, in
progressing from the circumference to the centre, may increase of decrease following
some law; and non attracting material may be added whenever the density is deficient, so
that the spheres may acquire some optimum form; and the force, by which one of these
may attract the other, even now will be by the above argument, in that inverse ratio of the
square of the distance. Q.E.D.

Corol. 1. Hence if many spheres of this kind, themselves in turn similar through all,
mutually may attract each other ; the accelerative attractions of individuals on individuals
will be, at whatever equal distances of the attractions, as the attracting spheres.

Corol. 2. And with any unequal distances, as the applicable attracting spheres to the
squares of the distances between the centres.

Corol. 3. Truly the motive attractions [i.e. the attractive forces], or the weights of the
spheres on the spheres will be, at equal distances of the centres, as the attracting and
attracted spheres conjointly, that is as the content within the spheres produced by
multiplication.

Corol. 4. And in accordance with unequal distances, directly as that product and inversely
as the square of the distances between the centres.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
Corol.5. The same will emerge when the attraction arises on each sphere by virtue of the
mutual attraction exercised by one sphere on the other. For with both forces the attraction
forms a pair, with the proportion maintained.

Corol. 6. If some spheres of this kind may be revolving around others at rest, individual
spheres around individual spheres; and the distances between the centres of the revolving
and the resting spheres proportional to the resting diameters ; the periodic times will be
equal.

Corol.7. And conversely, if the periodic times are equal ; the distances will be
proportional to the diameters.

Corol. 8. Everything will be obtained the same, which have been shown above
concerning the motion of bodies around the foci of conic sections ; where the attracting
sphere, of the form and of each condition now described, may be located at the focus.

Corol. 9. And as also where the attracting spheres are rotating, with any of the conditions
now described.

PROPOSITION LXXVII. THEOREM XXXVII.
If centripetal forces attract the individual points of the spheres proportional to the
distances between the points from the attracting bodies : I say that the composite force,
by which the two spheres will attract each other mutually, is as the distance between the
spheres.

Case. 1. Let AEBF be the sphere; S the centre of this; P an attracted corpuscle, PASB the
axis of the sphere passing through the centre of the corpuscle ; EF, ef two planes, by
which the sphere may be cut, perpendicular
to this axis, and hence thereupon equally
distant from the centre of the sphere ; G, g
the intersections of the planes and the axis ;
and H some point in the plane EF. The
centripetal force at the corpuscle P to the
point H, acts along the line PH , is as the
distance PH; and (by Corol. 2. of the laws)
along the line PG, or towards the centre S, as
the length PG. Therefore the force of all the
points in the plane EF, that is of the whole
plane, by which the corpuscle P is attracted towards S, is as the distance PG multiplied by
the number of points, that is, as that solid contained under the plane EF itself and that
distance PG. And similarly the force of the plane ef, by which the corpuscle P is attracted
towards the centre S, is as that plane taken by its distance Pg, or equally as the plane EF
taken by that distance Pg; and the sum of forces of each plane as the plane EF taken by
the sum of the distances PG Pg + , that is, as that plane multiplied into twice the distance
PS between the centre and the corpuscle, that is, as twice the plane EF multiplied into
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
the difference PS, or as the sum of the equal planes EF ef + multiplied by the same
distance. And by a similar argument, all the forces of the planes in the whole sphere,
hence in this manner at equal distances from the centre of the sphere, as the sums of the
planes multiplied by the distance PS, that is, as the whole sphere and as the distance PS
conjointly. Q.E.D.

Case 2. Now the corpuscle P may attract the sphere AEBF. And by the same argument it
will be approved that the force, by which that sphere is attracted, will be as the distance
PS. Q.E.D.

Case 3. Now the other sphere may be put
together from innumerable particles P; and
because the force, by which any corpuscle
whatever is attracted, is as the distance of the
corpuscle from the centre of the first sphere and
as the same sphere taken conjointly, and thus is
the same, as if the whole may be produced from a
single corpuscle at the centre of the sphere ; the
whole force, by which all the corpuscles are
attracted to the second sphere, will be the same as
if that sphere may be attracted by the force produced from a single corpuscle at the centre
of the first sphere, and therefore is proportional to the distance between the centres of the
spheres. Q.E.D.

Case 4. The spheres may attract each other mutually, and the double force will maintain
the previous proportion. Q.E.D.

Case 5. Now the corpuscle p may be located within the sphere AEBF; and because the
force of the plane ef at the corpuscle is as the solid contained under that plane and the
distance pG; and the force of the opposite plane EF is as the solid contained under that
plane and the distance pG; the force composed from each will be as the difference of the
solids, that is, as the sum of the equal planes multiplied by half the difference of the
distances, that is, as half that multiplied into the distance pS of the corpuscle from the
centre of the sphere. And by a similar argument, the attraction of all the planes EF, ef in
the whole sphere, that is, the attraction of the whole sphere, is jointly as the sum of all the
planes, or the whole sphere, and as the distance pS of the corpuscle from the centre of the
sphere. Q.E.D.

[ Note 517(s) Leseur & J anquier : the force composed from each will be as the difference
of the solids, that is, as ef pg EF pG. But Sg SG = , and thus
2 pg pG pS SG pG pS; = + = whereby since also there shall be EF ef = , there will be
2 ef pg EF pG ef pg pG ef pS ef EF pS. = = = + If the point G is placed
between p and S, the total force will be as ef pg EF pG + , and because there is
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
always Sg SG = , and in this case 2 pg pG pS SG pG pS, + = + + = similarly the total
force will be found as ef EF pS + .]

Case 6. And if the new sphere may be composed from innumerable corpuscles p, situated
within the first sphere AEBF; it will be approved as before that the attraction, either a
simple one of one sphere towards the other, or mutually each in turn towards the other,
will be as the distance of the centres pS. Q.E.D.

PROPOSITION LXXVIII. THEOREM XXXVIII.
If the spheres in the progression from the centre shall be dissimilar in some manner and
unequal, but truly in progressing around, all at a given distance from the centre, they
shall be the same on all sides; and the attractive force of each point shall be as the
distance of the attracted body : I say that the total force by which two spheres of this kind
mutually attract each other shall be proportional to the distance between the centres of
the spheres.

This may be demonstrated from the previous proposition in the same manner, by
which Proposition LXXVI was shown from Proposition LXXV.

Corol. Those matters have been shown above in Propositions X. and LXIV. concerning
the motion of bodies about the centre of conic sections, where all the attractions emerge
made from the force of spherical bodies under the conditions now described, and the
attracted bodies are spheres of the same description.

Scholium.
I have now explained the two most significant cases of the attractions ; without doubt
where the centripetal forces decrease in the square ratio of the distances, or increase in
the simple ratio of the distances ; in each case putting into effect that bodies may rotate in
conic sections, and the component centripetal forces of spherical bodies by the same law,
in receding from the centre, decreasing or increasing with these themselves : which is
noteworthy. It would be tedious to run through the remaining cases one by one, which
show less elegant conclusions. I am inclined to understand and to determine everything
by a general method, as follows.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

LEMMA XXIX.

If some circle AEB be described with centre S, and with centre P the two circular arcs
EF, ef are described, cutting the first in E and e, and the line PS in F, f; and the
perpendiculars ED and ed may be sent to PS: I say that, if the separation of the arcs EF
and ef may be understood to be infinitely small, the final ratio of the vanishing line Dd to
the vanishing line Ff shall be that, which the line PE has to the line PS.

For if the line Pe may cut the arc EF in q; and the right line Ee, which will coincide
with the vanishing arc Ee, produced meets the right line PS in T; and from S the normal
SG may be sent to PE : on account of the similar triangles DTE, dTe, DES; Dd will be to
Ee, as DT to TE, or DE to ES; and similar on account of the triangles Eeq, ESG (by Lem.
VIII. & Corol 3. Lem. VII.), Ee will be to eq or Ff as ES to SG; and from the equality, Dd
to Ff as DE to SG; that is (on account of the similar triangles PDE, PGS) as PE to PS.
Q.E.D.
[ Note initially, as was common practice for Newton, the increment in a length from a
point was given a small letter, such as Ee, etc. From similar triangles,
Dd DT DE
Ee ET SE
= = ;
Ee Ee ES
eq Ff SG
= = . Thus,
Dd DE PE
Ff SG PS
= = . It is thus apparent that a ratio such as
Dd
Ff
is one of
vanishing quantities, where the sides of generating triangle tend towards zero and would
be termed by us a differential ratio; it is also usual that such a vanishing ratio is set equal
to some finite ratio found geometrically. We may also mention here again, that such
quantities are considered by Newton as vanishing : not about to vanish, in which case
they would be represented by finite difference, and not vanished, in which case they
would all be the meaningless zero on zero, but in the act of vanishing together, in which
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
circumstance they adopt the final ratio; which we might term now the limiting value of
the ratio, which means the same thing in different words. In the annotated diagram, were
g and a are constants, this becomes in modern terms :
f
dx a sin
df g sin g
= = .
To show this, we may revert to modern analysis, as the original calculation has not been
supplied in this manner. Thus initially, we may consider the circle AEB, with P the origin
of coordinates and the radius a; the coordinates of any point E on the circle
are and x g acos y a sin = + = ; and the implicit equation of the circle AEB is :
( )
( )
2
2 2
x g y a + = . However, from triangle EPS, we have
( )
f g
a
sin sin sin
= = , and
hence
( ) ( )
f
sin a sin a sin
g g sin sin a sin

= = = . Also,
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 f g acos a sin g ag cos a = + + = + + ; hence
( ) fdf ag sin d gd acos gdx = = = , giving
f
dx a sin
df g g sin
= = , as required and ( ) f ,
may be taken as the independent variables for future use in integrations over the spherical
volume. To turn the circle integrations into spherical integrations, it is necessary to
multiply only to multiply by 2 . We will not do so, as this factor disappears in ratios.
This derivation above is no more and no less than the original result for the Lemma
obtained above by Newton, but written in more familiar terms.]

PROPOSITION LXXIX. THEOREM XXXIX.
If the surface EFfe is already vanishing on account of an infinite diminution of width,
with the rotation of this around the axis PS, it may describe a concave-convex spherical
solid, and equal centripetal forces are extended to the individual particles of this: I say
that the force, by which that solid attracts a corpuscle situated on the axis at P, is in a
ratio composed from the ratio of the solid
2
DE Ff , and in the ratio of that force by
which the given particle at the place Ff may attract the same corpuscle.

For if in the first place, we may consider the force of
the spherical surface FE, which may be generated by
the rotation of the arc FE, and which may be cut
somewhere by the line de in r; the part of the surface of
the ring, generated by the rotation of the arc rE , will be
as the line increment Dd, with the radius of the sphere
PE remaining constant (as Archimedes demonstrated in
his book, On the Sphere & Cylinder.)

[Imagine rE coming out of the plane of the page as it rotates about the axis PS forming a
ring of radius DE and width Dd, with P the apex of the twin cone; as we move towards F,
concentric rings of width Dd are inscribed in the inner surface of the sphere centre P,
radius PE, until an incremental circle is found at F; the diagram is a vertical section
through this sphere and the spherical body AEB ]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
[Note 518(x) Leseur & J anquier : The demonstration is easy. For because the angle PEr is
right (from the nature of the circle) the angle DEr is equal to the angle DPE, on account
of the sum of the angles being equal to the right angle DPE PED PEr + . From which, if
from the point r it may be considered to send a perpendicular (shown here in red) to the
line DE , that is equal to the line increment Dd, there may be put in place a vanishing
triangle similar to triangle EPD, and thus there will be and
Dd PE Dd DE
PE Er DE
Er

= = , but the
circular region generated by the rotation of the arc rE is as the rectangle Er DE ;
whereby if in this rectangle in place of Er there may be substituted the value found in this
manner, the region will be as PE Dd , that is, on account of the given radius PE, as Dd.
Q.E.D.]

And the force of this element of area, exercised on the conical surface in place along the
lines PE or Pr, shall be as this part [i.e. incremental area] of the annular surface itself;
that is, as the line increment Dd, or, because it is likewise, as the rectangle under the
sphere with the given radius PE and that line increment Dd : but along the line PS
attracting towards the centre S in the smaller ratio PD to PE, and thus as PD Dd .

[Note 518(z) Leseur & J anquier : For if the force acting along the direction PE may be set
out by the line PE, the part of this force which acts along the direction PS, may be set out
by the line PD;
PE Dd PE
PD PD Dd
,
= that hence will show the force along that direction PD, but
the oblique forces ED from each part of the axis PB mutually destroy each other; end of
L & J note. Thus, the force normal to the element PE Dd is proportional to
PD
PE
PE Dd PD Dd = .]

Now the line DF may be considered to be divided into innumerable equal small parts,
which one to the other may be called Dd; and the surface FE may be divided into an
equal number of rings, the forces of which are as the sums of all the terms PD Dd , that
is as
2 2
1 1
2 2
PF PD , and thus as
2
DE .
[The force exerted on P due to this set of rings of successive width dx on the PS axis is
the sum of forces parallel to the axis , any of which has the form PD Dd .]

[Note 519(b) Leseur & J anquier : Clearly all PD, while they are being changed from PD
into PF by increasing uniformly make an arithmetic progression, because all the small
parts Dd by which the line PD may be increased are equal : therefore the sum of all PD
will be in that ratio found from which the sums of the arithmetical progressions may be
obtained, certainly by being multiplied jointly by the number of terms of the progression,
and by taking half of the product. Truly the first term of this progression is PD, the final
PF and DF the number of terms, if indeed DF is the sum of the equal vanishing
increments of the line PD, therefore the sum of all the PD is
2
PF PD DF +
or (because DF
is the difference of the lines PF and PD) the sum of all the PD is
2
PF PD PF PD +
= ; but
(by 6.2. Eucl. Elements) the sum and the difference of two lines is equal to the difference
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
of the squares of these, hence
2 2
1 1
2 2 2
PF PD PF PD
PF PD
+
= , and the sum of all
2 2
1 1
2 2
PF PD Dd = , but Dd is the increment which is assumed as constant in all these
cases, therefore the forces of the whole surface FE which are as the sum of all the
termsPD Dd ,are as
2 2
1 1
2 2
PF PD or as
2 2
PF PD ; but
2 2
PF PE = by construction,
and
2 2 2
PE PD DE = (by 47.1 Eucl. Elements) hence the forces of the surface FE, are
as DE
2
.
The same otherwise: Let the given radius PE f = (not to be confused with the increment
Ff), the variable FD x = , the fluxion and Dd dx, PD f x = = , and thus (the limits of
integration, to the left, are 0 x = and x DF = ) : PD Dd fdx xdx = , and with the
fluents (integrals) taken on both sides :
2
2
1
2 2 2

fx xx
DE
Sum PD Dd fx xx

= = = , (Prop.
13. Book 6. Eucl. Elements). (For ( )
2
2 2 2
2 f f x fx x ED = = ). Whereby the force of
the surface arising by rotating the arc FE will be as DE
2
. Extra note : this integral with
the limits 0 and x is understood to be prefixed by a force, which is constant under these
circumstances, so that the original double integral can be expressed as the product of two
integrals.]

Now the surface FE may be multiplied by the [incremental] altitude Ff; and the force of
the solid EFfe exercised on the corpuscle P becomes as
2
DE Ff : for example if Ff may
be given as the force some small particle exerts on the corpuscle P at the distance PF .
But if that force may not be given, the force of the solid EFfe becomes as the solid
2
DE Ff , and that force is not given conjointly. Q.E.D.

[i.e. we have not yet been given the force, just a very cunning way of evaluating its
volume integral from a particular form of an increment of the sphere. Incidentally,
Chandrasekhar seems to have missed the point here, as he sets out on a conventional
double integration, which Newton has avoided by integrating over constant force shells in
an almost trivial manner. It is a short step for us to consider these as equipotential
surfaces; however, it cannot be assumed more than coincidence that such constant energy
surfaces have appeared in Newton's calculations ; the idea of potential energy was just
not present at the time, and when such energy related ideas arise. they must be considered
merely as useful devices that ease calculations, rather than some fundamental insight.
Chandrasekhar's book is full of such anachronisms, which does little to enhance one's
understanding of the evolution of ideas that occurred at this time. One way to explain in
ordinary language what Newton has done, is to consider a hypothetical onion, with
uniform layers or shells; P lies at the centre of this onion; now imagine a device that can
cut out a spherical shape from the body of the onion; retaining P at its original position
and consider this dissected sphere, also at its original position: this now consists of layers
or parts of shells each of which is equidistant from P, and an integration over the sphere
can now be performed, so finding the total force using this unusual by highly effective
way of dissecting the sphere into elements equidistant from P. Newton's originality
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
continues to amaze. Later in this section, he introduces the idea of inversion, so that the
forces due to all the points of the sphere can be found on some corpuscle located within
the sphere. ]

PROPOSITION LXXX. THEOREM XL.
If equal centripetal forces may be extended to the individual equal parts of a sphere ABE
described with centre S, and to the axis AB of the sphere, on which some corpuscle may
be placed at P, from individual points [such as] D perpendiculars DE may be erected
crossing the sphere in E, and in these lengths [such as] DN may be taken, which shall be
as the magnitude
2
DE PS
PE
and the force, that the particles of the sphere situated on the
axis at a distance PE may exercise on the corpuscle P, conjointly: I say that the total
force, by which the corpuscle P is drawn towards the sphere, is as the area ANB taken
under the axis of the sphere AB, and the curved line ANB, that always is a tangent at the
point N.

For indeed with everything in place which was constructed in the lemma and in the
most recent theorem, consider the axis of the sphere AB to be divided into innumerable
equal parts Dd, and the whole sphere to be divided into just as many concave convex
sheets EFfe; and the perpendicular dn may be erected.

By the above theorem the force, by which the shell EFfe attracts the corpuscle P, is as
2
DE Ff and as the force of the single particle Dd at the distance PE or PF exercised
conjointly [with this mass or weight factor.] But (by the most recent lemma :
Dd PE
Ff PS
= )
Dd is to Pf as PE to PS, and thence Ff is equal to
PS Dd
PE
; and
2
DE Ff equals
2
DE PS
PE
Dd

, and therefore the force of the shell EFfe is as
2
DE PS
PE
Dd

, and the force
of the particle at the distance PF exercised conjointly, that is (by hypothesis) as
DN Dd ,[ i.e.
2
DE PS
PE
Dd DN Dd

= ], or the vanishing area DNnd. Therefore the
forces of all the shells, exercised on the body P, are as all the areas DNnd, that is, the
total force of the sphere is as the total area ANB. Q.E.D.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

Corol. I. Hence if the centripetal force, attracting the individual particles, always remains
the same at all distances, and DN becomes as
2
DE PS
PE
; the total force, by which the

corpuscle is attracted to the sphere, shall be as the area ANB.

Corol. 2. If the centripetal force of the particles shall be inversely as the distances of the
corpuscles attracting each other, and DN becomes as
2
2
DE PS
PE
; the force, by which the

corpuscle P is attracted to the whole sphere, shall be as the area ANB.

Corol. 3. If the centripetal force of the particles shall be inversely as the cube of the
distances by which they attract each other, DN shall be as
2
4
DE PS
PE
; and the force, by

which the corpuscle is attracted by the whole sphere, shall be as the area ANB.

Corol. 4. And generally if the centripetal force drawing the individual particles of the
sphere may be put to be inversely as the magnitude V, moreover DN becomes as
2
DE PS
PE V
;
and the force, by which the corpuscle is attracted to the whole sphere, is as the area ANB.

PROPOSITION LXXXI. PROBLEM XLI.
With everything remaining in place, it is required to measure the area ANB.

From the point P the right line PH may be drawn tangent at H, and the normal HI may
be sent to the axes PAB, and PI may be bisected in L; and (by Prop. XII. Book 2. Eucl.
Elem.)
2
PE will be equal to
2 2
2 PS SE PS.SD + + . But
2
SE or
2
SH (on account of the
similar triangles SPH and SHI) is equal to
the rectangle PS.SI [ i.e.
; or
IS HS IS a
HS PS a g
= = , giving
2
a
g
IS = , which
is, of course, constant.] . Therefore
2
PE is
equal to the rectangle contained by PS and
PS +SI+2SD, that is, by PS and 2LS+2SD,
that is, by PS and 2LD. Again
2
DE is equal
to
2 2
SE SD , or
2 2 2
2 SE LS SL.LD LD + , that is,
2
2SL.LD LD AL.LB . For
2 2
LS SE or
2 2
LS SA , (by Prop. VI. Book 2. Eucl. Elem.) is equal to the rectangle
AL.LB. And thus
2
2SL.LD LD AL.LB
may be written for
2
DE ; and the magnitude
2
DE PS
PE V
, which following the fourth

corollary of the preceding proposition, which is as the length of the applied ordinate DN,
may be resolved into three parts :
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
2
2SL LD PS LD PS AL LB PS
PE V PE V PE V

,
where if for V there may be written the centripetal force in the inverse ratio; and for PE
the mean proportional between PS and 2LD; [for from above :
2
2 PE PS.LD = ] these
three parts produce the applied ordinates of just as many curved lines, the area of which
become known by common methods.
Q.E.F.
[In more detail, for the first part : ( )
2
2 2 2 2
2 PE PS SD DE PS SE PS.SD = + + = + + ; but
2
SE PS.SI = and hence ( )
2
2 2 2
2 PE PS SD DE PS PS.SI PS.SD = + + = + + ,
or ( )
2
2 PE PS PS SI SD = + + ; moreover, 2 2 2 2 PS SI IS PI IS LI LS + = + = + = ; hence,
2
2 PE PS.LD = .
For the second part : ( )
2
2 2 2 2
DE SE SD SE LD LS = = , giving
2 2 2
2 SE LD LS LD.LS + . But
( )( )
2 2 2 2
LS SE LS SB LS SA LS SB LA.LB = = + = ;
hence, we may write
2 2
2 DE LD.LS LD LA.LB = ;

which is very pretty, as all the line sections lie on the axis.
Algebraically,
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2
2
1 1
g
a a a
g
g g
PS g; PI g g ; PL LI = = = = = ; and
( )
2
2
2
1
g
a
g
LS = + ;
( )
2
2
2
1
g
a
g
LD LS SD x = + = + + . While
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 1
g g
a a
g g
LB a; LA a = + + = + . Hence,
( )
2
2
2 2
2 1
a
g
LB LA ag = + ; while
( )
2
2
2
2
2
4
1
g
a
g
LA.LB a = + . Also, we have
( )
2
2
2
1
g
a
g
LS = + .]

Example 1. If the centripetal force attracting the individual particles of the sphere shall be
inversely as the distance; write the distance PE for V; then
2PS LD for
2
PE , and DN becomes as
1
2 2
AL.LB
LD
SL LD .
Put DN equal to the double of this, or equal to 2
ALB
LD
SL LD : and the given [constant]
part of the ordinate 2SL multiplied by the length AB [i.e. the sum of the increments Dd]
describes the area of the rectangle 2SL AB ; and the variable part LD multiplied
normally into the same length [Dd] by a continued motion, as by that law requiring the
motion to be either increasing or decreasing between [the limits] , may always be equal to
the LD, and it will describe the area
2 2
2
LB LA
, that is, the area SL AB ; which subtracted
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
from the first area 2SL AB leaves the area SL AB . [Here we
integrate
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2
1 1
g a a
g
a a
g g
g a a
dx xdx ag
+

+ + = +

.]

But the third part
AL.LB
LD
, likewise with the same
local motion multiplied normally into the same
width, will describe the area under a hyperbola;
which taken from the area SL AB leaves the area
sought AN.NB. From which will emerge the
construction of such problems. Erect the
perpendiculars Ll, Aa, Bb, at the points L, A, B of
which Aa itself is equal to LB, and Bb to LA.
[Thus, the area is required under the rectangular hyperbola
1
1 x
y
+
= between the points
(A,LB) and (B, LA) or (ga,
( )
2
2
2
1
g
a
g
a + + ) and (g+a,
( )
2
2
2
1
g
a
g
a + ) is required.]

With the asymptotes Ll, LB, the hyperbola ab is described through the points a and b.
And with the chord ba drawn the area ab.ba enclosed [finally] is equal to the area sought
AN.NB.
[Here the integration is performed over
2
AL.LB
LD
Dd. This becomes:
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
4 2 2 2
2
2
2
1
2
2 4 4 1 1
2
1
g
a g a
a g
x
g a
a
A
a
g
a
g a g a
g a
LA.LB a dx dx' A A
LD A x' g a
g
g a
g x
Dd dx a dx' ln
+

+
+
+

+ +

+ +

=

, where
( )
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 and 1
4 4
4
a a
g g
g a
g
A
A g a a
g

= + = + =

. The total force is then the sum of
these component forces. Hence we have the total force F given by :

( ) ( ) 2
2
2 2 2 2
4
2 ( +g )
g a
g a
g
F ag a g a ln

=

.]

Example 2. If the centripetal force attracting the corpuscle towards the individual
particles shall be inversely as the cube of the distance, or (that is likewise ) as that cube
applied so some given plane ; write
3
2
2
PE
AS
for V, then as above write 2PS LD for
2
PE ;
and DN becomes as
2 2 2
2
2
2
SL AS AS AL.LB AS
PS LD PS
PS LD

, that is (on account of the continued
proportionals PS, AS, SI) as
2
1
2
2
LS.SI AL.LB SI
LD
LD
SI

.
[For recall that
2 2
SE SA PS.SI = = and hence
i.e.
2
2 2
1
2 2
2 2
AS SL AL.LB SL SI SI AL.LB SI
PS LD LD
LD LD
DN

= =

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
If the three parts of this may be multiplied by AB, the first
LS.SI
LD
,
[for
( )
2 2
2
2
2 2
1
2
1
1
g
a
g
g
LS.SI a a
LD g
g
x

+ +

= + , etc.]
will generate a hyperbolic area; the second
1
2
SI the area
1
2
AB SI ; the third
2
2
AL.LB SI
LD
will generate the area

2 2
AL.LB SI AL.LB SI
LA LB

, that is
1
2
AB SI . From the first
there may be taken the sum of the second and the third,
and the area sought ANB will remain. From such the
construction of the problem emerges. Erect the
perpendiculars Ll, Aa, Ss, Bb to the points L, A, S, B, of which Ss may be equal to SI, and
through the point s to the asymptotes Ll, LB the hyperbola asb may be described crossing
the perpendiculars Aa, Bb at a and b; and the rectangle 2AS.SI taken from the hyperbolic
area AasbB leaves the area sought ANB.
[Thus, Newton fits a section of a hyperbola to the forces at the ends A and B of the
diameter of the sphere, and uses this area as a known amount, without mentioning natural
logarithms.]

Example 3. If the centripetal force, attracting the corpuscle to the individual particles of
the sphere, decreases in the quadruple ratio of the distance from the particles ; write
4
3
2
PE
AS

for V, then 2PS LD for PE, and DN becomes as

2 2 2
3 6
1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
SI SL SI SI AL.LB
SI SI LD SI
LD LD

;

The three parts of which multiplied by the length AB, produces just as many areas, viz.

2 2 2
3 3
2 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
into ; in ; and into
SI SL SI SI ALB
SI LA LB SI SI
LA LB
LB LA

And these after due reduction become
2 3
2 2
2 2
3
,
SI SL SI
LI LI
SI ,&SI
+ . Truly these emerge,

with the latter taken from the former,
3
4
3
SI
LI
. Hence the total force, by which the corpuscle
P is drawn to the centre of the sphere, is as
3
SI
PI
, that is, reciprocally as
3
PS PI . Q.E.I.

[Chandrasekhar provides equivalent modern integrations for Newton's results on pp.291-
293 of his book. Leseur & J anquier provide very longwinded derivations of these
integrations, which have not been included here.]

By the same method it is possible to determine the attraction of the corpuscle in place
outside the sphere, but it will be more expeditious by the following theorem.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.

PROPOSITION LXXXII. THEOREM XLI.
In a sphere with centre S described with the radius SA, if the continued proportions SI,
SA, SP may be taken: I say that the attraction of a corpuscle within the sphere, at some
place I, to the attraction outside the sphere at the place P, is compounded in the ratio
from the square root of the distances from the centre IS, PS, and in the square root ratio
of the centripetal forces, at these places P and I, tending to the centre of attraction.

For, if the centripetal forces of the particles of the sphere shall be reciprocally as the
distances of the corpuscles attracting each other; the force, by which a corpuscle situated
at I is attracted by the whole sphere, to that by which it is attracted at P, is compounded
from the ratio of the square root of the distance SI to the distance SP, and from the square
root ratio of the centripetal force at the position I, arising from some particle situated at
the centre, to the centripetal force at the position P arising from the same particle at the
centre, that is, in the square root ratio of the distances SI, SP reciprocally in turn.
[i.e.
PS I
P IS
F F
SP
F F
SI
= in an obvious notation.]

Then these square root ratios make a ratio of equality, and therefore the attractions at I
and P from the whole sphere are made equal. By a similar computation, if the forces of
the particles of the sphere are inversely in the square ratio of the distances, it may be
deduced that the attraction at I shall be to the attraction at P, as the distance SP to the
radius of the sphere SA: If these forces are inversely as the triplicate ratio of the distances,
the attractions at I and P are in turn as SP
2
to SA
2
: If in the quadruplicate, as SP
3
ad SA
3
.
From which since the attraction at P, in this final case, were found inversely as
3
PS PI ,
the attraction at 1 will be inversely as
3
SA PI , that is (on account of
3
SA ) inversely as
PI. And the progression to infinity is similar. Thus truly the Theorem is demonstrated.

Now with everything in place as before, and with a corpuscle present at some place P,
the applied ordinate DN may be found, i.e.
2
DE PS
PE V
DN

= . Therefore if IE may be
drawn, that ordinate for some other corpuscle in the place I, with everything changed
requiring to be changed, in order that
2
DE IS
IE V
will emerge. Put the centripetal forces

emanating from some point of the sphere E, to be in turn with the distances IE, PE, as
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
to
n n
PE IE (where the number n designates the index of the powers PE and IE) and these
ordinates [of the forces] become as
2 2
and
n n
DE PS DE IS
PE PE IE IE

, the ratio of which in turn is as
to
n n
PS IE IE IS PE PE . Because on account of the continued proportionals SI,
SE, SP, the triangles SPE and SEI are similar, hence there becomes IE to PE as IS to SE
or SA; for the ratio IE to PE write the ratio IS to SA; and the ratio of the ordinates
emerges to
n n
PS IE SA PE .

[Thus, the ratio of the forces on like particles at P and I due to an incremental shell at E
of the sphere at E,
2
2
n n n n
PE
n n n n
IE
F
DE PS IE IE PS IS PS PS IE IE IE IE
F PE IS SE SA IS SA
PE PE DE IS PE PE PE

=

= = = = ;
but ; or
SI SI SI IE IE
PE SA PE
SP.SI SP
; = = = and
SP SP SP
SA
SP.SI SI
= = hence
1
2
2 2
2 1
2 2
n n
n n
PE
n n n n
IE
F
SP DE PS IE IE PS SI SI IE IE
F PE IS
PE PE DE IS PE SI
SP SP

= = = = .]

But PS to SA is as the square root ratio of the distances PS to SI; and the square root
to
n n
IE PE (on account of the proportionals IE to PE as IS to SA) is the ratio of the
forces at the distances PS, IS. Therefore the ordinates, and therefore the areas which the
ordinates describe, and from these proportional attractions, are in a ratio composed from
the square roots of these ratios. Q.E.D.

[The points P and I are inverse points with respect to the sphere of radius a; hence we
have ( )
2
a g g a SP SI = = . From the first example, the force acting on P due to the
whole sphere is
( ) ( ) 2
2
2 2 2 2
1
4
2 ( +g )
g a
g a
g
F ag a g a ln

=

while the force F
2
acting on
a similar corpuscle within the sphere at the inverse point is given by the same formula,
and thus the forces at P and I are equal in this case. Chandrasekhar shows that such image
forces at the image points R
1
and R
2
are related in general by
( )
1
1 1
1
2
2
2 n
n
F R
F
R
+
+
= , where
2
1 2
R R a = , and the forces are proportional to the n
th
power of the distance ; in this case
1 n = , and thus the forces are equal; and the other cases Newton enumerates for higher
powers are as given by this result. Thus, as Chandrasekhar points out, Newton was
already familiar with the image method of inverse points applied to the gravitational
cases of spheres as we will now find out, and later was discovered and used for solving
electrostatics problems by William Thompson.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XII.
PROPOSITION LXXXIII. PROBLEM XLII.
To find the force by which a corpuscle located at the centre of a sphere is attracted to any
segment of this.

Let P be some body at the centre of the sphere, and RBSD a segment of this sphere
contained by the plane RDS and by the spherical surface RBS. The spherical surface EFG
described with centre P may cut DB in F, and the segment
may be separated into the parts BREFGS and FEDG. But that
surface shall not be a purely mathematical one, but a physical
one, having a minimum depth. This thickness may be called O,
and this will be the surface (demonstrated by Archimedes) as
PF DF O . [we can think of O as the incremental
thickness.] Besides we may put the attractive forces of the
particles of the sphere to be inversely as that power of the
distances of which the index is n ; and the force, by which the
surface EFG pulls on the body P, will be (by Prop. LXXIX.)
as
2
n
DE O
PF
that is, as
2
1
2
n n
DF O DF O
PF PF

. [For
( )
2 2 2
2 DE PF PD PF DF DF = = .] The perpendicular
FN multiplied by O shall be drawn proportional to this ; and the curved area BDI, that the
applied ordinate FN [that is in modern terms, the y coordinate] will describe by the
motion through the length DB, will be as the total force RBSD attracting the body P.
Q.E.I.

PROPOSITION LXXXIV. PROBLEM XLIII.
To find the force, by which a corpuscle, beyond the centre of the sphere at some place on
the axis of the segment, is attracted by the same segment.

The body P located on the axis of this ADB may
be attracted by the segment EBK. With centre P and
with the radius PE the spherical surface EFK is
drawn, by which the segment may be separated into
two parts EBKSE and EBKDE. The force of the
first part may be found by Prop. LXXXI. and the
force of the second part by Prop. LXXXIII ; and the
sum of the forces will be the force of the whole
segment EBKDE. Q.E.I.
Scholium.
With the attractions of spherical bodies explained, now it may be permitted to go on
to the laws of attraction of certain bodies similarly constructed from attracting particles ;
but to treat these a little less than it is considered customary. Certain more general
proposition concerning the forces of bodies of this kind will suffice to be added, from
which motions thence originated, on account of these being of some little use in
philosophical matters.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIII.
SECTION XIII.
Concerning the attractive forces of nonspherical bodies.

PROPOSITION LXXXV. THEOREM XLII.
If the attraction of a body by another shall be far greater, when it is attracted in contact,
than when the bodies may be separated by the smallest distance from each other: then the
forces of the attracting particles in the distant parts of the attracting body, decrease in a
ratio greater than the square of the distances from the particles.

For if the forces between the particles decrease in the inverse square ratio of the
distances; the attraction towards a spherical body, [placed at the point of contact and
drawn within the attracting body with the same curvature as the surface at this point],
because that attraction (by Prop. LXXIV.) shall be inversely as the square of the distance
of the attracted body from the centre of the sphere, will not be sensibly increased on
being in contact; and it will be increased even less by the contact, if the attraction in the
more distant parts from [the point of contact] of the attracting body may decrease in a
smaller ratio. Therefore the proposition is apparent for the attraction of spheres. And
there is the same reasoning for concave spherical shells attracting bodies externally. And
the matter is agreed upon even more with hollow shells attracting bodies within
themselves, since the attractions may be removed everywhere through the cavity by
opposing attractions (by Prop. LXX), and thus are even zero at the contact point itself.
For if from these spherical and spherical shells any parts may be taken from places
remote from the point of the point of contact, and new parts may be added elsewhere : the
shapes of these attracting bodies may be changed at will, yet the parts added or removed,
since they shall be remote from the point of contact, will not notably increase the excess
of the attraction which arises at the point of contact. Therefore the proposition may be
agreed upon for all shapes of bodies. Q. E. D.

[The reader may wish to reflect on the electrostatic analogy of this theorem.]

PROPOSITION LXXXVI. THEOREM XLIII.
If the forces of the particles, from which the attracting body is composed, decrease in
the remote parts of the attracting body in the triplicate or greater ratio of the distances
from the particles : the attraction will be much stronger in contact, than when the
attracted and attracting bodies may be separated in turn even at a minimal distance.

For it is agreed in the approach of an attracted corpuscle to an attracting sphere of this
kind that the attraction increases indefinitely, by the solution of Problem XLI in the
second and third example shown. Likewise, it is easily deduced from that example and
Theorem XLI taken together, concerning the attractions of bodies towards concave-
convex shells, either with the attracted bodies gathered together outside the shells, or
within the cavities of these. But also by adding or taking away any attracting matter from
these spheres and shells somewhere beyond the point of contact, so that the attracting
bodies may adopt there some assigned figure, the proposition will be agreed upon
generally for all bodies. Q. E. D.
rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION LXXXVII. THEOREM XLIV.
If two bodies similar to each other, and consisting of equally attracting material, may
each attract corpuscles to themselves, with these corpuscles proportional and similar to
themselves : the accelerative attractions of the corpuscles for the whole bodies shall be
as the accelerative attractions of the corpuscles for all the proportional particles of these,
similarly put in place in the whole bodies.

For if the bodies may be separated into particles which may be proportional to the
whole, and similarly situated in the whole; there will be, as the attraction of some
particle of one body to the attraction in the corresponding particle in the other body, thus
the corresponding attractions in the individual particles of the first body to the individual
particle attractions in the other ; and on adding these together, thus the attraction in the
first whole body to the attraction in the second whole body.
Q. E. D.
[This proposition is an assertion that a body may be considered as consisting of particles,
each of which, and collections of these, up to the whole body, behave in the same way
under the influence of a mutual attraction with another body, similarly constituted:
Newton's bodies are held together by gravitational attractions that extend to other bodies,
wholly or in part. The same rules can be extended to other unspecified forces, obeying
inverse power laws, that give rise to a scaling law, as set out by Chandrasekhar pp305-
306 : Thus, if the force on a corpuscle at position R relative to an extended body, and
summed over the constituent particles, each of which exerts a force, resolved along the
axes, of which ( )
n
dv
x
R r
dF R density
is a component, proportional to its mass or

volume, and varying inversely as the n
th
power of the distance, is given on replacing
r r;R R , by
3
( )
n
n
dv
x
R r
dF R density

, which Newton now sets out for

the certain cases 2 3 4 n , , = .]

Corol. 1. Therefore if the attractive forces of the particles, with the distances of the
particles increased, may decrease in the ratio of some power of any of the distances; the
accelerative attractions in the whole bodies shall be as the bodies directly, and these
powers of the distances, inversely. So that if the forces of the particles may decrease in
the ratio of the squares of the distances from the corpuscles attracted, the bodies
moreover shall be as
3 3
A &B . and thus both the cubic sides of bodies, as well as the
distances of the attracting bodies from the bodies, as A & B: the accelerative attractions in
the bodies will be as
3 3
2 2
A B
A B
& , that is, as the sides from these cubic bodies A & B. If the
forces of the particles may decrease in the triplicate ratio of the distances from the
attracting bodies; the accelerative attractions in the whole bodies will be as
3 3
3 3
A B
A B
& , that
is, equal. If the forces may decrease in the quadruple ratio; the attractions between the
rd
Ed.

bodies will be as
3 3
4 4
A B
A B
& , that is , inversely as the cubic sides A & B. And thus for the
others.

Corol.2. From which in turn, from the forces by which similar bodies attract corpuscles
similarly put in place to themselves, the ratio of the decrease of the attractive forces of
the particles can be deduced in the receding of the attracting corpuscles; but only if that
decrease shall be directly or inversely in some ratio of the distances.

PROPOSITION LXXXVIlI. THEOREM XLV.
If the attractive forces of the equal particles of some body shall be as the distances of
the places from the particles : the force of the whole body will tend towards the centre of
gravity of this ; and it will be the same as with the force of a globe agreed upon from the
same material and equal in all respects, and having the centre of this at the centre of
gravity.

The particles A, B of the body RSTV may pull some
corpuscle Z by forces, which, if the particles may be
equal among themselves, shall be as the distances AZ,
BZ; but if unequal particles may be put in place, the
forces shall be as these particles and the distances of
these AZ, BZ jointly, or (if I may say thus), as these
particles respectively multiplied by their distances AZ,
BZ . And these forces may be set out contained by
these A AZ &B BZ . AB may be joined and with
that line cut in G so that there shall be AG to BG as the particle B to the particle A; and G
will be the common centre of gravity of the particles A & B . The forceA AZ (by Corol.
2. of the laws) is resolved into the forces and A GZ A AG and the force B BZ into the
forces and B GZ B BG . But the forces and A AG B BG are equal, on account of
the proportionals A to B and BG to AG; therefore since they may be directed in opposite
directions, the mutually cancel each other out. The forces remain and A GZ B Gz .
These tend from Z towards the centre G, and they compound the force A B GZ + ; that
is, the same force. and as if the attracting particles A & B may constitute the components
of the common centre of gravity G of these, there the components of a globe.
By the same argument, if a third particle C may be added and also it may be
compounded with the force A B GZ + tending towards the centre G; hence the force
arising tends towards the common centre of gravity of that globe at G and of the particle
C; that is, to the common centre of gravity of the three particles A, B, C; and it will be the
same as if the globe and the particle C may be present at that common centre, comprising
a greater globe. And thus it may go on indefinitely. Therefore the total force of all the
particles bodies of any kind is the same RSTV, as if that body, by maintaining the centre
of gravity, may adopt the figure of a globe. Q. E. D.

rd
Ed.

Corol. Hence the motion of the attracted body Z will be the same, as if the attracting body
RSTV were spherical : and therefore if that attracting body either were at rest, or
progressing uniformly along a direction ; the attracted body will be moving in an ellipse
having at its attracting centre the centre of gravity.

PROPOSITIO LXXXIX. THEOREMA XLVI.
If several bodies shall consist of equal particles, of which the forces shall be as the
distances of the places from the individual particles : the force from all the forces added
together, by which a certain corpuscle is attracted, will tend towards the common centre
of gravitational attraction ; and it will be the same, as if the particles might group
together and be formed into a globe by that attraction, with the centre serving as a
common centre of gravity
.
This may be demonstrated in the same manner as with the above proposition.

Corol. Therefore the motion of an attracted body will be the same, as if the attracting
bodies, with a common centre of gravity maintained, may coalesce and be formed into a
globe. And thus if the common centre of gravity of the attracting bodies may either be at
rest, or progressing uniformly along a right line; an attracted body will be moving in an
ellipse, by having the centre in that common attracting centre of gravity.

PROPOSITION XC. PROBLEM XLIV.
If equal centripetal forces may attract the individual points of any circle , increasing or
decreasing in some ratio of the distances: to find the force, by which a corpuscle may be
attracted at some position on a straight line, which remains perpendicular to the plane
of the circle at its centre.
With centre A and with some radius AD, a
circle may be understood to be described in the
plane, to which the right line AP is
perpendicular ; and the force shall be required
to be found, by which some corpuscle P on the
same is attracted. A right line PE may be drawn
from some point E of the circle to the attracted
corpuscle P. On the right line PA, PF may be
taken equal to PE itself, and the normal FK
may be erected, which shall be as the force by
which the point E attracts the corpuscle P. And
let IKL be the curved line that always touches
the point K. The same curved line may cross
the plane of the circle at L. On PA there may be
taken PH equal to PD, and a perpendicular to
the aforementioned curve HI may be erected crossing at I; and the attraction of the
corpuscle P to the circle will be as the area AHIL taken by the altitude AP. Q. E. I.
And indeed on AE the line Ee may be taken as minimal [i.e. as the increment dx]. Pe
may be joined, and on PE and PA there may be taken PC and Pf themselves equal to Pe.
rd
Ed.

And since the force, by which the annulus with centre A and radius AE described in the
aforementioned plane, attracts P to some point E of the body itself, is put to be as FK,
and hence the force, by which that point attracts the body P towards A, is as
AP FK
PE
and
the force, by which the whole annulus attracts the body P towards A ,as the annulus
and
AP FK
PE
conjointly [for if ( ) f r if the force due to the increment Ee along Pe, the
normal force due to the whole annulus is ( ) 2 area of annulis
AP
PE
rf r cos FK ]; but
the annulus itself is as the rectangle under the radius AE and with the width Ee, and this
rectangle (on account of the proportionals PE and AE, Ee and CE) is equal to the
rectangle PE CE orPE Ff [for
CE
sin
AE Ee PE sin PE CE PF Ff
= = = ]; the
force, by which the annulus itself attracts the body P towards A, will be as
and
AP FK
PF
PE Ff

jointly, that is, as contained by Ff FK AP , or as the area FKkf
multiplied by AP. And therefore the sum of the forces, by which all the annuli in the
circle, which is described with centre A and interval AD, attract the body P towards A, is
as the total area AHIKL multiplied by AP. Q.E.D.
[We note that ( ) 2 Ff FK AP f r dr

, where the area under the integral becomes
AHIL.]
Corol. 1. Hence if the forces of the points decrease in the duplicate ratio of the distance,
that is, if FK shall be as
2
1
PF
, and thus the area AHIKL as
1 1
PA PH
; the attraction of the
corpuscle P into the circle will be as 1
PA
PH
, that is, as
AH
PH
.

Corol.2. And universally, if the forces of the points at the distances D shall be
reciprocally as some power of some distances
n
D , that is, if FK shall be as
1
n
D
, and thus
AHIKL as
1 1
1 1
n n
PA PH

; the attraction of the corpuscle P towards the circle shall be as
2 1
1 1
n n
PA PH

Corol. 3. And if the diameter of the circle may be increased to infinity, and the number
n shall be greater than unity ; the attraction of the corpuscle P in the whole infinite plane
shall be as
2 n
PA

, because therefore the other term PA vanishes.

rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XCI. PROBLEM XLV.
To find the attraction of a body situated on the axis of a solid of rotation, to the
individual points of which equal centripetal
forces attract in some decreasing ratio of the
distances.

The corpuscle P is attracted towards the
solid DECG, situated on the axis of this AB.
This solid may be cut by some circle RFS
perpendicular to its axis, and on the radius of
this FS, by some other plane PALKB passing
through the axis, the length FK may be taken
for the force (by Prop. XC.), by which the
corpuscle P is attracted proportionally in that circle. Moreover the point K may touch the
line LKI, meeting the planes of the outermost circles AL and BI at L and I ; and the
attraction of the corpuscle P towards the solid will be as the area LABI. Q.E.I.

Corol. 1. From which if the solid shall be a cylinder described by revolving the
parallelogram ADEB about the axis AB, and the centripetal forces tending towards the
individual points of this shall be inversely as the square of the distances from the points :
the attraction of the corpuscle P will be towards this cylinder as AB PE PD + . For the
applied ordinate FK [i.e. the increment of the
force] (by Corol. I. Prop. XC.) will be as
1
PF
PR
[for the force due to the incremental
circle is proportional to
( )
1 1
1
PF
PF PR PR
PF = ]. The part 1 which
multiplied by the length AB, will describe the
area1 AB : and the other part
PF
PR
multiplied
by the length PB, will describe the area 1 by
PE AD , that which can be easily shown
from the quadrature of the curve LKI ;
and similarly the same part multiplied by the length PA will describe the area 1 by
PD AD , and multiplied by the difference of PB and PA, AB will describe the
difference 1 by PE AD of the areas. From the first content1 AB there may be taken
away the latter 1 by PE AD , and there will remain the area LABI equal to 1 by
AB PE PD + . Therefore the force, proportional to this area, is as AB PE PD + .

rd
Ed.


[for in a similar manner to the above : the incremental force dF due to the incremental
cylinder circle with diameter RS and width dr from above will be equal to
( ) 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
PR PR
dr z
r PF PR
r r
PF PF
rdr PF PF = =

; the sum of the increment forces due to
these incremental cylinders will be as
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1
2 2
PB
z
a z
PA
zdz PB PA a PB a PA AB PE PD
+

= + + + +

]

[There follows an extended note to this rather important following result.]

Corol. 2. Hence also the force will become known, by which a spheroid AGBC attracts
some body P, situated on its axis outside AB ; NKRM shall be the conic section of which
the applied ordinate is ER, perpendicular to PE itself, that may always be equal to the
length PD, which is drawn to that point D, at which the applied line may cut the
spheroid. From the vertices of the spheroid A and B to its axis AB, the perpendiculars AK
and BM may be erected equal to AP and BP respectively, and therefore crossing the
conic section at K & M; and KM may be joined, taking KMRK from the same segment.
Moreover let the centre of the spheroid be S and the greatest radius SC: and the force, by
which the spheroid attracts the body P, will be to the force, by which a sphere with the
diameter AB described cuts the same body, as
2
2 2 2
AS CS PS KMRK
PS CS AS

+
to
3
2
3
AS
PS
. And from the
same fundamentals it is possible by computation to find the forces of the spheroidal
segment. [The red lines and variables have been added to aid the following integration.]

[We acknowledge the work done by Chandrasekhar in solving this problem in modern
terms, which is introduced and paraphrased here somewhat. The problem has also been
solved by a Leseur and J anquier, which we subsequently present fully in translation. First
of all, the oblate spheroid is an ellipse rotated about the major axis GC, while the minor
axis is AB. Thus, we have the customary implicit equation of the ellipse :
2
2
2 2
1
y
x
a b
+ = ,
taking S as the origin, SG as the positive x-axis, and SA as the positive y axis. From
rd
Ed.

Newton's construction, we have given ; ; PA AK PE ER PB BM = = = ; also,
; ; ED x SE y PS Y = = = and EP Y y = ; hence ( )
2
2
PD x Y y = + . The incremental
force due to an incremental slice of the oblate spheroid is given by Cor.1 above as
2 2
1 1
zdz PF PE
PR PD
x z
dz
+
= in this case. The force due to the whole solid of revolution
is then, ignoring the 2 factor, is then given by
2 2
1
Y b
z
x z
Y b
F dz
+
+
; before this
integral can be evaluated, we must write x in terms of z : from
2
2
2 2
1
y
x
a b
+ = we have
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
1;
b z a b z
x
a b b
x a

+ = = ;
hence
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
b z a b z b z
z
a b b z e z
Y b Y b Y b
z
a
Y b Y b Y b
F dz dz dz

+ + +

= = =

; recall that
the eccentricity is related to a and b by the equation
( )
2 2 2
1 b a e = , hence
( )
( )
2
2 2
1
1
1
1
b z
e z
Y b
Y b
F dz
; Chandrasekhar shows how an integral similar to this one is

equivalent to Newton's result, on page 316 of his book, Newton's Principia for the
common reader. Rather than presenting that derivation here, we will delve into the other
presentation by L & S, which is more relevant to Newton's approach, and although rather
long, is presumably similar to the manner in which Newton derived the result. The fact
that an elliptic integral corresponding to the area KRMK arises, which Newton could not
resolve by conventional means, is of some interest.]

ADDITION :
Leseur & J anquier derivation of Newton's result for the oblate spheroid:

[Note 542 part (x)] NKRM shall be the conic section of which the applied ordinate is ER,
perpendicular to PE itself, that may always be
equal to the length PD, which is drawn to that
point D, at which the applied line may cut the
spheroid......
Let AP a = , andAS b = shall be the semi-axis
of the given curve ACB, the rotation of which
generates the spheroid, the other semi-diameter
SC c, AE x = = , there will be PE a x = + , and
from the equation of the ellipse [
( )
2
2
2 2
1
x b
ED
b c
+ = ],
rd
Ed.

2
2
2 2
2
c
b
ED bx x = ;
from which the square of the ordinate ER [ =PD ] to the curve NKRM is given by
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
c c
b b
PD PE ED a ax x bx x = + = + + + ; therefore, since this equation for the
curve NKRM does not to rise beyond the second degree it is agreed that curve shall be
one of the conic sections : moreover it will be an ellipse, if the quantity
2
2
2 2
c
b
x x shall be
negative, which comes about when SC or c is greater than AS or b; Truly it will be a
parabola if that quantity may vanish, and thus if c b = , which eventuates when the curve
ACB is a circle; and then it will be a hyperbola if that quantity is positive, that is, if AS is
the longer semi-axis.
[Continuing, note 543 :] ACB shall be an ellipse the axis CS of which shall be greater
than the axis AS, in which case the curve NKRM will be an ellipse [i.e. c >b above], and
from this ratio, the axes and vertex of this curve NKRM will be determined. The semi-
axis of this ellipse NKRM may be
called ON s = , and the other semi-
axis OT may be called t, the
distance of the vertex N from the
vertex A of the curve ACB may be
called p, the abscissa NE will be
p x = + , and the square of the
ordinate ER will be from the
equation of the ellipse
2
2
2 2
2 2 2
t
s
sp sx p px x + ,
which from the hypothesis of the
construction was found above
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
c c
b b
a ax x bx x = + + + .
The homogeneous terms of these
values may be brought together,
evidently constants with constants,
these which include one variable
with similar ones, etc., and three
equations arise, with the variable omitted:
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 ; ; 1
t c t c t
b
s s b s
a sp p a s p = + = = .
From that third equation, with each sign changed, with the first member reduced to a
common denominator, and with the terms inverted, there becomes
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2
and
s b b t
t c b c b
s .

= = Then the second equation
2 2
2
c t
b
s
a s p + = , with the terms
multiplied by
2
2
s
t
, with the reduction made of the first member to the same denominator,
and with the substitution made of the above value of
2
2
s
t
found, will become
rd
Ed.

2 2
b
c b
s p ba cc
= + . And then, with the terms of the first equation

2
2
2 2
2
t
s
a sp p =
multiplied
2
2
s
t
, each with the sign changed and with s
2
added, becomes finally
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2
b
c b
s a s sp p
= + , in which new equation the second term shall itself be the

square of the quantity s p , with the value of this substituted in the first value found,
and in place of s
2
in the first term also with the value of this substituted, there becomes
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
b b
c b c b
t a ba c

= + , and with each term divided by
( )
2
2 2
b
c b
with a
2

transposed, and by reducing the second term to a common denominator, and with the
common terms canceling each other, there shall be
2
2 2
2 2 2
2
c
c b
t a ab c
= + + , or because
PS a b = + , thus, there becomes
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
c
c b
t PS b c
= + , certainly
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
CS
CS AS
OT PS AS CS
= + , all of which terms are given, therefore with this

found the remaining terms pertaining to the ellipse can be conveniently found.
With regard to the following note, from these we will determine the value of the
quantity
2 2 2
2
t s PO
t
+
that is equal to the quantity
2
2 2 2
CS
PS AS CS +
, which thus may be put in
place with the above values found. From the third equation, there is
2 2
2 2
2
b t
c b
s
= , hence
there will be
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
b t c t b t c t
c b c b
s t
+

+ = = , and thus
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
s t c CS
t c b CS AS
+

= = . Truly there
will be AO s p = , and PO PA AO a s p = + = + , and since there shall be
( ) ( )
2 2 2
s p c b ba c = + , from the second equation, there is
2 2
2
b
c b
PO a ba c
= + + ,
with which value reduced to a common denominator, and with terms canceling out, there
is
2
2 2
c
c b
PO a b
= + or
2
2 2
CS
CS AS
PS
= , and since there shall be

2
2 2
2 2 2 2
CS
CS AS
t PS AS CS
= + , there is
2 2 2 2
PO PS
t PS AS CS +
= and

2
2 2 2 2 2 2
PO CS PS
t CS AS PS AS CS +
= . From which there is finally

2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
s t PO CS CS PS
t CS AS CS AS PS AS CS
+
+
= , or
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1
CS PS
CS AS PS AS CS +
= , and on

being reduced to the same denominator, with terms canceling,

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
CS AS CS CS
CS AS PS AS CS PS AS CS
+
+ +
= = with the numerator and denominator divided by

rd
Ed.

2 2
CS AS . Therefore there is
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
s t PO CS
t PS AS CS
+
+
= . Q.e.d.

[Continuing, note 544 :] Moreover, let the given curve ACB be a circle, thus so the
spheroid arising from the rotation of this shall be a sphere, the curve NKRM then will be a
parabola, for with everything that has been said remaining in place from the previous
note, there will be as before, PE a x = + , and from the equation of the circle,
2 2
2 EP bx x = , from which there shall be PF squared
=
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 PE EF a ax x bx x a ax bx + = + + + = + + ; since therefore the ordinate ER
to the curve NKRM may be taken equal to PF, the square of this ordinate will be equal to
the abscissa itself multiplied by a constant quantity, but not increasing beyond the first
order, which is a property of the parabola. Therefore the latus rectum of this parabola
may be called 1, the distance of the vertex N from the vertex A of the curve ACB may be
called p, the abscissa NE will be p x + , and from the equation of the parabola, the square
of the ordinate ER =1 1 p x + this value may be united with the value of the same ER
2

found above,
2
2 2 a ax bx + + , the constant terms with constants, and those which include
the variable with similar ones, become two equations
2
1 and 1 2 2 2 p a , a b PS, = = + =
and thus
2 2
2 2 2
a PA
a b PS
p
+
= = ; and since from the equation of the parabola , there shall be
2
1 ER p x = + , there will be
2
2
ER
PS
p x NE + = = ; and since the parabolic area between the
abscissa, the ordinate, and the curve intercepted shall be equal to two thirds of the
rectangle of the abscissa by the ordinates, the area of the parabola
3
2
3
3
2 3
ER
ER
PS PS
NER = = ,
and because, from the construction, the ordinates erected at A and B shall equal PA and
PB, the parabolic area will be
3
3
PA
PS
NEK = , and the parabolic area
( )
3
3 2
3 3
PA AS
PB
PS PS
NBM
+
= = , and the difference of these areas AKRMB corresponding to the
axis of the sphere AB, will be
2 2 3
6 12 8
3
PA AS PA AS AS
PS
+ +
, and then with the trapezium
AKMB removed, the segment of the remaining parabolic segment will be equal to
3
2
3
PA
PS
,
for the trapezium AKMB is equal to
1
2
AB AK BM + or, since (because
1
2
and 2 AB AS, AK PA, BM PB PA AS = = = = + ) it is equal to
2
2 2 AS PA AS + , and by
reduction to the denominator 3PS or 3 3 PA AS + it equals
2 2 3
6 12 6
3
AS PA AS PA AS
PS
+ +
, that
taken from the area AKRMB =
2 2 3
6 12 8
3
PA AS PA AS AS
PS
+ +
leaves
3
2
3
AS
PS
. Q.e.d.

[Continuing, note 545 :] The force, by which the spheroid attracts the body P, will be to
the force, by which a sphere with the diameter AB described cuts the same body, as
2
2 2 2
AS CS PS KMRK
PS CS AS

+
to
3
2
3
AS
PS
.
J ust as the solution of this problem may be put in place, the second curve described
AB, the ordinates of which for the single point E shall be equal to the force by which the
rd
Ed.

body P is attracted by a circle the radius of which is ED; that force is, by Cor. 1. Prop
XC, as 1
PE
PD
, OE shall be the abscissa of this curve assumed from the point O (with the
centre of the curve NKRM just noted 543 determined) and it may be called z, the fluxion
[i.e. differential] of this will be dz, and thus the differential of the area of the curve which
shows the force of the spheroid will be
PE
PD
dz dz , and since there shall be
and PE PO OE PO z PD ER = = = , the ordinates of the curve NKRM, from the
construction, and there shall be, as is easily deduced from note 543,
2 2
t
s
ER s z = , the
differential of this area shall be
2 2 2 2
t t
s s
POdz zdz
s z s z
dz

+ . Of the positive terms
2 2
t
s
zdz
s z
dz
+
the fluent [i.e. the indefinite integral] is
2 2
s
t
z s z + but as
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
and
s s t s
t s
t t
z OE s z s z ER = = = , the corresponding differential of the
positive term is
2
2
s
t
OE ER , and the total area of the corresponding line OA is
2
2
s
t
OA AK , from which the corresponding second area of the part OB required to be
taken away, as the curve which the force of the spheroid is not lead to express, and which
is
2
2
s
t
OB BM , and as by the construction and AK AP, BM PB BA AP = = = + , truly
there will be the integral
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
s s s t
t t t
OA OB AP BA AP AB AB AB
+
= + = .
The integral of the third term
2 2
t
s
POdz
s z
is found thus; the differential
of the elliptic sector of the ellipse TOK
1
2
2 2
stdz
s z
is multiplied by
2
2PO
t
and the
proposed term arises
2 2
t
s
POdz
s z
, from which the integral of
the term proposed is that elliptic sector
TOK multiplied by
2
2PO
t
, but because
the area sought does not correspond to
the whole area OA, but rather to the
part AB of this, indeed the integral of
the area sought found from the third
term is the sector
2
2PO
t
TOK with the
sector
2
2PO
t
TOM removed, or the
sector
2
2PO
t
MOK . But the sector
MOK is divided into the rectilinear figure MOK and the curved figure MRK; the triangle
MOK becomes
1
2
PO AB , for the right line MK may be produced and will extend to P,
rd
Ed.

because and PA AK PB BM = = , the whole triangle certainly
1 1
2 2
OMP OP BM OP PB = = , and the triangle
1 1
2 2
OKP OP AK OP AP = = , from
which with triangle OKP subtracted from triangle OMP, there remains the triangle
( )
1 1
2 2
OMK OP PB AP OP AB = = . From which the integral sought of this third term
is
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 1
2
PO PO PO PO
t t t t
OP AB MRK AB MRK + = + , which taken from the integral
of the positive terms
2 2
2
s t
t
AB
+
becomes
2 2 2
2 2
2 s t PO PO
t t
AB MRK
+
, since there shall
be therefore
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
s t PO CS
t PS AS CS
+
+
= and
2 2 2 2
PO PS
t PS AS CS +
= by note 543, because
2 AB AS = , the integral sought is
2
2 2 2
2 2 AS CS PS MRK
PS AS CS

+
.
But if the curve ACB shall be a circle, truly the spheroid becomes a sphere, making
CS AS = and the segment MRK becomes
3
2
2
3
AS
PS
and thus that formula is changed into this
3
2 3 3
2 2 4
3
3 3
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2
3
PS AS
PS
AS AS AS AS
AS
PS AS AS PS PS

+
= = , which expresses the force of the sphere; and thus
with the expression of the force of the spheroid and the force of the sphere divided by the
common multiple 2; the force of the spheroid to the force of the sphere shall be as
2
2 2 2
AS CS PS MRK
PS AS CS

+
to
3
2
3
AS
PS
. Q.e.d.

It is also possible to determine the force of the sphere, by this calculation, as first there
shall be 2 the abscissa PA a, AB b, AE x, PF v, = = = = and there will be
2 2 2
2 PE a ax x = + + , and
2 2
2 EF bx x = , from the equation of the circle, and thus
2 2 2
or 2 2 PF v a ax bx = + + , from which there is found
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2
and
v a vdv vdv
a b a b a b
x dx
+ + +
= = = , and
( )
2 2
2
2
and
a ab v dx dv
PF a b a b
PE
+ +
+ +
= = . And thus, with
the derivative of the area expressed, the force of the sphere shall be by Cor. I Prop. XC,
as
PEdx
PF
dx , this differential [or fluxion] will be as
( )
2 2
2
2
2
a ab v
a b
dx dv
+ +
+
, of which the
integral [or fluent] is
( )
2 3
1
3
2
2
2
a v abv v
a b
x Q
+ +
+
+ , where Q is a constant, which must vanish on
putting 0 x = and x a = , and thus
( ) ( )
3 2 3 3 2
1 4
3 3
2 2
2 2
2 2
0 and
a a b a a a b
a b a b
Q , Q
+ + +
+ +
+ = = ; but the force
of the whole sphere may be obtained if there becomes
or 2 and or 2 x AB b v PB a b = = + , and thus there is
( )
3 2 3 2 3 2 2 3
8 4 1
3 3 3
2
2 4 2 4
2
2
a a b a a b a a b ab b
a b
b
+
+
+ which reduces to
( )
2
2
3
2
2
2
b
a b
b
+
, or on putting AS
for b and PS for a b + , the total force of the sphere is
3
2
2
3
AS
PS
. Q.e.i.

rd
Ed.


Corol. 3. But if the corpuscle may be placed within the spheroid on the axis, the
attraction will be as its distance from the centre. This may be easily proven by this
argument, whether the particle shall be on the axis, or
on some other given diameter. Let AGOF be the
attracting spheroid, S its centre, and P the attracted
body. Through that body P there are drawn both a
semi-diameter SPA, as well as any two right lines DE
and FG, hence crossing the spheroid at D and E, F
and G; PCM and HLN shall be the surfaces of two
interior spheroids, similar and concentric with the
exterior, the first of which may pass through the body
P, and may cut the right lines DE and FG in B and C,
the latter may cut the same right lines in H and I and in K and L. But all the spheroids
have a common axis, and hence the parts of the right lines thus intersected are mutually
equal to each other : DP and BE, FP and CG, DH and IE, FK and LG ; therefore as the
right lines DE, PB and HI may be bisected at the same point, as well as the right lines
FG, PC and K L. Now consider DPF and EPG to designate opposing cones, described
with infinitely small vertical angles DPF and EPG, and the lines DH and EI to be
infinitely small also; and the small parts cut of the spheroidal surfaces DHKF and GLIE,
on account of the equality of the lines DH and EI, will be in turn as the squares of their
distances from the corpuscle P, and therefore attract that corpuscle equally. And by the
same reason, if the spaces DPF and EGCB may be divided into small parts by the
surfaces of innumerable similar concentric spheroids having a common axis, all these
each attract the body P equally on both sides in the opposite directions. Therefore the
forces of the cone DPF and of the segment of the cone EGCB are equal, and by opposing
each other cancel out. And the ratio of all the forces of the material beyond the inner
spheroid PCBM. Therefore the body P is attracted only by the inner spheroid PCBM, and
therefore (by Corol.3. Prop. LXXII.) the attraction of this is as the force, by which the
body A is attracted by the whole spheroid AGOD, as the distance PS to the distance AS.
Q.E.D.

PROPOSITION XCII. PROBLEM XLVI.
For a given attracted body, to find the ratio of the decrease of the attraction of the
centripetal forces at the individual points of this.

From some given body either a sphere, a cylinder, or some other regular body is
required to be formed, of which the law of attraction can be found, for any decrease of
the ratio you please (by Prop. LXX, LXXXI, & XCI.). Then from the experiment
performed the force of attraction at different distances can be found, and the law of
attraction thence revealed for the whole body will give the ratio of the decrease of the
forces of the individual parts, as was required to be found.

[Such experiments were eventually performed by Henry Cavendish a century later.]

rd
Ed.


PROPOSITI XCIII. THEOREM XLVII.
If a solid may consist of a single plane surface [part], but with the remaining parts from
an infinitude of planes, with equal particles attracting equally, the forces of which in the
depths of the solid decrease in some ratio of the power greater than the square, and a
corpuscle may be attracted by the force of
the whole solid, by each of the plane parts
put in place : I say that the attractive
force of the solid, receding away from the
plane surface of this, decreases in the
ratio of some power, the root [i.e. base]
of this power is the distance of the
corpuscle from the plane, and the index
by three less than the index of the power
of the distances.

Case 1. Let LGl be the plane in which the
solid is terminated. But the solid may be
put in place from plane parts of this towards I, and resolved into innumerable planes
mHM, nIN, oKO, &c. parallel to GL itself. And in the first place the attracted body may
be put in place at C outside the solid. But CGHI may be drawn from these innumerable
perpendicular planes, and the attractive forces of the points of the solid may decrease in
a ratio of the powers of the distances, the index of which shall be the number n not less
than 3. Hence (by Corol. 3. Prop. XC.) the force, by which some plane mHM attracts the
point C, is inversely as
3 n
CH

. In the plane mHM, the length HM may itself be taken
reciprocally proportional of
2 n
CH

, and that force will be as HM. Similarly in the
individual planes lGL, nIN, oKO, &c. the lengths may be taken GL, IN, KO, &c.
reciprocally proportional to
2 2 2 n n n
CG ,CI ,CK ,

&c.; and the forces of the same planes
will be as the lengths taken, and thus the sum of the forces as the sum of the lengths, that
is, the whole force is as the area GLOK produced towards OK indefinitely. But that area
(by the known methods of quadratures) is reciprocally as
3 n
CG

, and therefore the force
of the whole solid is inversely as
3 n
CG

. Q. E. D.

[Note from L & J : Let CH x, = then MH will be as
2
1
n
x

by hypothesis, and the element
of the area GLMH corresponding to an element of the force- will be as
2 n
dx
x

, and thus
the area itself will be as
( )
3
1
3
n
n x
Q

, for some constant Q, which vanishes when

x CG = . Whereby
( )
3
1
3
n
n CG
Q

= and the area GLMH, becomes as

( ) ( )
3 3
1 1
3 3
n n
n CG n CH

. But since CH becomes infinite, the term
( )
3
1
3
n
n CH

vanishes and
rd
Ed.

the area GLOK becomes infinite as
( )
3
1
3
n
n CG

, or on account of the given 3 n , inversely

as
3 n
CG

.]

Case 2. Now the corpuscle C may be placed in that part of the plane lGL within the solid,
and take the distance CK equal to the distance
CG. And the part of the solid LGloKO,
terminated by the parallel planes lGL, oKO,
the corpuscle C situated in the middle will
not be attracted by any part, with the counter
actions of the opposing points mutually being
removed from the equality. On that account
the corpuscle C is attracted only by the force
of the solid situated beyond the plane OK.
But this force (by the first case ) is inversely
as
3 n
CK

, that is (on account of the equality
of CG and CK) inversely as
3 n
CG

. Q. E. D.

Corol. I. Hence if the solid LGIN may be bounded by the two infinite parallel planes LG
and IN on each side ; the attractive force of is known, by taking away from the attractive
force of the whole infinite solid LGKO, the attractive force of the part beyond NIKO,
produced from KO indefinitely.

Corol. 2. If the ulterior part of this infinite solid, when the attraction of this taken with the
attraction of the nearer part is hardly of any concern, it may be rejected : the attraction of
that closer part may decrease in increasing the distance approximately in the ratio of the
power
3 n
CG

.

Corol. 3. And hence if some finite body, with a single plane part, may attract a corpuscle
from the middle region of this plane, and the distances between the corpuscle collated
with the dimensions of the attracting body shall be extremely small, it may be agreed
moreover that the body be attracting with homogeneous particles, the attractive forces of
which decrease in some ratio of the power greater than the square of the distances; the
attractive force of the whole body will decrease approximately in the ratio of the powers,
the base of which shall be that very small distance, and the index by three less than the
index of the former power. Concerning a body constructed from particles, the attractive
forces of which may decrease in the triplicate ratio of the distances, the assertion is not
valid; because hence, in that case, the attraction of these further parts of the infinite body
in the second corollary, is always infinitely greater than the attraction of the closer parts.

rd
Ed.


Scholium.
If some body may be attracted perpendicularly towards a given plane, and the motion
of the body may be sought from some given law : the problem may be solved by seeking
(by Prop. XXXIX) the right motion of the body descending to this plane, and (by Corol. 2
of the laws) compounding with that uniform motion, following lines made parallel to the
same plane. And conversely, if the law of attraction of the body towards the plane along
lines made perpendicular may be sought, so that the attracted body may be moving along
some given curve from that condition, the problem may be solved by working according
to the example of the third problem.
Moreover the operations are accustomed to be drawn together by resolving the applied
ordinates in converging series. J ust as if to the base A [i.e. the x coordinate] the applied
ordinate may be given a length B at some given angle, which shall be as some power of
the base
m
n
A [i.e. or
m n
n m
B A A B = = ]; and the force by which the body shall be moving
along some curved line, following the position of the applied ordinate, either attracted to
or repelled from the plane base, so that it will always touch the upper end of the applied
ordinate [i.e. the y coordinate]: I may suppose the base to be increased from the minimum
O, and the applied ordinate ( )
m
n
A O + to be resolved into an infinite series
2
2
m m n m n
n n n m mm mn
n nn
A OA OOA

+ + &c. and the term of this, in which O is of two

dimensions, I suppose to be proportional to the force, that is, the term
2
2
m n
n mm mn
nn
OOA

.
Therefore the force sought is as
2 m n
n mm mn
nn
A

, or what is moreover, as
2 m n
m mm mn
nn
B

. So
that if the applied ordinate may touch a parabola, with 2 and 1 m , n = = arising: the force
becomes as given 2B
0
, and thus may be given [as constant]. Therefore with a given force
a body will be moving in a parabola, just as Galilio showed. But if the applied ordinate
may touch a hyperbola, with 0 1and 1 m , n = = arising ; the force becomes as
3
2A
or
3
2B : and thus the force, which shall be as the cube of the applied ordinate, will cause the
body to move in a hyperbola. But with propositions of this kind dismissed, I go on to
certain other kinds of motion, which I shall only touch on.

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.
SECTION XIV.

Concerning the motion of the smallest bodies, which may be set in motion by attracting
centripetal forces towards the individual parts of some great body.

PROPOSITION XCIV. THEOREM XLVIII.
If two similar media may be distinguished in turn, with each space bounded by
parallel planes, and a body in passing through this space is attracted or repelled
perpendicularly towards either medium, and not set in motion or impeded by any other
motion; moreover the attraction shall be the same at equal distances from each plane and
taken in the same direction of each: I say that the sine of the incidence in each plane will
be in a given ratio to the sine of the emergence from the other plane.

Case I. Take two parallel planes Aa, Bb. A body is
incident on the first plane Aa along the line GH, and
in its whole passage through the space within the
medium it may be attracted or repelled towards the
medium of incidence, and from that action will
describe the curved line HI, and may emerge along
the line IK. At the plane of emergence Bb there may
be erected the perpendicular IM, crossing both the
line of incidence GH produced in M, as well as the
plane of incidence Aa in R; and the line of emergence
KI produced crosses HM in L. A circle may be described with centre L and radius LI,
cutting HM at both P and Q, as well as MI produced in N; and initially if a uniform
attraction or impulse may be put in place, the curve will be the parabola HI (from
Galileo's demonstration) [i.e. a constant vertical force acts along a diameter of the
parabola RI, while no force acts along the horizontal direction between the plate surfaces.
In the original formulation of the parabola by Apollonius see below, the latus rectum l,
not drawn on this diagram, multiplied by the ordinate x, or distance along some diameter
of the parabola from a point on the curve to the mid-point of a diameter 2y, are related in
skew coordinates by
2
l.x y = , similar to our
2
4 y ax = .], a property of which is this : that
the rectangle under the given latus rectum and the [ordinate]line 1M shall be equal to
HM
2
; but also the line HM will be bisected in L. From which if a perpendicular LO may
be sent to MI, MO and OR will be equal; and with the equal lines ON and OI added, the
totals MN and IR become equal. Hence since IR may be given, MN is given also; and the
rectangle NM.MI to the rectangle under the latus rectum by IM is in a given ratio to HM
2
.
But the rectangle NM.MI is equal to the rectangle PM.MQ, that is, to the difference of the
squares ML
2
and PL
2
or LI
2
; and HM
2
has the given ratio
2
4
ML
: therefore the given
ratio
2 2 2
to ML LI ML , and by converting the ratio LI
2
to ML
2
, and with the square root
taken, the ratio LI to ML is given. But in any triangle LMI, the sines of the angles are
proportional to the opposite sides.
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.
[i.e.
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
4
4 4
PM.MQ
NM.MI ML LI LI
HM HM ML / ML
= = = is in a given ratio, and thus
LI
ML
is given.]
Therefore the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence LMR to the sine of the angle of
emergence LIR is given. Q. E. D.

[Leseur & J anquire, note 551 (g) : With the diameter HT drawn through the point H, and
with the right line HV the applied ordinate to
the other diameter IR, and with IT the
ordinate from the point I to the diameter HT,
on account of the parallels MI, HT (by
Theorem I Apol. de Parabola), and the
parallels MH, IT (by Lem. 4, Apol. de Conic.),
and MI HT IT MH = = (by 34. Book I, Eu.
Elem.) ; but (by Theorem I. de Parabola), the
square of the ordinate TI is equal to the
rectangle under the given latus rectum of the
diameter HT and with the abscissa HT,
therefore the rectangle under the given latus
rectum and the line MI is equal to the square
HM. And since HM is a tangent to the
parabola at H and thus (by Cor. 1, Lem. 5, de
Conic.) IM VI = and HV is parallel to LI,
there will also be HL LM = .
Q.e.d.
Here the latus rectum is a fixed length l not drawn on the diagram, for which
2 2
etc l.TH TI ;l.LH XE ; . , where TH, TI etc. are oblique ordinates, in the original
formulation of Apollonius, and which also has a place when the chord becomes a tangent
to the parabola.]

Case 2. Now the body may pass
successively through several spaces bounded
by the planes AabB, BbcC, &c. and may be
disturbed by a force which shall be uniform
in every one apart, but which differ in
different spaces; and now by the
demonstration, the sine of incidence in the
first plane Aa will be in a given ratio to the
sine of emergence from the second plane Bb
; and this sine, which is the sine of incidence in the second plane Bb, will be in a given
ratio to the line of emergence from the third plane Cc; and this sine will be in a given
ratio to the sine of emergence from the fourth planeDd, and thus indefinitely : and from
the equation, the sine of incidence in the first plane to the sine of emergence from the
final plane will be in a given ratio. Now the intervals between the planes may be
minimised and the number may be increased indefinitely, so that from that attraction or
from the action of the impulse, the following law assigned in some manner, will be
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.
continually returned; and the ratio of the sine of incidence in the first plane to the line of
emergence in the final plane, always proving to be given, also even now will be given.
Q. E. D.

PROPOSITION XCV. THEOREM XLIX.
With the same in place; I say that the velocity of the body before incidence is to the
velocity of the body after emergence, as the emergent sine to the incident sine.

AH and Id may be taken equal, and the perpendiculars AG and dK may be erected
meeting the lines of incidence and emergence GH and IK in G and K. On GH there may
be taken TH equal to IK, and Tv may be sent
normally to the plane Aa. And (by Corol. 2 of
the laws) the motion of the body may be
distinguished into two parts, the one
perpendicular to the planes Aa, Bb, Cc, &c.,
the other parallel to the same. The force of
attraction or of impulses, by acting along the
perpendicular lines, changes no motion along
the parallels, and therefore the body may
complete equal intervals in equal times
following the parallels, which are between the
line AG and the point H, and between the
point I and the line dK; that is, the lines GH and IK are described in equal times. Hence
the velocity before incidence is to the velocity after incidence as GH to IK or TR, that is,
as AR or Id to vH, that is (with respect to the radii TH or IK) as the sine of emergence to
the sine of incidence.

PROPOSITIO XCVI. THEOREMA L.
With the same in place, and because the motion before incidence shall be greater than
after : I say that the body, on being inclined to the line of incidence, finally will be
reflected, and the angle of reflection becomes equal to the angle of incidence.

For consider the body to describe parabolic arcs between the parallel planes Aa, Bb,
Cc. &c. as above, and those shall be the arcs HP, PQ, QR, &c. And that line of incidence
GH shall be oblique to the first plane Aa, so that the sine of incidence shall be to the
radius of the circle, of which it is the sine, in that same ratio as the sine of incidence to
the sine of emergence from the plane Dd, in the space DdeE : and on account of the sine
of emergence now made equal to the radius, the angle of emergence will be a right angle
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.
and thus the line of emergence will coincide with the plane Dd. The body may arrive at
this plane at the point R; and because the line of emergence coincides with the same
plane, it is evident that the body cannot progress further towards the plane Ee. But nor
can it go on along the line of emergence Rd, as it is always attracted or repelled towards
the medium of incidence. And thus it will be returned between the planes Cc, Dd, by
describing the arc of the parabola QR
2
of which the principal vertex is at R (just as
Galileo has shown); and it will cut the plane Cc in the same angle at q, as before at Q;
then by progressing in the parabolic arcs qp, ph, &c. by similar and equal arcs to the
previous arcs QP, PH, it will cut the remaining planes in the same angles at p, h, &c. as
before at P, H, &c. and finally it will emerge with the same obliquity at h, by which it
began at H. Consider now the intervals between the planes Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, &c. to be
diminished indefinitely and the be increased in number indefinitely, so by that action of
attraction or of impulse following some designated law it may be returned continually ;
and the angle of emergence always arising equal to the angle of incidence, will remain
even then equal to the same. Q. E. D.

Scholium.
The reflection and refraction of light are not much dissimilar to these attractions, made
following a given ratio of the secants, as Snell found, and by the ratio of the sines as
consequence, as set out by Descartes. J ust as light can be propagated from the sun both
successively from the start and through space in a time of seven or eight minutes to arrive
at the earth, now agreed upon through the phenomena of the moons of J upiter, confirmed
from the observations of different astronomers. But the rays present in air (as Grimaldi
found some time ago, with the light admitted
through a hole into a darkened chamber, and that
itself I have tried too) in passing close to either the
edges of opaque or transparent bodies
(such as are circles and rectangular edges of gold,
silver, and brass coins, or of knives, or the
fractured edges of stones or glass) may be curved
around bodies, as if attracted to the same ; and
with these rays, which in passing approach closer
are curved more, as if attracted more, as that itself
I have carefully observed also. And those which pass at
greater distances are curved less; and at greater distances
they are curved a little towards the opposite direction
and form bands of three colours. In the figure s may
designate the shape edge of a knife, or of some kind of
wedge AsB; and gowog, fnunf, emtme, dlsld are the rays,
with the arcs curved towards the knife edge; and that
more or less with the distance of these from the knife
edge. But since there is a lack of curvature of the rays in
air without the knife edge, also the rays which are
incident on the knife edge must not be curved in the air before they reach the knife. And
the account is the same of rays incident on glass. Therefore refraction happens, not at the
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.
points of incidence, but by a little continuation of the rays, made partially in the air before
they touch the glass, partially (lest I am mistaken) in the glass, after they have entered
that: as with the incident rays ckzc, biyb,ahxa at r, q, p, and with the curvature traced out
between k and z, i and y, h and x. Therefore on account of the analogy which there is
between the propagation of rays of light and the progress of bodies, it is seen that the
follow propositions be adjoined for optical uses; meanwhile concerning the nature of
rays, (whether they may be bodies or not) nothing generally is disputed, but only that the
trajectories of bodies are very alike to determining the trajectories of rays.

PROPOSITION XCVII. PROBLEM XLVII.
Because that sine of incidence placed in some surface shall be in a given ratio to the
sine of emergence; and because of the in-curving nature of the path of bodies made in the
shortest space near that surface, that may be possible to consider as a point: to determine
the surface, which all the corpuscles successively arising from a given place may be able
to converge to, at another given place.

Let A be the place from which the corpuscles diverge ; B the place at which they must
converge [thus, a theory for a lens is presented here]; CDE the curved line which may
describe the surface sought by rotating about the axis AB ; D and E any two points of this
curve ; EF and EG perpendiculars sent to the paths AD and DB of the bodies . The point
D may approach to the point E; and
the final ratio of the line DF, by
which AD may be increased, to the
line DG, by which DB is being
diminished, will be the same as the
ratio which the sine of incidence
has to the sine of emergence.
[For from the added normal line in the diagram, we have
and :
DG sini DF DF
DE DE sinr DG
sini sinr = = = as required.]
Therefore the ratio may be given of the increment of the line AD to the decrement of the
line DB ; and therefore, if some point C may be taken on the axis AB, through which the
curve CDE must pass, and the increment CM of AC itself may be taken, to the decrement
of BC itself, CN in that given ratio, and with the centres A and B, and with the intervals
AM and BN two circles may be described cutting each other mutually at D; that point D
touches the curve sought CDE, and the same curve required to be touching everywhere
will be determined. Q. E. I.

Corol. 1. But on requiring now that the point A or B may go off to infinity, or to be
transported to other parts of the point C, all these figures will be had, that Descartes set
out in his optics and geometry relating to refractions. The invention of which Descartes
has concealed, may be seen to be explained in this proposition.

[Note (b) L & J relating to this corollary : Which lines indeed Descartes calls A5, A6, or
A7, A8 in his Geometry. page 50 et seq., and these are called here by Newton CM, CN,
and with the others the construction is as by that first author. (The interested reader may
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.
wish to examine the Dover edition in translation of : The Geometry of Rene Descartes,
circa p.110) From which it is evident, if the point C, between the points A and B, and the
point N between C and M, the first Cartesian shall be situated to be described by the
Newtonian construction; if for the remaining points A, C, B, M, the point N may be
located between C and A, the second Cartesian oval will be obtained; truly if the point B
may be moved to other regions of the point C beyond A, and the point C shall be between
A and N, and M, the third Cartesian oval will be obtained, and with the same positions, if
the point N shall be between C and A, the fourth Cartesian oval will be set out. Again, if
the point A or B may go off to infinity so that the incident or refracted ray are parallel,
then through the point M or N a perpendicular will be erected, that will cut a circle to be
described with centre B or A, and with radius BN or AM , at some point D, of the curve
CDE, which shall be either an ellipse of hyperbola, as may be apparent from an easy
calculation, and these are the figures for which Descartes has described the use in optics
in Chapter 8. (We may note here that the usual modern approach to establishing such
curves, ideal of course for designing lenses free from spherical aberration, is to use
Fermat's Principle of least time, where all the path lengths of the rays are equal, so that
above we would have
A B
n AD n DB = ; from which of course we have at
once
A B
n DF n DG = ); the different ovals which arise both for reflection and
refraction are conic sections.)]

Corol. 2. If a body incident on some surface CD, along a right line AD, acted on by some
law, may emerge along some other right line DK, and the curved lines CP and CQ may
be understood to be drawn from the point C always perpendicular to AD and DK
themselves: the increments of the lines PD and QD, and thus these lines themselves
arising from these increments PD and QD, will be as the sine of incidence and of
emergence inversely: and conversely.
[In this case the path length increases
are again equal, or, the increase in one
is reduced by the decrease in the other
to equality. The added lines and letters
R and S show how this can be proven,
using the cyclic points RSDP and
similar triangles.
The Schaum Outline book Optics by
Eugene Hecht is particularly
illuminating on Descartes Ovoids at an
elementary level. One wonders why Newton did not make use of Fermat's Principle,
which would apply to small bodies as well as waves.]

rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.

PROPOSITION XCVIII. PROBLEM XLVIII.
With the same in place; and some attractive surface CD may be described around the
axis AB, regular or irregular, through which bodies leaving from the given place A are
able to pass through: to find another attractive surface EF, by which that body may be
made to converge to the given place B.
With AB joined it may cut the first surface in C and the second in E, at some assumed
point.
[The idea being that the
refracting surface CD is
present already, and a
new element is to be
added to the surface
EF, to focus the
particles travelling
along AP at B : thus,
the position of F is
required to be found.]
And on putting the sine of incidence on the first surface to the sine of emergence from the
same, and with the sine of emergence from the second surface to the sine of incidence in
the same, as some given quantity M to another given N: then produce AB to G, so that
there shall be BG to CE as M N to N; as well as produce AD to H, so that AH shall be
equal to AG, as well also DF to K, so that there shall be DK to DH as N to M. J oin KB,
and with centre D and with radius DH describe the circle meeting KB produced in L, and
draw BF itself parallel to D L : and the point F may touch the line EF [the emergent ray,
but not a tangent at F], which rotated about the axis AB will describe the surface sought.
Q. E. F.

[So far, we have been introduced to the ratio
M
N
equal to the ratio of the sines of
incidence and emergence, so that we may write
1 1
i e
M N
sin sin = , then corresponding to
the Snell's law, we have
1 1
and
i e
i e
n n
M v N v = = , where n
i
, n
e
and v
i
, v
e
are the
refractive indices and velocities in the mediums i and e. The time to traverse the distance
CE with the lower speed N is proportional to
CE
N
, which otherwise without the lens
would be traversed in a time proportional to
CE
M
; the extra time is given by
( )
CE CE CE
N M NM
M N = , and is equivalent to an extra distance BG and an extra time
BG
M
in the first medium, so that
( )
; or
CE M N
BG CE BG
MN M N M N
= = . Thus, AH and AG
correspond to the equal lengths that would be traversed in the actual equal times taken to
traverse the system by any path, if no change in the medium occurs. Optically, it is the
equivalent vacuum path distance.
In the same way, a similar ratio results for the ray DF: or
N DK DK DH
DH M N M
= = , or, the
time to traverse DK at the reduced speed N is the same as the time to traverse the free
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.
space with the speed M. In turn, this means that the ratio of the sides of the respective
triangle are as the ratio of the speeds, and so of angles of incidence and emergence.
Finally, from the construction, DL is the equivalent free space distance from D to H.
Hence, if we move the line DL up parallel to itself, a path DF in the slower medium and a
path FB in the faster medium replaces the original path DL; when the ratio FK to FR has
the required value, the appropriate point F has been reached. We now give Newton's
explanation, in terms of ratios only; note that Newton often uses added or separated ratios
to achieve his ends: that is , if then
a c a a c
b d b b d
,

= = ; thus, if for some k other than 1,

and then
a c a ka a
b d b kb b
c ka d kb,

= = = = , or the original result follows simply by cross-
multiplying.]

For consider the lines CP and CQ with respect to AD and DF themselves, and the lines
ER, ES with FB, FD themselves to be everywhere perpendicular, and thus QS, is always
equal to CE itself;
[i.e. the times to traverse the sections CE and the composite section QS are always equal;
for along ACEB, the angles of incidence and refraction are all 90
0
, and the argument in
the above note can be used to determine the length BG, from which the 'time of flight' can
be found. The lengths in the following ratios have physical significance : thus, DL is the
equivalent length in the first medium to travel from D to L, etc. These hypothetical
lengths are shown dotted. Thus
M DL FB
N FQ QD
= arises from the same time to traverse the

numerator distance with speed M as does the denominator with speed N, etc.]
and there will be (by Corol. 2. Prop. XCVII.), PD to QD as M to N, and thus as DL to
DK or FB to FK;

[i.e. = = =
PD M DL FB
QD N DK FK
; the last step by similar triangles, ]

and on separating, as DL FB or PH PD FB to FD or FQ QD ;

[i.e. = = or = ;
DL FB DL FB PH PD FB M DL FB PH PD FB
DK FK FD FD N FQ QD FQ QD

= ]

and on adding, as PH FB to FQ, that is (on account of PH and CG, QS and CE being
equal) to CE BG FR CE FS + .
[i.e.
CE BG FR M PH FB
N FQ CE FS
+
= = ]
Truly (on account of the proportionals BG to CE and M N to N) also there is
CE BG + to CE as M to N; and thus separated FR to FS as M to N; and therefore (by
Corol. 2. Prop. XCVII.) the surface EF collects the body, incident on that second line
itself DF , to go along in the line FR to the place B.
Q. E. D.

[Essentially, all the paths have the same time of traversal, or, they obey Fermat's
Principle of least time; clearly the straightthrough path is such a minimum, on which
others can be gauged.]
rd
Ed.

Book I Section XIV.

Scholium.
It is permissible to go on by the same method to three or more surfaces. But spherical
figures are the most convenient for use in optics. If spyglasses with objective and
eyepiece may be constructed from two spherical glass figures, and water enclosed
between them; it can come about that the refraction errors, which are present in the
extreme surfaces of the glasses, may be corrected well enough by the refraction of the
water. But such glass objectives are to be preferred than ellipses or hyperbolas, not only
because they are they are easier and more accurate to be made, but also the pencils of
rays beyond the axis of the glass in place may refract more accurately. But this is
impeded from perfection by the diverse refractions of the different kinds of rays, by
which the optics either by spherical or other figures is less than perfect. Unless the errors
hence arising shall be corrected, all the labour involved in correcting the other errors will
be to no avail.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.

CONCERNING THE MOTION OF
BODIES

BOOK TWO.

SECTION I.

Concerning the motion of bodies being resisted in the ratio of the velocities.


The motion [i.e. velocity] of a body removed by resistance, to which it is resisted in the
ratio of the velocity, is as the distance completed in moving.

For since the loss of motion in equal small intervals of time shall be as the velocity,
that is, as the small parts of the journey completed: the motion lost in the whole time shall
be as the whole journey. Q. E. D.

[Thus, in each increment of time t for a given velocity v, we may write
; hence
v x
t t
kv k v k x

= = = thus on adding the losses over the whole journey,
the whole loss in velocity is proportional to the whole distance gone.]

Corol. Whereby if a body, freed from all weight, may be moving in free spaces by the
action of its innate force only; and while the whole motion may be given at the start, as
well as the remaining motion also, after the completion of some distances: the whole of
the distance is given that the body is able to describe in an infinite time. For that distance
will be to the distance now described, as the whole motion from the start, to that part of
the motion lost.

[Expressing this idea in modern terms, if the rate of decrease of the velocity in the time dt
is proportional to the velocity, then we have for a body of unit mass,
( )
( ) dv t
dx
dt dt
a t kv k = = = , giving ( ) ( )
( )
0
0
; 1
v
kt kt
k
v t v e x t e

= = . Thus, the whole
journey is given by ( )
0
v
k
x = , while
( )
( )
1
1
kt
x
x t e
= ; again,
( )
0
0
1
kt
v
v e
is the whole motion at

the start to the motion lost, which is in the same ratio, as asserted. Newton makes use of
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
this simple idea in the following propositions. The luxury of the exponential function
however, was not available to Newton; results had to be found without this convenience;
use was made of the area under the rectangular hyperbola to measure the difference in
times, as we shall see. Thus, we may write
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0 0 0 0
; ; ;
o
t
v
kt kt kt
du
v u
a t kv e a e v t v e kx t v v t ln kt k

= = = = = =

]

LEMMA I.
Proportional quantities formed from their differences are continued proportionals.

A shall be toA B as B to B C and as C to C D , &c., and by being converted there
becomes A to B as B to C and C to D, &c. Q. E. D.

[For if ,etc.
C A B
A B B C C D
= = = ; then 1 1 1 ,etc.
C A B
B A C B D C
+ = + = + = ,
giving ,etc.
C B D
B A C B D C
= = = then .....
B C C C D A A B B
B B C C C D D D E

= = = = = .; from which
the result follows.]

If, for a body resisted in the ratio of the velocity, and moving through a uniform
medium by its innate force alone, and moreover equal time intervals may be taken, then
the velocities at the beginnings of the individual time intervals are in a geometric
progression, and the distances described in the individual time intervals are as the
velocities.

Case. I. The time may be divided up into small equal parts ; and if the force of resistance
may act at the beginning of the increments of time by single impulses, which shall be as
the velocity: the decrease of the velocity in the individual increments of time will be as
the same velocities. Therefore the velocities from these differences are proportionals, and
on this account continued proportionals, (by Lem. I. Book. II.).

[For in ,etc.
C A B
A B B C C D
= = = , if etc.
A B C
v , v , v , , are the velocities at the start of
successive constant increments in time, then etc.
A B A B C B
v v kv , v v kv , = = ; and
1 1
1
.....
B C C C D A A B B
B B C C C D D D E
v v v v v v v v v
v v v v v v v v v k r

= = = = = = = , as the ratio of successive velocities is
a constant r or
1
1 k
, by hypothesis . Thus we may write
2 3
, etc.
B A C B A D A
v rv , v rv r v , v r v = = = = in an inductive manner, as we have shown
above, forming a geometric progression. In the limit, these ratios form a continuous
logarithmic or exponential curve.]

Hence, if from a number of equal small time intervals, equal [larger] time intervals may
be put in place, the velocities from the starts of these times will be as the terms in a
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
continued [geometric] progression, which are taken in jumps, with an equal number of
intermediate terms omitted everywhere. But the ratios have been composed from these
terms, by ratios with the same repeated equality of the intermediate terms between
themselves, and therefore on that account these too are ratios composed between
themselves, and the velocities proportional to these terms are in a geometric progression
also; [i.e. the larger steps in time are in arithmetic proportion, and the corresponding steps
in the velocity are still in geometric proportion]. Now these equal small time intervals
may be diminished, and the number of these increased indefinitely, so that from that the
impulse of the resistance may be rendered continuous, and the velocities from the
beginnings of the equal times, always continued proportionals, in this case will be
continued proportionals. Q. E. D.

[Shades of Napier's algorithm for generating logarithms?]

Case 2. And the differences of the velocities, that is, the parts of these removed by the
individual time intervals, are in proportion to the whole : but the distance described in the
individual times, are as the parts of the velocity removed (by Prop. I, Book. II.), and on
that account also are as the total distance. Q.V.D.

[As we have seen, in Eulerian or modern terms, ( ) ( )
( )
0
0
; 1
v
kt kt
k
v t v e x t e

= = ; thus,
when the time is advanced bydt , the (negative) change in the velocity is proportional to
the velocity
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
0
0
;
and the increment of distance
;
k t
k t
dv t kv e dt v t
dx t v e dt dv t v t
=
=

i.e. proportional to the velocity lost or distance gained. These ideas have been expressed
in terms of ratios of succeeding increments by Newton, either singly or in groups with the
same number in each. In addition, we may note that as the resistance is proportional to
the velocity, it also is exponential in nature, and we might denote it by ( )
0
kt
R t R e
= . It
is important to note here that the same exponential form of the decay occurs in the forced
motion when gravity is present and the body is rising, although the multiplying constant
is different.]

Corol. Hence a hyperbola BG may be described with the rectangular asymptotes AC and
CH, and AB, DG shall be perpendiculars to the asymptote AC, and then the velocity of
the body for a resisting medium, with some initial motion [velocity], may be shown by a
given [i.e. constant] line AC, and with some elapse in time the velocity is now given by
the indefinite [i.e. variable] line DC: it is possible to express the time by that area ABGD,
and the distance described by the [velocity] line AD in that time. For if that area may be
increased by the motion of the point D uniformly in the manner of the time, then the right
line DC will decrease in a geometric ratio in the manner of the velocity, and the parts of
the right line described AC will decrease in the same ratio in equal times.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.

[ The hyperbola is a device used in the calculation in conjunction with the logarithmic
scale on the ordinate axis to ascertain the like times involved when the velocity and
distance traversed change from one value to another
via a series of continued proportionals, arising from
the nature of the exponential or logarithmic curve. The
correspondence between the natural logarithm and the
area of a section of the rectangular hyperbola has been
demonstrated above, in the final theorem of Leseur &
J anquier, originating from the work of Gregorius, as
presented by de Sarasa : (see the paper by R.P. Burn in
Historia Mathematica Vol.28, (2001), pp.1-17). Thus,
the difference of the starting and finishing times are
associated with the logarithm of the ratio of the
corresponding velocities (or of the abscissas of the logarithmic curve) at these times, and
this logarithm is in turn equal to the area under the hyperbola; for if the speed of the point
at A is
0
v , and at some later time t along the line CD the speed is ( )
0
kt
v t v e
= ; the
change in distance gone and acceleration or force are given by similar formulas involving
logarithm ratios, then e.g. the area under the corresponding hyperbolic section BADG
( ) 0
0
time
kt
u v e
du
u
u v
.
=
=
=
See letter no. 297, Halley to Wallis, and subsequent notes in The
Correspondence of Isaac Newton, 1676-1687, edited by H.W.Turnbull; Vol. II, p.456-
p.462, CUP 1960; see also :The Correspondence and Papers of Edmond Halley,
E.F.MacPike, Taylor & Francis, 1930. ]

PROPOSITION III. PROBLEM I.
To define the motion of a body, for which, while it may ascend or descend in right lines
through a similar medium, it is resisted in the ratio of the velocity, and that body is acted
on by uniform gravity also.
With the body ascending, gravity may be put in place by some rectangle BACH, and
the resistance of the medium at the beginning of the ascent by the rectangle BADE, taken
on the opposite sides of the line AB. With rectilinear asymptotes AC and CH, a hyperbola
may be described through the point B, cutting the perpendiculars DE and de in G and g;
and by ascending in the time DGgd , the body will describe the distance EGge; and in the
whole time of the ascent DGBA, the whole distance of the ascent EGB ;
[Essentially, the whole motion of the ascent with an initial velocity
0
v , and continued
descent afterwards, is evaluated by making use of this diagram, after divinding the line
under the hyperbola geometrically, the areas corrspond to equal times, and the forces,
velocity changes, and distances gone are related by successively multipling these equal
areas; for example, the force of gravity at the start of the latter downwards motion is
represented by the line AC, which force subsequently diminishes geometrically or
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
exponentially due to the resistance increasing ; the total force at the start of the motion
upwards is shown by the line DA, which increases with the resistance decreasing with the
velocity to the maximum value at A; the actual trajectory is not shown on this diagram
(the problems discussed here by Newton are set out below in the L & J treatment, the
trajectory of a projectile under this law of
resistance is shown below in Note 56, and
thereafter). During the ascent, the velocities are
set out to decrease in a geometrical progression
along the line DA, giving equal areas under the
hyperbola in arithmetic progression, which we
have seen correspond to equal time intervals;
during each equal increment of time, the velocity
lost, in a constant ratio to the previous increment,
and thus as a fraction of the starting value AD, is
transformed into an equal increment in distance gone, so that the section BEG above the
curve represents the whole distance gone upwards and the remaining area ADGB
represents the loss in velocity. Newton's picture is hence a moving one, and we are given
here only part of a graphical account of the solution of the associated differential
equation.
If we consider the hyperbola to be simply xy g = , with origin C, and the positive
ordinate axis CD acting to the right in a diagram (not shown) reflected in the vertical axis
CH, so that we are dealing with a more conventional situation, where g is the acceleration
of gravity for unit mass, then B is the point ( ) 1 g, . Furthermore conventionally, the
acceleration at some point D is given by
1
or
dv dv kdv
dt g kv k g kv
a g kv dt

+ +
= = = = , where
0
0
1
1
kv
g
g
g kv
GD
+
+
= = , and where at once we have the time to reach d,
( )
0
0 0
1
1 1 1
1
and 1
kv
g
kv
g
g kv kv
Dd DA
k g kv k k g
t ln ln t ln
+
+
+ +
= = = + . In additon, the time to travel the
distance AI is given by
1
g
AI
k g kv
t ln
= , and the terminal velocity is given by

g
k
v
= .
Now, the time is specified to be increasing in constant increments t , and we need to find
the velocities at these times; clearly the decrements g t give the successive decreases
from the initial velocity
0
v due to the retardation of gravity
0
v gt , in addition, there is
the retarding resistive force initially,
0
kv . Now,
0
g
g kv
GD
+
= , ( )
1
0
Dd
g kt
d
k k
v g kv e
= + ,
the change in distance in the next small time increment is
( )
0
Dd
g t kt
t
d
k k
x v t g kv e

= = + ; with the signs reversed, we see that the second term
in this formula corresponds to a constant change is distance, while the first term
corresponds to a constant multiple of the speed decay resulting from the resistive force
by t , and thus the areas are as indicated, and as set out below in a laborious manner
below by L & J. The argument of Newton below applies to the other branch of the
problem. One notes of course that this is a graphical method, and the actual curve is not
plotted.]
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.

In the time of the descent ABKI the body
falls the distance BFK, and in the time IKki
the distance fallen is KFfk; and the velocities
of the body (proportional to the resistance of
the medium) in the periods of time of these
will be ABED, ABed, nothing, ABFI, ABfi
respectively; and the maximum velocity, that
the body can acquire on falling will be
BACH.
The rectangle BACH may be resolved
into innumerable [equal] rectangles Ak, Kl,
Lm, Mn, etc. which shall be as equal increments in the velocity made in the same equal
increments of time; and so that zero, Ak, Al, Am, An, etc. shall be the whole speeds
[accomplished by multiplying these constant time increments by the constant acceleration
of gravity], and thus (by hypothesis [on multiplying these speeds by k, ]) as the
resistances of the medium from the beginning of the individual equal time intervals.
Thus, AC becomes to AK or ABHC to ABkK as the force of gravity to the resistance at
the beginning of the second time, and thence the resistances are taken away from the
force of gravity, and ABHC, KkHC, LlHC, MmHC, etc. will remain as the absolute forces
by which the body is acted on at the beginning of the individual time intervals, and thus
(by the second law of motion) as the increments of the velocities, that is, as the rectangles
Ak, Kl, Lm, Mn, &c., and on that account (by Lem. I. Book II.) in a geometric
progression.
Whereby if the right lines Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, etc. produced meet the hyperbola in q,r,s,t, etc.
the areas ABqK, KqrL, LrsM, MstN, etc. will be equal, and thus then always in the same
ratio both with the times as well as the force of gravity. But the area ABqK (by Corol. 3.
Lem. VII. & Lem. VIII. Book1.) is to the area Bkq as Kq to
1
2
kq or AC to
1
2
AK
that is, in proportion to the force of gravity to the resistance in the middle of the first
time increment. And by a similar argument the areas qKLr, rLMs, sMNt, etc. are to the
areas qklr, rlms; smnt, etc. as the forces of gravity to the resistances in the middle of the
second, third, fourth, time increments, etc. Hence since the equal areas BAKq, qKLr,
rLMs, sMNt, &c. shall be in the same ratio to the forces of gravity, the areas Bkq, qktr,
rlms, smnt, etc. shall be to the resistances in the middle of the individual times, that is
(per hypothesis) with the velocities, and thus analogous to the distances described.
The sum of the analogous quantities may be taken, and the areas will be in the same ratio
as the total distances described Bkq, Blr, Bms, Bnt, etc.; and also the areas ABqK, ABrL,
ABsM, ABtN, etc. to the times. Therefore the body, while descending, in some time ABrL,
will describe the distance Blr, and in the time LrtN the distance rlnt.
Q. E. D.
And the demonstration of the motion in the ascent is set out in a similar manner. Q. E. D.

Corol. 1. Therefore the maximum velocity, that the falling body is able to acquire, is to
the given velocity acquired by falling in some time, as the given force of gravity, by
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
which that body is continually urged on, to the force of resistance, from which it may be
impeded up to the end of that time.
[From
( )
1
g kt
k
v e
= , the maximum velocity becomes

g
max
k
v = , and hence
( )
( )
( )
1
1
max
kt
v g
v t kv t
e
= = .]

Corol. 2. But with the time increasing in an arithmetic progression, the sum of that
maximum velocity and of the velocity in ascending, and also of the difference of these in
the descent, is described by a geometric progression.

( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
[For 1 1 1 etc]
kv kv g g g kt kt
k g k k g
v e e .

= + + = +

Corol. 3. But also the difference of the distances, which are described in equal difference
of the time, decrease in the same geometric progression.

Corol. 4. Truly the distance described by the body is the difference of two distances, of
which the one is as the time taken from the beginning of the descent, and the other as the
velocity, which distances also at the beginning of the descent itself are equal to each
other.
[For ( )
( ) ( )
1
kt
g g gt v
e v
k k k k g k
x t t t .

= + = = ]

[Notes by the translator: This is as in the previous corollary with the motion starting with
some value
0
v , except that a constant downwards force is added, in addition to the
resistance decelerating the body to rest at AB, so that the velocity increments in the region
EDAB become narrower geometrically, for constant time increments, and then
afterwards accelerating the body, while the resistive force always opposes the motion in
the downwards motion. A reference line AB is taken on the hyperbola representing the
point where the body is momentarily at rest, the areas between the vertical lines mark out
equal time intervals in the motion, while the starting point is DE on the axis DC; we may
consider the asymptotes CD and CH as representing the axes of the dimensionless
variables x and
1
x
y = . As previously, the ascent time is found by multiplying the area
under the hyperbola by a scaling constant; Thus, the time to rise to the maximum height,
given by the area under the hyperbola BADE, is less than the time to fall, given by the
area kiAB; both times are different from the time of the journey without the constant
force.
Again we may express this proposition in modern terms, if the rate of decrease of the
velocity in the time dt is proportional to the velocity, then we have for a body of unit
mass ascending, say under constant acceleration of gravity g acting downwards, with an
initial velocity upwards
0
v :
( ) dv t
dx
dt dt
g kv g k = = , thus, the first equation gives
( )
( )
0 0
1
; or
dv t
g kv g kv kt
g kv k g kv g kv
dt , ln t e .
+ +
+ + +
= = = In this case, the dimensionless variable
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
0
g kv
g kv
z
+
+
= is used to find the time by integrating under the hyperbola. It follows from
( ) dv t
dx
dt dt
g k = that ( )
0
giving dv t gdt kdx, v v gt kx = = , or
( )
0
v v
g
k k
x t
= .
In the first part of the motion, the speed decreases as the body rises, where the time is
given by
1 1
1

u
dz
k k z
lnu t = =
, and the speed is zero when

( )
1
0
1
k
A
k g
ln v t + = , where the
dimensionless variable z or its upper limit u is less than one. The distance ascended in the

time
A
t is
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0 0
2
1
1
0
g
k
k g
v ln v
v g kv g
A
k k g k
k
x ln v gt BADE BGDA BEG
+
+
= = = = = .
The first term BADE represents the distance gone with no forces acting, while the second
term is the distance removed by 'falling' under gravity in the same time. Similar reasoning
can be applied for the downwards motion.
For the second downward part of the motion, note that we have established above, for
the rising motion, that
( )
( )
( )
0 1
; while subsequently, or
giving
d g kv g kv
dv
k g kv dt kdt
ln t g kv, g kv
ln g kv kt ,
+
+
= = =
=

for the falling motion ; hence
( )
or 1
g kt kt
k
g kv ge v e

= = . The distance gone in
time t is hence ( )
( ) ( )
1
kt
g g gt v
e v
k k k k g k
x t t t .

= + = = Newton's ratio, from
gives
dv
dt
g kv v g t kv t = = then becomes to : or
g
kv
g t k x , or the ratio of the
gravitational force to the resistive force, and the motions lost become equal to the
distances gone.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.

PROPOSITION IV. PROBLEM II.
Because a uniform force of gravity may be put in some similar medium, and it may act
perpendicularly to the horizontal ; to define the motion of a projectile in the same, with
the resistance experienced proportional to the velocity.

The projectile may be sent off from some place D following some right line DP, and
the velocity of the same may be set out by the length DP at the start of the motion. The
perpendicular PC may be sent from the point P to the
horizontal line DC, and DC may be cut at A, [for the
greatest height reached in the trajectory] so that DA shall
be to AC as the resistance of the medium, arising from the
initial vertical motion, to the force of gravity; or (likewise)
as the rectangle under DA and DP shall be to the rectangle
under AC and CP as the whole resistance from the start of
the motion to the force of gravity.
[i.e.
( )
0
kv up
DA
AC g
= or as
0
kv
DA DP
AC CP g
= , since
( )
0 0
PC
DP
kv up v = ; this is a small modification of Cor. I,
Prop. III.]
Some hyperbola GTBS is described with asymptotes DC
and CP, cutting the perpendiculars DG and AB in G and B;
and the parallelogram DGKC may be completed, the side
of which GK may cut AB in Q; The line of length N may
be taken in the ratio to QB in which DC shall be to CP;
and at some point R of the line DC erect the perpendicular
RT, that may meet the hyperbola in T, and the right lines EH, GK, DP in I, t and V , and
on that line take Vr equal to
tGT
N
, or what is the same thing, take Rr equal to
GTIE
N
;
[i.e. since we have an obliquity factor
N DC cos
QB CP sin
= = , where is the initial angle of

projection to the horizontal, and
DC DR
CP RV
= , on account of the similar triangles DRV and
DCP; there will be
N DR
QB RV
= , and thus
DR QB
N
RV

= . But the rectangle
GEIt Gt GE DR QB GTIE tGT , = = = + and thus
DR QB tGT
GTIE tGT
N N N
RV .

= =
Whereby if there is taken
tGT
N
Vr = , there will be
GTIE
N
RV Vr Rr. = = ],
and for the projectile to arrive at the point r in the time DRTG, describing the curved line
DraF, that it may always be a tangent at the point r, moreover arriving at the maximum
height a on the perpendicular AB, and afterwards always approaching towards the
asymptote PC. And the velocity of this projectile at some point r is as the tangent of the
curve rL. Q. E. I. [See the L. & J . notes in the other file for a complete explanation.]
For indeed N is to QB as DC to CP or DR to RV, and thus RV equals
DR QB
N
,
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
[i.e. :
DR QB
N DC DR
QB CP RV N
RV

= = = ; ] then Rr ( that is RV Vr or
DR QB tGT
N

) equals
DR AB RDGT
N

. Now the time may be put in place by the area RDGT, and (by Corol. 2. of
the laws) the motion may be separated into two parts, the one vertical, and the other
horizontal. And since the resistance shall be as the
motion, this also may be separated into two parts with
parts proportional to and opposing the motion: and thus
the length described by the motion horizontally, will be
(by Prop. II. of this) as the line DR, truly with the
height (by Prop. III. of this Book ) as the area
DR AB RDGT , that is, as the line Rr. But the
motion in the very beginning itself , the area RDGT, is
equal to the rectangle DR AQ and thus that line Rr
(or
DR AB DR AQ
N

then will be to DR asAB AQ or
QB to N, that is, as CP to DC ; and thus as the vertical
motion to the longitudinal motion at the beginning.
Therefore since Rr shall always be as the height, and
DR always as the length, and Rr to DR at the start as
the height to the length horizontally: it is necessary that
Rr shall be always to DR as the height to the horizontal
distance, and therefore so that the body may be moving
on the line DraF, as it may always be a tangent at the point r. Q. E. D.

[Translator's note : See letter no. 297, Halley to Wallis, and subsequent notes in The
Correspondence of Isaac Newton, 1676-1687, edited by H.W.Turnbull; Vol. II, p.456-
p.462, CUP 1960. We give now the standard analytical solution. The initial velocity may
be separated into its horizontal and vertical components
0 0
and v cos v sin , where
0
v is
the initial velocity, and is the angle to the horizontal. The motions are described by the
two equations from the second law for the horizontal and vertical motions :
and
y
x
dv
dv
x y
dt dt
kv kv g = = .
The solutions to both these have been found already ; for the horizontal motion
throughout we have the equation for the speed :
0
0
and for the vertical up:
y
g kv
kt kt
x
g kv sin
v v cos e e
+

+
= = ; while for the vertical down we
have
( )
1
g kt
y
k
v e
= . The maximum height is reached when

( )
0 1
1
kv
k g
t ln sin = + , and
the height risen is found from
( ) 0
dy g g kt
dt k k
v sin e

= + , giving
( )( )
1
0
1
g gt kt
k k k
y v sin e

= + ; in which case the maximum height is
( )
0
2
1
0
1
kv g
k g
k
y v sin ln sin = + , and the corresponding horizontal distances are given
rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
by
( )
1
0
1
kt
k
x v cos e

= . Thus the time to reach a certain horizontal distance x is given
by
( )
0
1 1
k v cos kx
t ln
= The time of flight occurs when the downwards distance

( )( )
1
0
1 0
g gt kt
k k k
y v sin e

= + = ; this can only be solved approximately, as likewise
the range.]

Corol. 1. Therefore Rr equals
RDGT DR AB
N N
: and thus if RT may be produced to X so

that RX shall be equal to DR to
DR AB
N
; that is, if the parallelogram ACPY may be

completed and DY joined cutting CP at Z, and RT may be produced then it may meet DT
in X; Xr will be equal to
RDGT
N
and therefore proportional to the time.

[L& J : Note 57. For with
DR AB
N
RX

= , RX will be to
DR as AB given to N given, and thus the positions of
the points X for the right line which passes through
the point D, with DR vanishing everywhere, RX also
vanishes. With the point R coinciding with A, there
becomes RX or
AY AB
DA N
= , and by the properties of the
hyperbola as previously,
or
DC AB
AC GD AQ
= ; and
separating,
DC AB
DA BQ
= , truly by construction,
BQ
CP
DC N
= , and thus by equality,
and hence .
CP AB AY
DA N DA
AY CP = = = Thence if the parallelogram ACPY may be
completed, and DY may be joined cutting CP in Z, DZ will be a right line that the point X
always touches. Therefore since
DR AB
N
RX

= , and
DR AB RDGT DR AB
N N
Xr RX Rr
+
= = ;
RDGT
N
Xr = , and therefore, on account of N given,
Xr is as the area RDGT, and thus as the time in which the body arrives at the place r from
the place D.]

Corol. 2. From which if some innumerable lines CR may be taken, or, which is likewise,
innumerable lines ZX may be taken in a geometric progression ; there will be just as
many Xr in an arithmetic progression. And hence the curve DraF may be easily
delineated by a table of logarithms.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.

Corol. 3. If from the vertex D, with the diameter DG produced downwards, and with the
latus rectum which shall be to 2DP as the whole resistance from the start of the motion,
to the force of gravity, a parabola may be constructed : the velocity with which the body
may depart from the position D along the right line DP, as in a medium with uniform
resistance may describe the curve DraF, that itself will be with some body to depart from
the same place D, along the same right line DP, as in a space with no resistance may
describe a parabola. For the latus rectum of this parabola, with the same initial motion, is
2
DV
Vr
; and Vr is
2
or
tGT DR Tt
N N
. But the right line which, if it be drawn, may touch the

hyperbola GTS at G, is parallel to DK itself, and thus Tt is
CK DR
DC
, & N is
QB DC
CP
. And
therefore Vr is
2
DRq CK CP
DCq QR

, that is (on account of the proportionals DR and DC, DV and

DP)
2
DVq CK CP
DPq QB

and the latus rectum

DVquad.
Vr
produced
2DPq QB
CK CP
, that is (on account of

the proportionals QB and CK, DA and AC),
2DPq DA
AC CP
, and thus to 2DP, asDP DA to

CP AC ; that is, as the resistance to gravity. Q. E. D.

Corol. 4. From which if the body may be projected from
some place D, with a given velocity, along some given right
line DP in place , and the resistance of the medium from the
start of the motion may be given: it is possible to find the
curve DraF, that the same body describes. For from the given
velocity the latus rectum of the parabola is given, as has been
noted. And on taking 2DP to that latus rectum, as the force of
gravity is to the force of resistance, DP may be given. Then
by cutting DC in A, so that shall be to CP AC DP VA in
that same ratio of gravity to resistance, the point A will be
given. And thence the curve DraF may be given.

Corol. 5 . And conversely, if the curve DraF may be given, both the velocity of the body
and the resistance of the medium will be given at the individual points r. For from the
given ratio to CP AC DP VA , then the resistance of the medium from the start of the
motion, as well as the latus rectum of the parabola is given: and thence also the velocity
from the beginning of the motion is given. Then from the length of the tangent rL, and
the velocity proportional to this is given, and the resistance proportional to the velocity at
some place r.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.
Corol. 6. But since the length 2DP shall be to the latus rectum of the parabola as gravity
to the resistance at D; and from the increase in the
velocity the resistance may be augmented in the same
ratio, but the latus rectum if the parabola may be
augmented in that square ratio: it is apparent the length
to be increased in that simple ratio, and thus always to
be proportional to the velocity, nor to be increased or
decreased by a change in the angle CDP, unless also the
velocity may be changed.

Corol. 7. From which a method of determining the
curve DraF approximately from phenomena is
apparent, and thence by deducing the resistance and
velocity by which a body is projected. Two similar and
equal bodies may be projected with the same velocity
from the same place D, following different angles CDP,
CDp and the locations may be known F, f, where they
are incident on the horizontal plane DC. Then, with
some length assumed for DP or Dp, which resistance in
some ratio to gravity may be put in place at D, and that
ratio may be established by some length SM. Then by calculation, from that assumed
length DP, the lengths DF, Df, from the ratio
Ff
DF
are found by calculation: the same
ratio found by experiment may be taken, and the
difference may be put in place by the perpendicular
MN. Do the same over again and a third time, always
by assuming a new ratio SM of the resistance to
gravity, and by putting in place a new difference MN.
But the differences may be drawn positive on one side
of the line SM and negative on the other; and through
the points N, N, N there may be drawn a curve of the
form NNN cutting the right line SMMM in X, and SX
will be the true ratio of the resistance to gravity, as it
was required to find. From that ratio the length DF is
required to be deduced by calculation ; and the length,
which shall be to the assumed length DP, as the
length DF known through experiment to the length
DF found in this manner, will be the true length DP. With which found, both the curved
line DraF will then be had that the body will describe, as well as the velocity and
resistance of the body at individual places.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section I.

Scholium.
Besides, the resistance of bodies to be in the ratio of the velocities, is a hypothesis
more mathematical than natural. In mediums, which are free from all stiffness, the
resistance of the bodies are in the square ratio of the velocities. And indeed by the action
of faster bodies there is communicated to the same quantity of the medium, in a smaller
time, a greater motion on account of the greater velocities ; and thus in equal times, on
account of the greater quantity of the medium disturbed, a greater motion is
communicated in the square ratio; and the resistance (by laws of motion II & III ) is as
the motion communicated. Therefore we may see how a motion arises from this law of
resistance.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.

SECTlON II.
Concerning the motion of bodies resisted in the square ratio of the velocities.

PROPOSITION V. THEOREM III.
If there is resistance to a body in the square ratio of the velocity, and likewise it may
be moving only by the inertial force through the same medium, truly the times in going
from the smaller to the greater bounds may be taken in a geometric progression : I say
that the velocities from the beginning of the individual times are inversely in the same
geometric progression, and that the distances, which are described in the individual
times, are equal.

For because the resistance of the medium is proportional to the square of the velocity,
and the decrease of the velocity is proportional to the resistance ; if the time may be
divided into innumerable equal parts, the
differences of the same velocities will be
proportional to the squares of the velocities from
the beginnings of the individual times. Let these
elements of time AK, KL, LM, &c. be taken on the
right line CD, and the perpendiculars may be
erected AB, kK, Ll, Mm, &c., meeting the
hyperbola BklmG described, (with centre C and
rectilinear asymptotes CD, CH) at B, k, l, m, &c.,
[where these vertical lines are taken as the
velocities at these times] and AB shall be to Kk as
CK to CA, and on separating the ratio,
AB Kk shall be to Kk as AK to CA, & in turnAB Kk shall be to AK as Kk to CA, and
thus as to AB Kk AB CA . From which, since AK andAB CA may be given, AB Kk
will be as AB Kk , and finally, when AB and Kk merge, as
2
AB . And by like arguments
etc Kk Ll , Ll Mm, . will be as
2 2
Kk ,Ll . etc. Therefore the squares of the lines AB, Kk,
Ll, Mm are as the differences of the same and therefore since the squares of the velocities
also were as the differences of these, the progression of both shall be similar.

[Thus, in terms of Newton's hyperbola :

or ; or
and = ; hence ; leading to the incremental change
in the ordinate being proportional to the square of the ordina
CK CK CA AB kK AB kK AB AK
CA kK CA kK CA kK
kK AB kK AB Kk
CA AK AB CA
CA AB CK kK
AB Kk AB Kk

= = = =
=
te when . Kk AB

The ordinates of the curve correspond to the velocities, and the abscissae correspond to
the times : thus, the difference in the velocity between increments is proportional to the
product of the velocities at the start of the increments. Newton has shown that the
difference of neighbouring velocities is proportional to the product of these velocities, as
required, and hence the gradient is proportional to the resistive force or acceleration.
Now, in analytical terms, the general drift of the solution follows if we consider :
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
( )
2
0
2
1 1
0
or giving
dv dv
dt v v
v
kv kdt k t t = = = , for the neighbouring velocities
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
0 0 0 0
2 etc.; then AB v , Kk v t , Ll v t , v t v v kv v t kv = = = = = , as
above; and from ( )
0
1 1
0
v v
k t t = , the velocity varies inversely with the time, on
choosing
0
1
0
v
kt = , with the starting point
0 0
t t , v v = = ; where for equal small changes in
the time,
2
v kv t = .
Again, to pass on to the next integration, we may write :
( )
0
0
2
0
1
or giving and or e ;
giving ; thus, the velocity decays exponentially with distance.]
kx
dv dv dx dv dv dv v
dt dx dt dx dx v v
v
k v
. v kv kv kdx, ln kx v x v
x ln
= = = = = = =
=

With which demonstrated, it is a consequence also that the areas described by these lines
shall be in a similar progression with the distances which are described by these
velocities. Therefore if the initial velocity of the first time AK interval may be represented
by the line AB, and if the initial velocity of the second KL by the line Kk, and with the
distance from the first time described by the area AKkB; all the subsequent velocities may
be represented by the following lines Ll, Mm, &c., and the distances described by the
areas Kl, Lm, &c. And by adding these together, if the whole time may be expressed by
the sum AM of all their parts, the whole length described may be represented by the sum
of the parts AMmB. Now consider the time AM divided thus into the parts AK, KL, LM,
&c. so that CA, CK, CL, CM, etc. shall be in a geometric progression ; and those parts will
be in the same progression, and the velocities AB, Kk, Ll, Mm, &c. shall be [, from the
nature of the hyperbola,] in the same progression inverted, and equal distances described
Ak, Kl, Lm, &c. Q.E.D.

[Thus AK, KL, LM, etc., which are the differences of the lines CA, CK, CM, etc., are in the
same progression. For the differences of any geometric progression are in the same
geometric progression. Thus if there shall be :
, etc ; on taking the previous term from each: , etc
CA CK CL CA AK KL
CK CL CM CK KL LM
. . = = = = , then
the differences in the times are also in a geometric progression ; ]

Corol. 1. Therefore it may be apparent, if the time may be represented by some part of the
asymptote AD, and the velocity at the beginning of the time by the applied ordinate AB;
then the velocity will be represented at the end of the time by the ordinate DG, and the
whole distance described by the adjacent hyperbolic area ABGD; and also the distance,
that some body can describe in the same time AD. with the first velocity AB, in a non-
resisting medium, is given by the rectangle AB AD .
[Thus the mathematics is far simpler at this point than in the first section; the hyperbola is
the velocity vs time curve itself, the area within a sector is the distance gone, and the
gradient is proportional to the acceleration.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
Corol. 2. From which the distance is given in a resisting medium, by taking that likewise
to the distance that it may be able to describe in a non-resisting medium with a uniform
velocity AB, as the hyperbolic area ABGD to the rectangleAB AD .

Corol. 3. Also the resistance of the medium is given, by putting in place that initial
motion to be itself equal to a uniform centripetal force, which by a body falling in the
time AC, may be able to generate the velocity AB, in a non resisting medium. For if BT
may be drawn touching the hyperbola in B, and crossing the asymptote at T; the right line
AT will be equal to AC [from a property of the hyperbola], and the time may be
represented, in which the initial resistance uniformly continued may be able to remove the
whole velocity AB.

Corol. 4. And thence also the proportion of this resistance to the force of gravity is given,
or some other centripetal force given.

Corol 5. And in turn, if the proportion of the resistance may be given to some centripetal
force, then the time AC is given, in which a centripetal force equal to the resistance may
be able to generate some velocity AB : and thencethe point B may be given through
which the hyperbola must be drawn, with the asymptotes CH, CD ; and so that a body by
beginning its motion with that velocity AB, can describe that distanceABGD in some time
AD, in a medium with a similar resistance.

PROPOSITION VI. THEOREM IV.
Equal homogeneous spherical bodies, impeded by resistances in the square ratio of the
velocities, and moving by the inertial force alone, always describe equal distances in
times which are inversely as the velocities at the start of the times, and lose proportional
parts of their whole velocities.
With the rectangular asymptotes CD, CH, some
hyperbola BbEe is described cut by the perpendiculars
AB, ab, DE, de, in B, b, E, e; the initial velocities are
represented by the perpendiculars AB, DE, and times by
the lines Aa, Dd. Therefore as Aa is to Dd thus (by
hypothesis) DE is to AB, and thus (from the nature of the
hyperbola) as CA to CD; and on adding together, thus as
Ca to Cd. Therefore the areas ABba, DEed, that is, the
distances described are equal between themselves, and the
initial velocities AB, DE are proportional both to the final
ones ab, de, and therefore with the parts separated, also to
the parts of these lostAB ab, DE de . Q.E.D.

[
Aa CA CA Aa Ca DE
Dd AB CD CD Dd Cd
+
+
= = = = . Thus,
CA
CD
represents the ratio of the time intervals in which
the velocity ratio equally changes according to
DE
AB
, and also the changes to the velocities
ratio in the incremental times Aa and Dd: Now ( )
( )
( )
0 1
0
e or
v kx
k v x
v x v x ln
= = gives
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
here in an obvious notation,
( ) ( )
1 1
and
A D
a d
v v
Aa Dd
k v k v
x ln x ln = = ; since the velocity ratios
are equal, then so are the distances gone.]

PROPOSITION VII. THEOREM V.
Spherical bodies in which there is resistance in the square ratio of the velocities, in times,
which are directly as the initial motions and inversely as the initial resistances, will lose
proportional parts of the whole motion, and they will describe distances proportional
jointly to these times and to these initial velocities.
For the parts of the motions lost are as the resistances and the times conjointly.
Therefore as these parts shall be proportional to the whole, the resistance and the time
conjointly must be as the motion. Hence the time will be as the motion directly and the
resistance inversely. Whereby with the small differences [i.e. differentials] of the times
taken in that ratio, the bodies will always lose small parts proportional to the whole
motion, and thus they will retain velocities always proportional to their initial velocities.
And on account of the given ratio of the velocities, they always describe distances which
are as the initial velocities and times conjointly. Q. E. D.

[Here we follow the demonstration of Leseur & J anquier, in Note 89:
The whole demonstration of this proposition is set out by analysis in this manner. Let
the mass of some globe be m, the initial velocity of the motion c, at the end of the time t it
shall be v, with the initial resistance of the motion r, and because the resistances of the
body at different places shall be as the square of the velocity, by hypothesis, there will be
2
2
2 2
to as to the resistance at the end of the time , which will be
rv
c
c v r t .But the
resistance
2
2
rv
c
is as the decrement of the motion mdv directly, and as the time dt
inversely, that is
2
2
rv mdv
dt
c
= , and hence
2
2
mc dv
rv
dt = , and with the fluents taken [i.e.
integrals],
2
mc
rv
t Q . = + There is put 0 and
mc
r
t , Q , = = with which value substituted
there becomes
2
mc mcv
rv
t .
= The time may be taken directly as the first motion directly

and as the first resistance r inversely, that is,
mc
r
t , and there will be
2
2
; and thus
mc mc mcv
r rv
mcv mc mcv
, and on dividing by c, mv mc mv ; that is,

the motion lost is as the initial motion; and hence on account of the given mass m, there
will be also, as c c v : that is the velocity lost as the initial velocity; thus also there will
be as or c c c v, v, + that is, the first velocity c is in a given ratio to the remaining
velocity v. Now if the distance described is called s in the time t, there will be ds vdt = ,
and because v is as the given c, there will be ds as cdt, and with the fluents taken on
account of c given, there becomes s as ct. Q.e.d.

Note 90. Because the distance s ct , and
mc
r
t , also there will be
mcc
r
s ; the mass m
of a globe of which the diameter shall be D, and with the density for the globe given as
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
the mass to the volume, that is, as the cube of diameter D
3
; whereby there becomes
3
D cc
r
s . If in addition with the velocity c given, the resistance r is as the diameter D, the
index of the power of which is n, that is
n
r D , and hence with the velocity not given,
the resistance r, as
2 n
D c , will be as
3 2
2
3
or as
n
n
D c
D c
s , D .
From which the Corollaries

following are apparent.]

Corol. 1.Therefore if for bodies having the same velocity there is resistance in the square
ratio of the diameters : homogeneous globes moving with some velocity or other, on
describing distances proportional to their diameters, will lose parts of the motions
proportional to the wholes. For the motion of any globe will be as the velocity and the
mass conjointly, that is, as the velocity and the cube of the diameter, the resistance (by
hypothesis) will be as the square of the diameter and the square of the velocity conjointly,
and the time (by this proposition) is in the first ratio directly, and in the second inversely ;
that is, as the diameter directly and the velocity inversely , and thus the distance, in
proportion to the velocity and the time, is as the diameter.

Corol. 2, If there is resistance for bodies moving with equal velocities in the three on two
ratio of the diameters : homogeneous globes moving with some velocity or other, by
describing distances in the three on two ratio of the diameters, lose parts of the motions
proportional to the wholes.

Carol. 3. And generally, if there is resistance for equally fast bodies in the ratio of some
power of the diameters : the distances in which homogeneous globes, with some velocity
of the motion, will lose parts of the motions proportional to the wholes, will be as the
cubes of the diameters to that applicable power. Let the diameters be D and E; and if the
resistances, when the velocities are put equal, shall be as and
n n
D E : the distances in
which the globes, moving with some velocity or other, will lose parts of the motions
proportional to the wholes, will be as
3 3
and
n n
D E

. And therefore homogeneous
globes by describing proportional distances
3 3
and
n n
D E

themselves, will retain
velocities in the same ratio in turn and from the beginning.

Corol.4. For if the globes may not be homogeneous, the distance described by the denser
globe must be increased in the ratio of the density. For the motion, with equal velocity, is
greater in the ratio of the density, and the time (by this proposition) may be increased in
the ratio of the motion directly, and the distance described in the ratio of the time.

Corol. 5 And if globes may be moving in different mediums, the distance in the medium,
that resists more than the other parts, will be diminished in the ratio of the greater
resistance. For the time (by this proposition) may be diminished in the ratio of the
increased resistance, and the distance in the ratio of the time.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.

LEMMA II.
The moment of a generating quantity [genitam] is equal to the moments arising from the
generating quantities of the individual parts, with the indices of the powers of the same
parts and coefficients continually multiplied out.

[Genitam is Newton's word describing a function of several variables, or more roughly as
befits the times, a formula with several variables present ; the Latin word means : that
brought forth, born, etc.; by moment Newton means the small momentary quantity that
may be associated with a given generating quantity which itself is allowed to increase by
its own moments ; Newton considered time as the free variable against which all other
changes are to be measured. Please note that it is an anachronism to use the word function
in thePrincipia; it was especially the arrival of Euler on the scene that started the change
in people's ways of thinking about such things. Whereas for example, we think of a table
of sines as representing special values of the sine function for discrete angles, at the time
it was commonplace to consider such as a compilation of the ratios opp./hypot. for the
collection of right-angled triangles with the corresponding angles, and nothing more ;
likewise logarithms, etc. Some mathematicians such as Newton clearly thought further
than this, of interpolations, and so forth, but there was the enormous task of setting up a
framework to accommodate such activities by devising suitable notations, and so on. Thus
Newton stumbles forward trying to find an appropriate name for something important,
that we now call a function.
The interested observer may note that Newton's proofs of his propositions are little
more than word descriptions of the analytical calculations he has performed : such proofs
are very hard if not impossible at times to understand without the underlying calculus
based methodology. So if you wonder : how on earth did he come upon this? The answer
must be : he didn't do it this way initially, the proof presented is an afterthought, where he
paints a pretty geometrical or graphical picture at the end of the analytical process. Hence,
to understand Newton, read the enounciation of the proposition, work it out for yourself
using calculus of the Leibniz kind, then read Newton's explanation, and you will,
hopefully, understand everything. These thoughts are those of the translator: you may or
may not agree with them; in any case, each person is entitled to their own opinion.]

I call a quantity a generating quantity [i.e. gentitam] , which arises from several parts
or terms in arithmetic by multiplication, division, and extraction of roots, without addition
or subtraction, or in geometry both by the discovery of contained quantities and sides [in
the sense side of a square or cube, or the square , cube root, etc.], or of mean and extreme
proportions, again without addition or subtraction. Products, quotients, roots, rectangles,
squares, cubes, sides squared, sides cubed, and the like. These quantities I consider here,
as indeterminate and variable, and as if continually increasing or decreasing in a state of
motion or flux, and the momentary increments or decrements of these I understand by the
name of moments : thus so that the increments may be obtained from added or positive
quantities, and the decrements for subtracted or negative quantities. Yet beware that you
have to understand small finite parts. The small finite parts are not the moments, but
quantities arising themselves from the moments. Now the origins of finite magnitudes are
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
required to be understood. For the magnitude of moments will not be seen in this Lemma,
but the first proportion of these arising. It returns to the same thing if in place of moments
there may be taken either the velocities of increments or decrements (which motion also is
allowed to be called the changes and fluxions of quantities) or some finite quantity
proportional to these velocities. But the coefficient is the quantity which arises from some
part generated by applying the genitam to that part.
Therefore the sense of the lemma is, that if the moments of some quantities A, B, C,
&c. shall always be increasing or decreasing by a motion , or from these the proportional
velocities of the changes may be called a, b, c, &c.; the moment or change of the
generating quantity of the rectangle AB were B a bA + , and the moment of the contained
generating quantity ABC were C aBC bA cAB + + : and the moments of the powers of the
generating quantities

3 1 2 1 1
3 3 2 2 2
2 3 4 1 2
A , A , A , A , A , A , A , A , A , & A

, were
2 1 1 1
3 3 2 2
3
2
2 3 2
3 1 2 2
2 2 3 3
3
1
2
2 3 4 , ,
2 ,& respecive.
.aA, aA , aA , aA , aA aA aA , aA ,
A aA

And generally, so that the moment of any power
n
m
A were
n m
m n
m
aA

. Likewise so that the
moment of the generating quantity
2
A B were
2
2aAB bA + ; and the moment of the
generating quantity
3 4 2
A B C
2 4 2 3 3 2 3 4
3 4 2 aA B C bA B C cA B C + + ; and the moment of the
generating quantity
3
2
A
B
or
3 2
A B
becomes
2 2 3 3
3 2 aA B bA B

and thus with the rest.
Truly, the lemma may be demonstrated in this manner.

Case 1. Some rectangle AB always increased by a motion, where half of the moments
1 1
2 2
and a b may be lacking from the sides A and B, which becomes
1 1
2 2
by A a B b , or
1 1 1
2 2 4
AB aB bA ab + ; and so that the initial sides A and B increased by the other
moments added on, becomes
1 1
2 2
by A a B b + + or
1 1 1
2 2 4
AB aB bA ab + + + .The first
rectangle may be subtracted from this rectangle, and there will remain A aB b + .
Therefore the increment aB bA + of the rectangle is generated from the whole increments
of the sides a and b. Q.E.D.

Case 2. AB may always be put equal to G, and the moment of the volume ABC or GC (by
case 1, will be gC cG + , that is (if for G and g there may be written and AB aB bA + )
aBC bAC cAB + + . And the account is the same for a generating quantity containing any
number of sides [variables]. Q.E.D.

Case 3. The sides A, B, C may always themselves be put mutually equal ; and of
2
A , that
is of the rectangle AB, the moment aB bA + will be 2aA, but of
3
A , that is the content of
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
ABC, the moment
2
will be 3 aBC bAC cAB aA + + . And by the same argument the
moment of any power
n
A is
1 n
naA . Q.E.D.

Case 4. From which since
1
A
by A shall be 1, the moment of
1
A
taken with A, together
with
1
A
multiplied by a will be the moment of 1, that is, zero.
Therefore the moment of
1
A
or of
1
A
itself is
2
a
A
. And generally since

1
n
A
by
n
A shall
be 1, the moment of
1
n
A
itself taken by
n
A together with
1
n
A
with
1 n
naA

will be zero.
And therefore the moment of
1
n
A
or of
n
A
itself will be
1 n
na
A
+
. Q.E.D.

Case 5. And since
1
2
A by
1
2
A shall be A, the moment of
1
2
A itself multiplied by
1
2
2A
will be a, and thus by case 3: the moment of
1
2
A will be
1
2
2
a
A
, or
1
2 1
2
aA
. And generally if
m
n
A may be put equal to B,
m
A will be equal to
n
B , and thus
1 m
maA

is equal to
1 n
nbB

,
and
1
maA
equals
1
nbB
or
m
n
nbA
, and thus
m n
n m
n
aA

equals b, that is, equal to the
moment of
m
n
A . Q.E.D.

Case 6. Therefore the moment of any generated quantity
m n
A B is the moment of
m
A
taken with
n
B , together with the moment of
n
B taken with
m
A , that is
1 1 m n n m
maA B nbB A

+ ; and thus the power of the indices m and n shall be either whole
or fractional numbers, and either positive or negative.
And the account is the same starting from several contained powers. Q.E.D.

Corol. I. Hence in continued proportions, if one term is given ;
the moments of the remaining the terms will be as the same terms multiplied by the
number of intervals between these and the given term. Let A, B, C, D, E, F be continued
proportionals ; and if the term C is given, the moments of the remaining terms will be
amongst themselves as 2 2 3 A, B, D, E, F .
[For, since A, B, C, D, E, F are continued proportionals
2
2 1
: :
C
D
D C C B C D
= = = and
similarly it is found that
3 2 3
2 2
3 2
etc
C D D
C
D C
A C D , E , F , .
= = = = Whereby on account of C
given, the moment of this is zero, the moments of the remaining terms will be (by cases 2
& 3),
2
2
3 3 2 2
2 3
2
dD dD
C
C
dC D , dC D ,d, , ,

and on multiplying the individual terms by
D
d
,
the proportions of the terms will remain :
3 2
2
3 2 2 1
3 2
2 that is 2 2 3
D D
C
C
C D , C D ,D, , , A, B,D, E, F.

But the number of terms
between the term A and the given term C is 2, and thus is the interval between E and C; 1
is the interval between B and C, and between C and D; and 3 is the number of intervals
between C and F. Whereby the truth of the Corollaries is verified.]
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.

Corol. 2. And if in four proportionalities the two middle moments may be given, the
moments of the extremes will be as the same extremes. The same is understood
concerning the sides of any given rectangle.

[Let : : or A B C D B C A D = = , and B C , the given rectangle, will be by Case 1.
0 and hence aD dA , aD dA + = = , and thus : : a d A D. = ]

Corol. 3. And if the sum or difference of two squares may be given, the moments of the
sides will be inversely as the sides.

[Let the sum of two squares equal the given square, or
2 2 2
then, by Case 3, 2 2 0 A B C aA bB , + = + = and thus
and hence : : aA bB a b B A. = = In these two corollaries it is necessary that with one of
the variables increasing, the other is decreasing, and thus while the moment of one is
positive, the other moment is negative.]

Scholium.
In a certain letter to our countryman D.J. Collins, dated10
th
December, 1672, since I
may have been establishing a method of tangents that I suspected to be the same as that of
Slusius, that had not yet been made public; I adjoined :
........This is one particular instance or rather corollary of a general method, which can be
brought to bear on any troublesome calculation, not only to drawing tangents to some
curves, either geometrical or mechanical, or respecting right lines or any other curves,
truly also to the resolution of other more obstruse general problems concerning
curvatures, areas, lengths, centres of gravity of curves, etc. nor (as Hudden's method of
maximas and minimas ) is it restricted only to those equations in which irrational
quantities are absent. I have carefully combined this method with that other so that I may
reduce the equations arising to infinite series. The letter up to this point. And these final
words are with regard to that treatise I had written about these things in the year 1671.
Truly the fundamentals of this general method are contained in the preceding lemma.

[Thus Newton puts his stamp on Calculus as being his invention, in the third edition of the
Principia; earlier editions had contained references to Leibniz. Certainly, we must grant
to Newton the wonderful ideas expressed in the above Lemma, which should be read by
any serious student of mathematics : How many have or ever will ? However, we must
also grant to Leibniz the invention of the notation which has stood the test of time, and
which has been a cornerstone of the theory ever since. Both men made major
contributions to the fledgling art, which had its beginnings in the work of others [see for
example, Boyer's The History of the Calculus....Dover.]; in a world devoid of adverse
human passions and frailties, one might hope that they could have shook hands, and said:
We did this together. Such an event never happened; neither conceded honour to the
other; Leibniz died a lonely old man in 1717, perhaps broken by the dispute: only his
valet came to the funeral, while Newton reaped every award available to him, and now
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
lies finally at rest in Westminster Abbey, the tomb jealously guarded by clerics who will
stop you taking a photo, if they can ; one wonders who is treated with the greater respect
regarding this controversy today.
A useful commentary on the dispute can be found by anyone, thanks to the generosity
of J STOR: The manuscripts of Leibniz on his discovery of the differential calculus. J .M.
Child. The Monist, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Oct., 1916).]

PROPOSITION VIII. THEOREM VI.
If a body in a uniform medium, with gravity acting uniformly, may rise or fall in a straight
line, and the whole distance may be separated into equal parts, and in which at the
beginning of the individual parts (with the resistance of the medium added to the force of
gravity, when the body rises, or by subtracting the same when the body falls) the absolute
forces may be found; I say that these absolute forces are in geometric progression.

For the force of gravity may be shown by the given line AC [in the descent of the body
from A at rest]; the resistance by the variable line
AK; the absolute force in the descent of the body
by the difference KC; the velocity of the body by
the line AP, which shall be the mean proportional
between AK and AC
[thus, Newton selects
2
AP AK AC = to obtain
a geometric progression, and AC is fixed, so that
the resistance is proportional to the velocity
squared, and AC is taken as the constant of
proportionality],

and thus in the square root ratio of the resistance; the increment of the resistance made in
a small time interval by the line KL, and the increment of the velocity at the same time by
the short line PQ; and some hyperbola BNS will be described with the centre C and with
the rectangular asymptotes CA, CH, with the perpendiculars AB, KN, LO erected meeting
at B, N, O. Because AK is as AP
2
, the moment of the one KL will be as the moment of the
other 2AP.PQ. that is, as AP to KC; [Thus, 2AP PQ AC KL = , or 2vdv gdR = ]; for the
increment of the velocity PQ (by Law II of motion) is proportional to the force arising
KC. The ratio of KL may be compounded with the ratio of KN, and the rectangle
KL KN [i.e. the increment in the area] becomes as AP KC KN ; that is, on account of
the given rectangleKC KN , [from the nature of the hyperbola], KL KN becomes as
AP. And the vanishing ratio of the area of the hyperbola KNOL to the rectangle KL KN
is one of equality, when the points K and L coalesce. Therefore that vanishing hyperbolic
area is as AP. Therefore the whole hyperbolic area ABOL, compounded from the
individual areas KNOL, is always proportional to the velocity AP, and therefore
proportional to the distance described with that velocity [in each incremental area]. Now
that area may be divided in to the equal parts ABMI; IMNK; KNOL, &c. and the absolute
forces AC, IC, KC, LC, &c. will be in a geometric progression. Q.E.D.
And by a similar argument [see following note], in the ascent of the body, by taking, at
the contrary part of the point A, equal areas ABmi, imnk, knol, &c. and it will be agreed
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
that the absolute forces AC, iC, kC, IC, &c. are continued proportionals. And thus if all
the distances in the ascent and in the descent may be taken equal; all the absolute forces
lC, kC, iC, AC, IC, KC, LC, &c. will be continued proportionals, Q.E.D.
[In modern terms, we have the force equation :
2
dv dv
dt dx
v g kv = = ; initially with gravity
absent as above, the equation can be integrated at once to give :
0
1 1
v v
kt = . Again, from
2
dv
dx
v kv = we find : ( )
0
kx
v x v e
= , and from which equations we can find at once:

( ) ( )
1
0
1
k
x t ln kv t = + .
With the body projected downwards , the equation becomes with gravity acting :
( ) ( )
2
2 2
0
1
2 2 2 2
0
1 1
1 , or giving 2 ; or
k
g
k k
g g
v
kx
dv dv k vdv
dt dx g
v v
v g v gdx, ln kx g kv g kv e

= = = = =

this equation is also true if the body is projected upwards with the sign of g changed, and
shows that the velocities are in a geometric progression.]

[L & J note : And by a similar argument.... For the force of gravity may be set out by the
given line AC, the resistance by the indefinite line Al, the absolute force in the ascent of
the body by the sum Cl, the velocity of the body by the line Ap which shall be the mean
proportional between Al and AC, and thus in the square root ratio of the resistance ; the
decrement of the resistance in the given small part of the time by the small line pq; and
the hyperbola SBo will be described as above; because Al is as Ap
2
the moment of this kl
will be as the moment of that 2Apq, that is, as Ap into lC; for the velocity of the
decrement pq (by the Second Law of Motion) is proportional to the force generated lC,
the ratio of this kl may be put together with the ratio of that lo, and the rectangle kl lo as
Ap lC lo , that is, on account of the rectangle lC lo , as Ap. Therefore, with the points
k, l joined together, the hyperbolic area knol kl lo = is as Ap. Therefore with the whole
hyperbolic area 2ABol taken together from the individual knol always proportional to the
velocity Ap, and therefore is proportional to the distance described with that velocity.
Now the area may be divided up into equal parts ABmi; imnk, knol, etc., and the absolute
forces AC, iC, kC, lC, etc. are in a geometric progression. Q.e.d. ]

Corol. I. Hence if the distance described may be displayed by the hyperbolic area
ABNK; the force of gravity, the velocity of the body and the resistance of the medium are
able to be shown by AC, AP, and AK respectively , & vice versa.

[L & J note : And vice versa. In a similar manner if in the ascension of the body, the
distance described until the motion is exhausted may be shown by the hyperbolic area
ABnk ; the force of gravity, the velocity of the body, and the resistance of the medium can
be put in place by the lines AC, Ap, and Ak.]

Corol. 2. And the line AC shows the maximum velocity, that the body by descending
indefinitely, can acquire at some time.
[L & J note : For indeed AP AC = , and because, by construction,
2
AP AK AC = , there
will also be AK AC = , and thus with the ordinate KN meeting the asymptote CH, the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
hyperbolic area ABNK becomes infinite , and the distance described by descending in this
proportion also will be infinite, truly the weight, the resistance, and the velocity of the
body may be shown by the line AC, and then the resistance equals the weight, and
therefore the velocity AC is a maximum.]

Corol. 3. Therefore if the resistance of the medium may be known for some given
velocity, the maximum velocity may be found, by taking that to that known given velocity
in the square root ratio, that the force of gravity has to that known resistance of the
medium.

[Thus, when the velocity is a max., we have
2 2
; and ; then
max
given
v mg
max given
R
v
kv mg kv R = = = .]

PROPOSITION IX. THEOREM VII.
With all now demonstrated in place, I say that, if the tangents of the angles of a circular
section and of a hyperbolic section may be taken, with proportional velocities, with a
radius of the correct magnitude present: the time for any ascent to the highest point will
be as the sector of the circle, and the time for any descent from the highest place will be
as the sector of the hyperbola.

To the right line AC, by which the force of
gravity is shown, the perpendicular and equal
right line AD may be drawn. With centre D and
with semi diameter AD both the quadrant of the
circle AtE may be drawn, as well as the
rectangular hyperbola AVZ having the axis AX, the
principle vertex A, and the asymptote DC. Now
Dp and DP may be drawn and the sector of the
circleAtD will be to the whole time ascending to
the highest place; and the hyperbolic sector ATD
will be as the whole time in descending from the
highest place : But only if the tangents Ap, AP of
the sectors shall be as the velocities.

Case 1. For Dvq may be drawn separating the moments of the sector ADt and of the
triangle ADp, or the increments that likewise describe the incremental parts tDv and qDp.
Since these increments, on account of the common angle D, are in the square ratio of the
sides, the increment tDv will be as
2
2
qDp tD
pD
(see first note below), that is, on account of

the given tD, as
2
qDp
pD
. But
2
pD is as
2 2
AD Ap + , that is,
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
[Recall from the last proposition that Ap represents the variable velocity of the body, and
Ak the associated resistance, proportional to the velocity squared.]

2
or ; and AD AD Ak, AD Ck qDp + is
1
2
AD pq .
[For AC Ak , or
2
AD Ak Ap = , by Prop. VIII, and
( )
2
= AD AD Ak AD AC Ak AD Ck. + = + ]
Therefore the increment of the sector tDv is as
pq
Ck
; that is, as the decrement of the
velocity pq directly, and that force Ck which may diminish the velocity ; and thus
inversely as the element of time corresponding to the decrement of the velocity. And on
adding these together, the sum of all the increments tDv in the sector ADt shall be as the
sum of all the individual increments of time with the velocity decreasing Ap, with the
corresponding elements pq removed, until that velocity may have diminished to zero ; that
is, the whole sector ADt is as the total time of ascending to the highest place.
Q. E. D.
[In modern terms,
( )
( )( )
2
1 1
1 gives
k k
g g
dv k dv
dt g
v v
g v gdt
+
= = , and hence
( )( )
2
1 1 1 1
and
k k k k
g g g g
kg
dv dv dv
v v v v
gdt dt
+ +
= + = , giving on integration
0
0
1 1
2
1 1
k k
g g
k k
g g
v v
kg
v v
ln ln t
+
+

+ =

, provided 0 g > , or if 0 g < :
( ) 2
2
1
1 giving
k
g
dv k dv
dt g
v
g v gdt
+
= + = , and on integration,
1 1
0
k k
g g
tan v tan v kgt

= . In the first case, the body is moving down, and in the
second case, it is moving up.]

Case 2. DQV may be drawn cutting off the small parts TDV of the sector DAV, as well as
the minimal part PDQ of the triangle DAQ ; and these small parts will be in turn as DT
2
to
DP
2
, that is (if TX and AP may be parallel) as DX
2
to DA
2
or TX
2
to AP
2
, [on account of
the similar triangles DTX, DPA], and on separating as
2 2 2 2
to DX TX DA AP . But
from the nature of the hyperbola, [see second note below],
2 2 2
is DX TX AD , and by
hypothesis AP
2
is AD AK .Therefore the small parts are in turn as AD
2
to
2
AD AD AK ; that is, as AD to AD AK or AC to CK: and thus the small part of the
sector TDV is
PDQ AC
CK
; [on account of AC to AD. For indeed

1
2
PDQ AD PQ = , and
thus
1
2
AD PQ AC
CK
TDV

= .] ; and thus on account of AC and AD given, as
PQ
CD
, that is,
directly as the increment of the velocity, and inversely as the force generating the
increment ; and thus as the increment of the corresponding particle of time. And on
adding together the sum of the elements of time, in which all the elements PQ of the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
velocity AP may be generated, as the sum of the sectors ATD, that is, the total time as the
whole sector.
Q. E. D.

[Here we follow the demonstration of Leseur & J anquier note
one: In the square ratio of the sides ..... For if from the point q
there is drawn to Dp the small line qr itself parallel to vt, the two
vanishing triangles Dqr, Dvt are similar and [their areas] in the
ratio of the squares of the sides Dq, Dv (from Euclid's Elements,
Prop. XIX, Book VI) and triangle Dqp is equal to triangle Dqr
with pr vanishing with respect to Dq ; therefore pD
2
is to tD
2
, or
AD
2
, as triangle qDp to triangle tDv, and thus
2
2
AD qDp
pD
tDv

= , from which on account of
the given radius of the circle AD, the element tDv is as
2
qDp
pD
.
Note 2 : but from the nature of the hyperbola, .... Since (by Theorem II, Concerning the
Hyperbola: Apollonius), the rectangle ( ) 2AD AX AX + , is to the square of the ordinate
TX, as the transverse side is to the latus rectum, truly this hyperbola is equilateral, there
will be (by Theorem II Concerning the Hyperbola: Apollonius)
( )
2
2 TX AD AX AX = + . But ( )
2 2
2AD AX AX DX DA + = , (by Prop. VI, Book II,
Elements),
2 2 2 2 2 2
and hence TX DX DA DX TX DA = = .]

Corol. I. Hence if AB may be equal to the fourth part of
AC, the distance that the body will describe in some
time by falling, will be to the distance, that the body
with the maximum velocity AC, can describe in the
same time by progressing uniformly, as the area ABNK
it can be shown to describeby falling which distance, to
the area ATD, so that the time may be put in place. For
since there shall be AC to AP as AP to AK, (per corol. I,
Lem. II. of this section) LK will be to PQ as 2AK to AP, that is, as 2AP to AC, and thence
LK to
1
2
PQ as AP to
1
4
AC or AB; and KN is to AC or AD, as AB to CK ; [property of the
hyperbola : Th. IV, de Hyperb.]; and thus from equation LKNO to DPQ as AP to CK. But
there was DPQ to DTV as CK to AC. Again therefore from the equality LKNO is to DTV
as AP to AC; that is, as the velocity of the falling body to the maximum velocity that the
body by falling is able to acquire. Therefore since the moments of the areas ABNK and
ATD , LKNO & DTV are as the velocities, all the parts of these areas taken together,
likewise generated, as the distances likewise described, and thus the whole area generated
from the beginning ABNK and ATD to the whole distance described from the beginning
of the descent. Q. E. D.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
Corol. 2. Likewise it follows also from the distance that is described in the ascent.
Without doubt that whole distance shall be to the distance described in the same time with
a uniform velocity AC, as the area ABnk is to the sector ADt.

Corol. 3. The velocity of the body falling in the time ATD is to the velocity, that it may
acquire in the same time in a distance without resistance, as the triangle APD to the
hyperbolic sector ATD. For the velocity in the non-resisting medium may be as the time
ATD, and in the resisting medium it is as AP, that is, as the triangle APD. And these
velocities at the starts of the descents are equal to each other, thus as these areas ATD,
APD.
[ S & J note 91, and following note: The velocity Ap of the body ascending in the medium
with resistance to the maximum height ABnk, is to the velocity AP of the body in the same
medium descending from rest through an equal distance ABNK, as the secant of the angle
ADp to the radius, or what amounts to the same, as the tangent Ap of the angle ADp, to the
sine of the same. For because, by hypothesis, the area ABNK, is equal to ABnk, there will
be
and on separating
CK AC Ak AK
AC CK AC CK
= = , and on interchanging,
Ak AC Ck AC Ak
AK CK AC AC
+
= = = ;
and thus
2
2
Ak AC AC Ak AC
AK AC
AC
+
= ; but by Prop. VIII,

2 2
and AC Ak Ap , AC AK AP = = .
Whereby
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
Ap AC Ap Dp
AP AC AC
+
= = , and hence
Ap Dp Dp
AP AC AD
. = = Q.e.d.

L & J Note : And these velocities at the starts of the descents are equal to each other on
account of no resistance with respect to gravity, when a velocity arises. Therefore since
the velocities in a non resisting medium shall always be among themselves as the areas
ATD, and in a resisting medium they shall be as the triangle APD, the velocity acquired in
a finite time in a medium with resistance ATD will be to the initial velocity in that
medium with resistance will be as the finite triangle APD, to the triangle nascent triangle
APD, and the initial velocity of descent in the non-resisting medium to the velocity
acquired in the same medium in the finite timeATD will be as the nascent area ATD
(equal to the nascent area APD) to the finite area ATD ; whereby, from the equality, the
velocity of the body falling in the finite time ATD in the medium with resistance is to that
velocity it may acquire falling in the same time in the non-resisting medium as the
triangle APD to the sector of hyperbola ATD. ]

Corol. 4. By the same argument the velocity in the ascent is to the velocity, by which the
in the same time in a non-resisting distance may be able to lose all of its motion by
ascending, as the triangle ApD to the circular sector AtD; or as the rectangle Ap to the arc
At.
[L & J: By the same argument.... For the velocity in the non-resisting medium becomes as
the time AtD, and in the resisting medium it is as Ap, that is, as the triangle ApD on
account of the given AD, and these velocities at the end of the ascent when the vanish are
equal to each other, hence as the vanishing areas AtD, ApD; but the triangle
1
2
ApD AD Ap = , and the sector of the circle
1
2
AtD AD At. = Whereby ApD is to AtD
as Ap to At.]
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.

Corol. 5. Therefore the time, in which a body may acquire a velocity AP by falling in a
resisting medium, is to the time, in which it may acquire a maximum velocity AC by
falling in a non-resisting distance, as the sector ADT to the triangle ADC [see following
note one]: and the time, in which the velocity Ap may be lost in ascending in a resisting
medium, is to the time in which the same velocity may be lost in a non-resisting distance,
as the arc At to the tangent of this Ap [see following note two].

[ Extended S. & J. Notes 92 and two notes, 93, 94 & 95 :
Hence if the velocity of ascent Ap in the resisting medium were equal to the maximum
velocity AC, the velocity will be Ap or AC, to the velocity in which the body in the same
time in a non-resisting space may be able to lose all its upwards motion, as the triangle
ACD, to the eighth part of the circle, or as the radius to the eighth part of the periphery, or
what amounts to the same thing, as the square of the circumscribed to the circle to the
area of the circle. For while there becomes Ap AC = , the triangle ApD is equal to the
triangle ACD, and the sector AtD , the eighth part of the circle, and thus the arc At is the
eighth part of the periphery, and the triangle ACD is to the sector AtD, as AC to the arc
At, and therefore the triangle ACD, on account of AC AD = , is the eighth part of the
circumscribed square to the circle.
Note one : as the sector ADT to the triangle ADC ..... For since AP may show the velocity
acquired in the time ATD in the resisting medium, AY is taken such as to show the
velocity produced in the same time in the non-resisting medium, and there will be by
Corol. 2
AP APD
AY ATD
= , and since also AC may set out the maximum velocity,
AY
AC
will be as
the time in which the first swiftness can be acquired in the non-resisting medium to the
time in which the maximum velocity can also be acquired in the non-resisting medium;
and since the time in which the swiftness AY is acquired, may be expressed by the area
ATD,
AY
AC
as ATD to the area which may set out the time in which the maximum velocity
is acquired in the non-resisting medium, and thus since there shall be
AP APD
AY ATD
= and
that area
AY ATD
AC
= , there will be from the equality
that area
AP APD
AC
= ; but with the common altitude
DH taken
AP APD
AC ADC
= , therefore the area which expresses the time in which the maximum
velocity is acquired in the medium without resistance, is the area ADC. From which it
follows that the body in the resisting medium, cannot acquire the maximum velocity AC
except by falling for an infinite time. For since there is made AP AC = , DT coincides
with the asymptote DC of the hyperbola ATV, and the sector ADT becomes infinite.

Note two : As the sector ADT to the triangle ADC.... For since AP may show the velocity
acquired at the time ATD in the medium with resistance, AY may be taken such as to show
the velocity produced at the same time in a medium without resistance, and there will be,
by Corollary 2,
AP APD
AY ATD
= , and also since AC may show the maximum velocity, there
will be AY to AC as the time in which the first speed AY may be acquired in the non-
resisting medium can be acquired, to the time in which the maximum speed AC also in the
non-resisting medium may be acquired, and since the time in which the speed AY is
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
acquired, may be expressed by the area ATD, AY to AC will be as ATD to the area which
may show the time in which the maximum velocity in the non-resisting medium may be
acquired, and thus since there shall be
AP APD
AY ATD
= , and
that area
AY APD
AC
= , from the equality
that area
AP APD
AC
= , but with the common altitude DH taken, there is
AP APD
AC ADC
= ; therefore the
area which will express the time in which the maximum velocity may be acquired, is the
area ADC. From which it follows that the body in the resisting medium, to acquire the
maximum velocity by falling is not possible unless in an infinite time. For since there is
made AP AC = , DT will coincide with the asymptote DC of the hyperbola ATV, and the
sector ADT shall be infinite.

Note three : As the arc At, to the tangent of this Ap..... If indeed, by Corollary 4, the
velocity Ap required to be made zero in the resisting medium in the time AtD, is to the
velocity requiring to be made zero in the same time in the non-resisting space, as the
triangle ApD is to the sector AtD; and also as the time in which the velocity Ap in the non-
resisting medium may be reduced to zero to the time AtD in which the other velocity in
the non-resisting space is reduced to zero, that likewise is with that in which the velocity
Ap in the resisting space is reduced to zero. Whereby the time in which the velocity Ap,
may vanish in the non-resisting medium is to the time AtD in the resisting medium in
which the velocity may vanish, as triangle ApD to the sector AtD, or the tangent Ap to the
arc At of this. Therefore the proposition is apparent.

Extra Note 93. Hence the time in which the velocity of the body Ap can be lost by
ascending in the resisting medium, is to the time in which the maximum velocity AC in
the non-resisting medium may lose by ascending or acquired by descending as the sector
of the circle AtD, to the triangle ADC, or as the arc At to the radius AD. For in the non-
resisting medium the velocity Ap is to the velocity AC, as the time ApD, in which the
velocity AC is generated or extinguished, that hence will be
1
2
or
AC ApD
Ap
AD AC
, that
is, the triangle ADC.
Therefore since the time in which the velocity Ap is extinguished in the resisting
medium, may be shown by the sector AtD, the proposition is apparent.

Extra Note 94. The time in which the body in the resisting medium may acquire the
velocity AP by descending, of by ascending may lose the velocity Ap, is to the time in
which it may acquire or lose the same velocity in the non-resisting medium, as the sector
ADT, or ADt, to the triangle ADP, or ADp, respectively. And indeed, by Corollary 5 and
note 93, the time in which the velocity AP may be generated in the non-resisting medium,
or the velocity Ap removed, is to the time in which in which the maximum velocity AC
may be generated or extinguished in the non-resisting medium, as ADT or ADt, to ADC;
and the time in which the velocity AC may be generated or extinguished in the non-
resisting space, is to the time in which the velocity AP or Ap may be generated or
extinguished in the same non-resisting space, as AC to AP or Ap, and with the common
altitude DA taken, as ADC to APD or ApD. Whereby, from the equality, the time in which
the velocity AP may be generated in the medium with resistance, or the velocity Ap made
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
zero, is to the time in which the same velocity may be produced or removed in the same
distance in the non-resisting medium, as ADT to ADP or ADp.

Extra Note 95. If the speed Ap of the body ascending in the resisting medium were equal
to the maximum AC, there will be ADp ADC = , and the sector ADt the eighth of the
circle. Whereby the time in which the body ascending in the resisting medium can lose
the maximum velocity AC is to the time in which it may lose the same in a non-resisting
space, as the eighth of the circle to the triangle ADC, that is, as the area of the circle to the
circumscribed square, or also as the 8
th
part of the periphery to the radius. We return to the
Principia.]

Corol. 6. Hence from the given time the description of the distances of ascent or descent
is given. For the maximum velocity is given in an infinite descent (by Corol. 2. & 3,
Theorem VI. Book. II.) and thus the time is given in which that velocity may be acquired
by falling in a non-resisting medium. And on taking the sector ADT or ADt to the triangle
ADC in the ratio of the time given to the time just found ; then there will be given the
velocity AP or Ap, then the area ABNK or ABnk [note one below], which is to the sector
ADT or ADt as the distance sought to the distance, that in the given time, with that
maximum velocity now found before, it can describe uniformly.

[L. & J. Note 96 : And thus the time is given ... For since the uniform accelerating forces,
shall be as the velocities which they generate directly and the times in which these may be
generated given inversely (13. Book I) to the uniform accelerating force by which the
body may be acted on in some medium, or with the ratio of this force to some known
other known force, for example, to the force of terrestrial gravity, and likewise with that
given velocity that the accelerating force produced, will be giving the time in which that
given velocity has arisen. For let the given accelerative force be to the known force of
gravity, as a to b, the velocity c generated by that given accelerative force in the time x,
and the velocity C that the force of gravity may generate in some given time t, there will
be
a c C
b x t
/ = . From which the time is found
bct
aC
x = .
Note one : .....then the area ABNK or ABnk : For there is (from the dem. of Prop. VIII)
and
Ap
AC AC AP
AP AK Ap Ak
, = = , and thus with AC and AP or Ap given, Ak or Ak are given, and
the corresponding areas ABNK, ABnk, which can be found by tables of logarithms. ]

Corol. 7. And by going backwards, from the given ascent or descent distance ABnk or
ABNK, the time ADt or ADT will be given.

[Note 97 : And by going backwards....Without doubt the area ABnk or ABNK is required
to be taken to the triangle ADC in the give ratio of the distance ascended or descended be
to the square of the distance, that the body in the non-resisting medium will describe in
falling to the maximum velocity it may acquire, and thus Ak or AK will be given. And
hence Ap or AP or the velocity will be given; moreover from these the sector ADt or ADT
may be given, or the time (by Corollary 5). For the distance that the body in the non-
resisting medium will describe in descending so that the maximum velocity AC may be
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
acquired is called A, the time in which that distance is described T, the distance that it will
describe in the resisting medium so that it may acquire the velocity AP, or the velocity
lost Ap, is called a, the time t, and the distance that the body will describe in that time t
and the maximum velocity AC by progressing uniformly shall be S, and because the body
with the maximum velocity AC by progressing uniformly, it time T, will describe the
distance 2A, there will be
2
S t
A T
= . But by Cor. 5 and note 93,
or t ADT ADt
T ADC
= , and thus
or
2
S ADT ADt
A ADC
= , and by Cor. 1 & 2, or
s ABNK ABnk
S ADT ADt
= . Whereby from the equality,
or
2
s ABNK ABnk
A ADC
= .]

PROPOSITION X. PROBLEM III.
A uniform force of gravity may extend directly to the horizontal plane, and let the
resistance [to motion] be conjointly as the density of the medium and as the square of the
velocity: then both the density of the medium is required at individual places, which may
be done so that the body may move along some given curved line, as well as the velocity
of the body and the resistance of the medium at individual places.

Let PQ lie in a perpendicular plane to the horizontal scheme ; PFHQ a curved line
crossing this plane at the points P and Q; G, H, I, K four locations of the body on this
curve going from F to Q ; and GB, HC, ID, KE four parallel ordinates sent to the
horizontal plane from these points, and the lines meeting the horizontal line PQ standing
at the points B, C, D, E ; and BC, CD, DE shall be equal distances between the ordinates.
From the points G and H, the right lines GL, HN may be drawn touching the curve in G &
H , & with the ordinates CH, DI projected up meeting at L & N & the parallelogram
HCDM may be completed. And the times [see note one below], in which the body will
describe the arcs GH, HI, will be in the square root ratio of the altitudes LH, NI, that the
body may be able to describe in these times, by falling from the tangents; and the
velocities will be directly as the lengths described GH, HI and inversely as the times. The
times may be shown by T and t, and the velocities by and
GH HI
T t
; and the decrement of
the velocity made in the time t may be put in place by
GH HI
T t
[see note two below].
This decrement arises from the resistance retarding the body, and with gravity
accelerating the body. Gravity generates a velocity in the falling body and by describing a
distance NI in falling, so that it may be able to describe twice that distance in the same
time, as Galileo demonstrated, that is, a velocity
2NI
t

: but with the body describing the arc HI [see note
three below], that arc increases only by the length
HI HN or
MI NI
HI
; and thus it generates only the

velocity
2MI NI
t HI
This velocity may be added to the

aforesaid decrement, and the decrement of the
velocity will be had arising from the resistance only,
clearly
2 GH MI NI HI
T t t HI
+ . And hence since gravity in the same time generates the

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
velocity
2NI
t
from the body falling ; the resistance will be to gravity as
2 GH MI NI HI
T t t HI
+
to
2NI
t
or as
2
to 2
t GH MI NI
T HI
HI NI .

+
Now for the abscissas CB, CD, CE there may be written 2 o, o, o . For the ordinate
CH there may be written P, and for MI there may be written some series
3
etc Qo Roo So . + + + And all the terms of the series after the first, clearly
3
etc Roo So . + + shall be NI, and the ordinates DI, EK, & BG will be
3 3 3
c 2 4 8 0 etc etc P Qo Roo So & .P Qo Roo S .& P Qo Roo So . + + ,
respectively. And by squaring the difference of the orders BG CH &CH DI , and to
the square produced by adding the squares of BC, CD, the squares of the arcs GH, HI
3 3
2 etc 2 etc oo QQoo QRo . &oo QQoo QRo . + + + + + The roots of which
1 1
1 and 1
QRoo QRoo
QQ QQ
o QQ , o QQ
+ +
+ + + shall be the arcs GH and HI. Besides if from
the ordinate CH there may be taken half the sum of the ordinates BG and DI, and from the
ordinate DI there may be taken half the sum of the ordinates CH and EK, the sagitta of
the arcs GI and HK will remain,
3
and 3 Roo Roo So + . And these shall be proportional to
the small lines LH and NI, and thus in the square ratio of the infinitely small times T and t
and thence the ratio
3
2 R 3 2
is or ; and
R So
t So t GH MI NI
T R R T HI
HI
+
+
+ , by substituting the
values now found of these
t
T
, GH, HI, MI & NI, there emerges
3
2
1
Soo
R
QQ + . And since
2NI becomes 2Roo , the resistance now will be to gravity as
3
2
1
Soo
R
QQ + to 2Roo , that
is, as 3 1 to 4 S QQ RR + .
But this velocity is , whatever the body from any place H, going along the tangent HN,
in a parabola by having a diameter HC and the latus rectum
1
or
HNq QQ
NI R
+
, then can be
moving in a vacuum.
And the resistance is as the density of the medium and jointly with the square of the
velocity, and therefore the density of the medium is as the resistance directly and
inversely as the square of the velocity, that is, as
3 1
4
S QQ
RR
+
directly and
1 QQ
R
+
inversely, that
is, as
1
S
R QQ +
. Q. E. I.

[L. & J. Note one : And the times..... For in the same moment of time that a body in place
at G may describe the tangent GL by the in situ force of the motion, a body may fall
through such a height LH under the uniform force of gravity in a non-resisting medium in
that time itself; for the effect of the resistance diminishes that height itself by an infinitely
small amount , which thus is not to be considered here, and thus the body is considered to
describe the complete arc GH by a force composed from the in situ force of the motion
and the force of gravity. And in a similar manner, in the same time that it will describe the
arc HI, by the force of gravity it may fall through the height NI. Whereby (by Lemma X
of Book I), the times in which the body will describe the arcs GH, HI, or in which it falls
through the heights LH, NI, are in square root ratio of these heights.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.

L. & J. Note two : And the decrement of the velocity..... For if the velocity through the arc
HI were the same as the velocity through the arc GH, the one may be shown by
GH
T
, the
other by
HI
t
. Whereby if the velocity may decrease, the decrement of that made in the
time t may be expressed by
GH HI
t T
. But if indeed the velocity may increase, it may be
expressed by
GH HI
T t
; this decrement or increment arises from the resistance of the body
by retardation along the direction of the tangent HN or directly opposite to the arc HI, and
from the motion of the body under gravity, for the force of gravity of the body descending
may be seen to be divided into two forces normal and tangent; the motion of the body
along the curve may be accelerated by the tangential force, and which normal force may
neither accelerate nor retard. Whereby if the resistance is greater than the force of gravity,
the motion is retarded, if less it will be accelerated, and if equal, neither accelerated nor
retarded.
L. & J. Note three : but with the body....... For by the in situ force alone, the body may
describe the tangent HN in the time t, and by the force of gravity alone the altitude NI,
indeed with the forces taken together it will describe the arc HI. Whereby gravity may
augment the distance along the direction HN or HI only by the amount HI HN . But
MI NI
HI
HI HN

= . If indeed with centre H and radius HN, the arc of a circle NR may be
considered described, cutting HI in R, the two triangles IRN, IMH will be similar, on
account of the MIH common to the triangle on each side, and the angle IRN, IMH right,
and thus equal; from which there is : : or HI MI NI RI HI HN; = and therefore
MI NI
HI
HI HN

= . Therefore since RI shall be the distance described in the time t by the
tangential force of gravity, that velocity which that force may generate in the time t, may
be expressed by
2 2 MI NI RI
t t HI
= .

L. & J. extra notes : And there will be had the decrement of the velocity arising from the
resistance alone, evidently
2 2 MI NI RI
t t HI
= , not only in that case in which the resistance

may be greater than the tangential force of gravity, but also in that case in which that may
be superior to the other. For let the decrement of the velocity arising from the resistance
alone be V, since the increment of the velocity arising from the tangential gravitational
force shall be
2MI NI
t HI
, in the first case there will be

2MI NI GH HI
t HI T t
V

= , and thus
2 GH MI NI HI
T t t HI
V

= + ; but in the second case there will be

2MI NI GH HI
t HI t T
V
= , and therefore
2MI NI GH HI
t HI T t
V

= + ,
which is the same expression as the former.

The resistance will be to gravity ...... For the accelerating and
retarding forces are as the elements of the velocity which may be
generated or removed in given moments of time.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
There may be written o, o, 2o.... For if the abscissas CD, CE may be taken positive, the
abscissas in the opposite part CB, etc. must be assumed to be expressed negative.

And for MI some series may be written.... For the difference of the fluxions MI of the
ordinates CH, DN can be expressed by an infinite series
3
etc Qo Roo So . + + + , in which
Q, R, S, etc. are finite quantities assumed here generally, and afterwards to be determined
in the individual cases, and o is the nascent increment and a constant for the abscissa.

And the ordinates..... For indeed
3
etc DI DM MI CH MI P Qo Roo So . = = =
(by Hypothesis) ; and because 2 CE o = , if in place of the value of the ordinate DI there
may be written 2o , DI will become
3
2 4 8 etc EK P Qo Roo So . = ; and in a similar
manner because CB o = , if in the value of the ordinate DI in place of +o there may be
written o , there becomes
3
etc DI BG P Qo Roo So . = = + +

....the squares of the arcs GH, HI, etc. may be had.....
For indeed, on account of the right angle HMI,
2 2 2
HI HM MI = + , and
3
and etc HM CD o, MI CH DI Qo Roo So . = = = = + + +
, and thus
2 2 2 2 3 2 4
2 etc HM oo,MI Q o QRo R o . = = + + + ; thence
2 2 2 2 3
2 etc HI o QQR o QRo . = + + + But the terms in
which there
4 5
etc o , o , . that vanish before the others
may be ignored and contribute nothing to that expression. Whereby with the extraction of
the square root made
1
1
QRoo
QQ
HI o QQ
+
= + + , with the remaining terms ignored; and in a
similar manner there is found
1
1
QRoo
QQ
GH o QQ
+
= + .

.....the sagitta of the arcs GI and HK will remain.... The chord GI may be joined cutting
CH in V, and from the point I the perpendicular IS may be sent cutting CH in T. On
account of the similar triangles ITV, ISG, there will be
1
2
or as
DC TV IT
IS DB GS
i.e. , and thus
2 and 2 2 and 2 2 GS VT , GB VT SB VT DI GB DI VT DI = = + = + + = + , whereby half the
sum of the ordinates GB and DI is VT DI + , or VC, which if taken from the ordinate CH,
there will remain the sagitta VH of the arc GI. And by similar reasoning it is apparent that
the sagittam IX of the arc HK is equal to the difference between the ordinates DI and half
the sum of the ordinates CH and EK.

...And these are the small proportional lines LH and NI.... For with the points B, C, D, E
and G, H, I, K joined, the figures NHIXH, LGHVG become similar, and the homologous
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
sides HV and IX, LH and NI are proportional; but the small lines LH, NI are as the squares
of the times T , t (from the demonstration), by which the arcs GH, HI are described.

...And thence the ratio etc
t
T
, . ..... For from the demonstration,
2 3
2
3 3 t Roo So R So IX
HV Roo R
T
+ +
= = =
and thus
3 3 3 RR SRo t R So RR SRo
T R RR R
+ + +
= = = ; but
3
2
3
SRo
RR SRo R + = + , with
negligible terms ignored : whereby there will be
3
2 3
2
1
SRo
R
t So
T R R
.
+
= = +

...... there emerges
3
2
1
Soo
R
QQ + ..... For there is
3
2
1
1
1
Soo QQ
QRoo
t GH
T R
QQ
o QQ
+
+
= + + ,
which with the term in which there is found o
3
ignored, which vanishes before the rest.
From which there becomes
3
2
1
2
1
Soo QQ
QRoo
t GH
T R
QQ
HI
+
+
= ; but with
2 2 and MI Qo NI Roo = = ignored with the remainder of the terms of the series vanishing,
and hence
2
2
2
1
QRo
MI NI
HI
QQ
+
= , with the term
1
QRoo
QQ +
ignored in the value of the arc HI.
Whereby there will be
3 1
2
2
Soo QQ
t GH MI NI
T HI R
HI .
+

+ =

....Then it can move in a vacuum....... For since the velocity along the arc HI, or along the
emerging tangent HN, may be able to be considered equal, and the body in the same
moment of time in which it may describe HN by the vi insitu, by the uniform force of
gravity, with the resistance ignored which here may be considered as zero, falls through
the height NI; the nascent arc HI, that the body with the forces taken together will
describe, can be taken as the arc of a parabola, the diameter of which is HC, the tangent
HN with the ordinates parallel, and NI parallel and equal to the abscissa to which the
equal ordinate HN may correspond. Whereby the latus rectum of this parabola will be
2
HN
NI
, by the geometry of the parabola, or (by Lemma VII of Book I),
2
1 oo QQoo QQ
HI
NI Roo R
+ +
= = , with the negligible terms to be ignored. And if that body hence
may be moving in a vacuum, it will describe this parabola.

...That is, so that, etc. For because the resistance is to constant gravity as 3 1 S QQ + to
4RR, the resistance will be as
3 1
4
S QQ
RR
+
. But the velocity is as
HI
t
, and the square of that
as
2
2
2
; and is
HI
t
HI oo QQoo + , neglecting smaller quantities, t
2
is indeed as NI, or as
Roo (from the demonstration) ; and thus the square of the velocity is as
1 QQ
R
+
. Whereby
the density of the medium will be as
( )
3 1
4 1
S QQ
R QQ
+
+
, and from the given number
3
4
, as
( )
1
1
1
S QQ
S
R QQ
R QQ
+
+
+
= . Back to Newton.]
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.

Corol. 1. If the tangent HN may be produced to the side then it may cross the ordinate
AF at some point T:
HT
AC
will be equal to 1 QQ + , and thus can be written for 1 QQ +
in the above. n which ratio the resistance will be to gravity as 3 to 4 S HT RR AC , the
velocity will be as
HT
AC R
and the density of the medium will be as
S AC
R HT
.

[
HT
AC
will be equal.... From the points H and I the perpendiculars HS and IR may be sent to
AF and CH, and on account of the similar triangles IRH, HST, there will be HT to HS as
AC to HI or CD, and thus
1
1
o QQ
HT HI
AC CD o
QQ.
+
= = = + ]

Corol. 2. And hence, if the curved line PFHQ may be defined by a relation between the
base or the abscissa AC and the applied ordinate CH, as is customary; and the value of the
applied ordinate may be resolved into a converging series : the problem may be solved
expeditely by the first terms of the series, as in the following examples.

Example1. Let the semicircular line PFH be described on the diameter PQ, and the
density of the medium may be required which may act so that the projectile may be
moving along this line.
The diameter PQ may be bisected at A ; call AQ, n; AC, a; CH, e; and CD, o : and
there will be DI
2
or
2 2
2 AQ AD nn aa ao oo, = or 2 ee ao oo , and with the root
extracted by our method, there becomes
3 3 3
3 3 5
2
2 2 2
etc
ao oo aaoo ao a o
e e
e e e
DI e . = Here there may be
written nn for ee aa + , and there emerges
3
3 5
2 2
etc
ao nnoo anno
e
e e
DI e . =
A series of this kind may be separated into successive terms
in this manner. I call the term the first, in which the infinitely
small quantity o does not appear , the second, in which that quantity is of one dimension ;
the third, in which it arises of dimension two ; the fourth, in which it is of the third, and
thus indefinitely. And the first term, which here is e, always will denote the length of the
ordinate CH standing at the start of the variable quantity o. The second term, which here
is
ao
e
, will denote the difference e between CH and DN, that is, the small line MN, which
is cut off by completing the parallelogram HCDM,
and thus may always determine the position of the
tangent HN [note one below]; as in this case by
taking =
MN ao a
HM eo e
= . The third term
3
2
nnoo
e
, which here
will the small line IN, which lies between the tangent
and the curve, and thus determines the angle of
contact IHN or the curvature that the curved line has
at H [note two below] . If that small line IN is of
finite magnitude, it will be designated by the third term together with the following terms
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
indefinitely. But if that small line may be diminished indefinitely, the following terms
arise infinitely smaller than the third, and thus may be able to be ignored. The fourth term
determines the variation of the curvature, the fifth the variation of the variation, and thus
henceforth. From which along the way the use of these series in the solution of problems
is apparent, and not to be dismissed, which depend on tangents and the curvature of
curves.
The series
3
3 5
2 2
etc
ao nnoo anno
e
e e
e . now may be established, with the series
3
etc P Qo Roo So . and from which by writing
3 5
2 2
and
a nn ann
e
e e
e, , , , for P, Q, R and S and by writing 1
aa
ee
+
for 1 QQ + or
n
e
, the density of the medium will be
produced as
a
ne
, that is (on account of n given), as
a
e
or
AC
CH
,
that is, as that length of the tangent HT, which may be
terminated on the radius AF standing normally on PQ itself:
and the resistance will be to gravity as 3a to 2n, that is, as
3AC to the diameter PQ of the circle: moreover the velocity
will be as CH . Whereby if a body may leave from the
position F with the correct velocity along a line parallel to PQ itself, and the density of
the medium at the individual places H shall be as the length of the tangent HT, and the
resistance also at some place H shall be to the force of gravity as 3AC to PQ that body
will describe the quadrant of a circle FHQ. Q.E.I.
But if the same body may be proceeding from the same place P, along a line
perpendicular to PQ, and it may begin to move in the arc of a circle PFQ, it shall be
necessary to take AC or a on the opposite side of the centre A, and therefore the sign of
this must change and it is required to write a for +a. With which done the density of the
medium may appear as
a
e
. But a negative density, that is, which accelerates the motion
of bodies, is not allowed by nature : and therefore cannot happen naturally, so that the
body by ascending from P may describe the quadrant of a circle PF. Towards this effect
the body must be impelled to accelerate by the medium, and not to be impeded by
resistance, [thus only one quadrant of the circle can be considered; either the left-hand
quadrant for the initially vertically rising body, or the right-hand part for the initially
horizontally projected descending body.].

[L. & J. Note one : The tangent HN may be produced so that it crosses the diameter AQ at
T; and because of the similarity of the triangles HMN, TCH, there will be
CT HM
HC MN
= .
Now truly in general there is and HM o MN Qo = = , and Q is the coefficient of the
second term of the general series for any curve (from the demonstration of Prop. X) ;
whereby if there is taken
1 CT
HC Q
= , the subtangent CT will be found.
S & J note two : Let O be the centre of curvature of the curve FHQ osculating at H; OH,
OI the radii, HPI the chord of the arc HI, NP the radii, HPI the chord of the arc HI, NP the
small arc of the circle with centre H and radius HN described. The two triangles IPN,
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
IMH will be similar, on account of the right angle at P and M, and the common angle at I;
and therefore and hence
NI HM NI HI
HM NP HI
NP .
= = The measure of the angle NHI, that the

tangent HN makes with the subtended arc HPI, is half the arc HI, and to the angle at the
centre HOI the measure is the whole arc HI (from the nature of the circle) ; from which
NP or ( )
1
2
: or :
HM NI
HI
HN HI HI HO
= , and thus the radius of osculation

3
2
HI
HM NI
HO .
= And because (from the demonstration of Prop. X),

1 ; ; and HI o QQ HM o NI Roo = + = = ; there will be
( )
3
2
1
2
QQ
R
HO .
+
= But the contact
angle and the curvature of the curved line FHQ in H is as the radius of osculation HO
inversely, that is, as
( )
3
2
2
1
R
QQ
.
+
Whereby that angle, or the curvature at H will be
determined, by the given second and third terms of the series into which the value of the
applied ordinate is resolved.]

Example 2. The line PFQ shall be a parabola, having the axis AF perpendicular to the
horizontal PQ, and the density of the medium is required, that enables the projectile to be
moving along this curve.
From the nature of the parabola [see note], the rectangle PDQ is equal to the rectangle
under the ordinate DI and somegiven right line ; that is, if that right line may be called b;
PC, a; PQ, c; CH, e; & CD, o ; the rectangle
by or 2 a o c a o ac aa ao co oo + + is equal to the rectangle b by DI, and thus DI
equals
2 ac aa c a oo
b b b
o .

+ Now the second term of this series is required to be
written,
2 c a
b
o
for Qo, likewise the third term for

oo
b
Roo . Since indeed there are no more
terms, the coefficient S of the fourth term must vanish, and therefore the quantity
1
S
R QQ +
, to which the density of the medium is proportional, will be zero. Therefore the
projectile does not move in a parabola for any density of the medium, as Galileo showed
at one time. Q. E. I.

[L. & J. Note : From the point I to the axis of the parabola
FA a perpendicular IR may be sent, and let the latus
rectum axis be equal to b; from the nature of the parabola,
there will be :
2 2 2
and b FR RI AD b FA AQ . = = =
Whereby
( )( )
2 2
or or b FR b FA b RA b DI AQ AD AQ AD AQ AD PD DQ. = = + =
]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
Example. 3. The line AGK shall be a hyperbola, having the asymptote NX perpendicular to
the horizontal plane AK, and the density of the medium is sought, which may enable the
projectile to move along this line.
MX shall be the other asymptote, crossing the applied ordinate produced DG at V; and
from the nature of the hyperbola, the rectangle XV by VG may be given
[from the nature of the hyperbola : see de Hyper. Th. 4; Apoll.].
Moreover the ratio
DN
VX
, and therefore also the rectangle DN by VG may be given [from
similar triangles.] That shall be bb, and on completing the parallelogram DNXZ; there
may be called : BN, a; BD, o; NX, c; and the given ratio VZ to ZX or DN may be put
equal to
m
n
. And there will be DN equal to a o , VG equal to
bb
a o
, VZ equal to
m
n
a o ,
and GD or NX VZ VG equal to the same term
m m bb
n n a o
c a o
+ . The term
bb
a o
may
be resolved into the converging series
3 4
3
etc
bb bb bb bb
a aa
a a
o oo o . + + + , and there becomes GD
equal to
3 4
2 3
etc
m bb m bb bb bb
n a n aa
a a
c a o o o o . +
The second term of this series
m bb
n aa
o o is required to
be taken for Qo [as this series is equal to the series
3
etc P Qo Roo So . , and so the terms may be
equated ]; the third with the sign changed
3
2
bb
a
o for
2
Ro and the fourth also with the sign changed
4
3
bb
a
o
for
3
So , the coefficients of these
3 4
and
m bb bb bb
n aa
a a
,
are required to be written in the above rules for Q, R & S. With which done the density
of the medium will be as [the numerator and denominator in
4
bb
a
:]

4
4 4
4
1
2 2
1
3
or
bb
a
bb mm mbb b mm mbb b
aa aa
nn naa nn n aa
a
a
+ + + +

that is, [note one] if in VZ there may be taken VY equal to VG, as
1
XY
. For if aa and
4
2 mm mbb b
nn n aa
aa +
are squares of XZ and ZY themselves. Moreover the resistance is found
in the ratio to gravity that 3 has to 2 XY YG [note two]; and the velocity is that, [note
three], by which a body may proceed in the parabola, with vertex G, the diameter DG, and
by having the latus rectum
2
XY
VG
. And thus put in place that the densities of the medium at
the individual places G shall be inversely as the distances XY, and that the resistance at
some place G shall be to gravity as 3XY to 2YG; and the body sent from that place A, with
the correct velocity, will describe that hyperbola AGK. Q. E. I.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
[L. & J. Note one : For indeed and
bb bb m m
a o a n n
VG , VG a o a
= = = = , where BD or o
vanishes. Whereby
bb m
a n
VY VZ ZY a = = ; and because ZX or
2 2 2
and DN a, YX YZ ZX = = + , there becomes
4
2
2
;
mm mbb b
nn n aa
YX aa aa = + + and thus
the density of the medium as
1
XY
.
Note two : The resistance is to gravity in the ratio
3 1
4
S QQ
RR
+
, that is, as
2 4 4
4 4 6
3 2 4
1 to
bb mm mb b b
nn naa
a a a
+ + , or on dividing by
5
bb
a
, as
2 4 2
2
2 4
3 to
mm mb b b
nn n a
a
aa aa + + , or as 3 to 4 2 . XY VG YG =

Note three : The latus rectum of this parabola is
4
2 4
2
2
4
3
1
1
mm mbb b
mm mbb b
nn naa
a nn n aa
bb bb
a
a
aa aa
QQ
YX
R VG
+ +
+ +
+
= = = . But the velocity is as

1 QQ
R
+
and thus as
YX
VG
.]

Example 4. It may be considered generally, that the line AGK shall be ahyperbola, with
centre X, asymptotes MX and NX described by that rule, that with the rectangle
constructed XZDN the side of which ZD may cut the hyperbola in G and its asymptote in
V, VG were inversely as some power
n
DN of ZX or of DN, the index of which is the
number n [note one]: and the density of the medium is sought, by which the projectile
may progress along this curve.
For BN, BD, NX there may be written A, O, C respectively, and let
or
=
VZ d
XZ DN e
, and
VG is equal to
n
bb
DN
, and DN equals
bb d
e
A O
A O, VG , VZ A O
= = , and GD or
NX VZ VG equals
n
d d bb
e e
A O
C A O
+ . This term
n
bb
A O
may be resolved into an
infinite series [i.e. by the binomial expansion of ( )
n
A O

:]
3
1 2 3
2 3
3 2
2 6
etc
n n n n
bb nbb nn n n nn n
A A A A
O bbO bbO .
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + and GD equals
3
1 2 3
2 3
3 2
2 6
etc
n n n n
d bb d nbb nn n n nn n
e e
A A A A
C A O O bbO bbO .
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ The second term of this
series
1 n
d nbb
e
A
O O
+
is required to be taken for Qo, the third
2
2
2
n
nn n
A
bbO
+
+ +
for
2
Ro , the
fourth
3
3
3
3 2
6
n
n nn n
A
bbO
+
+ + +
for
3
So . And thence the density of the medium
1
S
R QQ +
, in place
of some G, shall be
4
2 2
2
2
2
3
dd dnbb nnb
ee n n
eA A
n
A A A
+
+ +
[note two] , and thus if in VZ , VY may be taken
equal to n VG , that density is inversely as XY. Indeed
2
A and
4
2
2
2
dd dnbb nnb
ee n n
eA A
A A +
are the squares of XZ and ZY [note three]. But the resistance in
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
the same place G [note four] shall be to gravity as 3 to 4
XY
A
S RR , that is, as XY to
2 2
2
nn n
n
VG
+
+
. And the velocity in that place itself is, by which the projected body may
progress in a parabola, vertex G, diameter GD [note five] and with giving the latus rectum
2
1
2
or
QQ
XY
R
nn n VG
+
+
. Q.E.l.

[L. & J. Note one: But hence the hyperbola, while it is produced, the lines XM, XN also
produced approach continually, and it is evident that these can only touch at an infinite
distance.
Note two : For it is found that
2 S n
R SA
+
= , and
4
1 2 2
2
1 1
n n
dd dnbb nnb
ee
eA A
QQ
+ +
+ = + + ; and thus, on account
of the given number
2 4
2
2
2 1
3
1
is as
dd dnbbA n b
ee n n
eA A
n S
R QQ
AA AA
, .
+
+
+ +

Note three : For
by Hypoth. and
n
d nbb d
e e
A
XZ DN A ZY VY VZ n VG A A = = = = =
;
or
n
d nbb
e
A
ZY VZ VY A = = , because YV is greater or less
than VZ. Whereby since there shall be
2 2 2
XY XZ ZY = + , the density will be as
1
XY
.
Note four : Because from the demonstration,
3
1 there will be 3 1
S XY XY
A A
QQ S QQ

= + + = , and thence the resistance to gravity will
be as
3
to 4
S XY
A
RR,
or
( )
2
4
2 3
4
3
as to but 4
n
nn n b
RR A
S
A
XY , RR A
+
+
= and
( ) ( )
2
3
2
2
3
n
nn n n b
A
S
+
+ +
= , and hence
( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2 4
3 2
2
n
nn n b
nn n RRA
S n
n A
VG
+
+
+
+
= = , on account of
bb
n
A
VG . =
Whereby the resistance is to gravity as
2 2
2
to
nn n
n
XY VG
+
+
.
Note five : Indeed there is
2
2
1
XY
A
QQ, = + and hence
( ) ( )
2 2
1
2 2
n
QQ
XY A XY
R nn n bb nn n VG
+

+ +
= = , on
account of
n
bb
A
VG . = From which the velocity which is as
1 QQ
R
+
, will be as
XY
VG
, on
account of the given number
2
nn n +
. End of notes.]

Scholium.
By the same reasoning that gave rise to the density of the medium as
S AC
R HT
in the first
corollary, if the resistance may be put as some power
n
V of the velocity V the density of
the medium will be produced as
( ) 4
2
1
n
n
S AC
HT
R

. [note one] And therefore if the curve can
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
be found by that law, so that the ratio may be given
4
2
n
S
R
to
( )
1 n
HT
AC
, or
( )
2
4
1
to 1
n
n
S
R
QQ

+ : the body will be moving on this curve in a uniform medium with
resistance that shall be as the power of the velocity
n
V . But we may return to simpler
curves.
Because the motion shall not be parabolic unless in a non-resisting medium, with the
motion here described in hyperbolas indeed it shall be through a constant resistance ; it is
evident that the line, that a projectile will describe in a uniformly resisting medium,
approaches closer to these hyperbolas than to a parabola [note two]. Certainly that line is
of the hyperbolic kind, but which is described more about the vertex. Truly there is not
much difference between this and that, why may not they be put to use with no
inconvenience in place of those in practical matters. And perhaps these will soon be more
useful, more accurate than the hyperbola and likewise better arranged. Truly in use thus
they may follow.
The parallelogramXYGT may be completed [note 3], and the right line GT touches the
hyperbola in G, and thus the density of the medium at G is inversely as the tangent GT,
and the velocity likewise as
GTq
GV
, moreover the resistance is to the force of gravity as
GT to
2 2
2
nn n
n
GV
+
+
.
Therefore if a body projected from the place A along the right line AH may describe
the hyperbola AGK, and AH produced may meet the asymptote SNX in H, and with AI
drawn parallel to the same may meet the other asymptote MX in I [note 4] : the density of
the medium at A will be inversely as AH, and the velocity of the body as
2
AH
AI
, and the
resistance at the same place as AH to
2 2
2
nn n
n
AI
+
+
. From which the following rules may
be produced.
[L. & J. Note one : If indeed there were
4
2
n
S
R
to
( )
1 n
HT
AC
in the ratio a to b, there will be

( )
1
4 4
1
2 2
1
and
n
n n
n
n
S a S AC a HT
b AC b
R R HT
= = , and
therefore uniform. But by Corollary 1. Prop. X,
1
HT
AC
QQ = + : whereby if there were given the
ratio
4
2
n
S
R
to
( )
1 n
HT
AC
, also the ratio of the squares

will be given : ( )
2
4
1
to 1
n
n
S
R
QQ

+ , and
conversely.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
Note two : Since yet from these it cannot be agreed completely, that from these
hyperbolas the density of the medium shall be inversely proportional to the variable right
line XY, and besides it may not be shown satisfactorily that the curve, which the projectile
will describe in the uniform medium in the hypothesis of the resistance proportional to the
square of the velocity, to have a vertical asymptote as XN :
since especially in this hypothesis of the resistance the
horizontal distance described by the motion present,
separated from gravity, may emerge infinite (by Cor.1,
Prop.V.). Yet indeed hyperbolas can be found in which for
that small part of the curve AGK, which in the course of
practical matters is necessary, the right line XY shall be as
approximately constant, and therefore the density of the
medium as approximately uniform; from which it comes
about that these curves in practice shall not be inconvenient
to use.

Note three : From the point G draw the ordinate BF through B, and from the point T to the
ordinate DG there shall be sent the perpendiculars GR and TS, and let GT be a tangent at
G. There will be = =
GS FR FR
RG BD ST
, on account of the similar
triangles FRG, GST. But FR is Qo or
1
, is and
n
nbbO d
e
A
O BD O, ST ZX A
+
= = . Whereby there
will be
1 1
to 1, or to as or .
n n
nbbO d nbb d GS
e e ZX
A A
A A, A
+ +
Therefore
ZY GS = ; and therefore the tangent GT is equal and
parallel to the right line YX. But from the demonstration
the density of the medium at G is inversely as the
tangent GT, the velocity at that place as
2
GT
GV
, and
the resistance to gravity as
2 2
2
to .
nn n
n
GT GV
+
+

Note four : With the point G coinciding with the
point A. the tangent GT agrees with the tangent AH,
and the right line VG with AI, and hence the density
of the medium at A is inversely as the AH. End of
notes.]

Rule 1. If both the density of the medium as well as
the velocity remain the same by which some body may be projected from A, and the angle
NAH may be changed; the lengths AH, AI, HX will remain. And thus if these lengths may
be found in some case, thereupon the hyperbola from some given angle NAH can be
conveniently found.

[L. & J. note on Rule 1 : With the index n of the hyperbola remaining the same and with
the density of the medium at A, the length of the tangent remains AH which is inversely
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
proportional to the density. With which remaining
velocity the body is projected from the place A, the
line
2
AH
AI
remains which is as the velocity; and
thus since given there shall be AH and AI given. On
account of the parallels GT, YX, there is
TX GY GV VY GV n GV = = + = + (Example 4),
and because with the point G coinciding with the
point A, there becomes
and ; there will be GV AI , TX HX HX AI n AI . = = = +
Whereby on account of the given quantities AI and n, also HX is given. From which if
these lengths AH, AI, and HX may be found in some case,
the hyperbola henceforth may be conveniently found from
some given angle NAH. Indeed with these given, the
points A, H, and I are given. Through H the line XHN is
drawn vertical to the horizontal AN, and the point N will
be given; and because HX is given, the point X is also
given; indeed with the two points X and I given, the right
line XIM is given with the point M by which the horizontal
line MN may be cut. From which with some right line drawn VD normal to the horizontal
AN, and if on that there may be taken =
n
n
VG AN
AI
DN
, or as
n
n
XI
XV
, the point G will be given on
the trajectory AGK. For indeed, by example 4, some ordinate VG to another ordinate IA ,
i.e.
VG
IA
is as
n
n
AN
DN
, or as
n
n
XI
XV
.]

Rule 2. If both the angle NAB, as well as the density of the medium may remain the same
at A, and the velocity may be changed by which some body is projected; the length
AH will remain, and AI will be changed inversely in the square ratio of the velocity.

[L. & J. note on Rule 2 : With the density of the medium serving its purpose at A, the
length of the tangent AH will be maintained, which is inversely as the density. And
because the velocity at A is as
2
AH
AI
, and the square of the velocity as
2
AH
AI
, that is, as
1
AI
, on account of AH given; AI will be inversely proportional to the square of the
velocity.]

Rule 3. If both the angle NAH , as well as the velocity of the body at A, and the
accelerating gravity may be maintained, and the proportion of the resistance at A may be
increased a little to gravity by some ratio ; the proportion AH to AI will be increased in the
same ratio, with the latus rectum of the aforementioned parabola remaining, and
proportional to that length
2
AH
AI
: and therefore AH may be diminished in the same ratio,
and AI may be diminished in that ratio squared. Truly the ratio of the resistance to the
weight may be increased, when either the specific gravity shall be smaller under an equal
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
magnitude [in its ratio to the resistance] or the density of the medium increased, or the
resistance from the diminished magnitude, is diminished in a smaller ratio than the weight
[is diminished].

[L. & J. note on Rule 3 : With the velocity of the body and with the acceleration of gravity
given at the point A, the length
2
AH
AI
is giving both by the square of the velocity as well as
by the latus rectum of the proportional parabola (Example 4). But the motive resistance, if
it may be called that, to the motive gravity, is as
2 2
2
to
nn n
n
AH AI
+
+
(Example 4).
Whereby if the proportion of the motive resistance at A to the motive gravity may be
increased in some ratio, the proportion of
2 2
2
to
nn n
n
AH AI
+
+
, or, on account of the given
number
2 2
2
nn n
n
+
+
, will increase
AH
AI
in the same proportion, and because the length
2
AH
AI
is
constant, and hence
2
1
is as , and is as
AH
AI AH
AI AH , it is necessary that AH may be
decreased in the ratio by which
AH
AI
may be increased, and so that AI may be reduced in
that ratio squared.]

Rule 4. Because the density of the medium near the vertex of the hyperbola is greater than
at the place A; so that it may have a lesser density, the ratio of the smallest tangent GT to
the tangent AH must be found, and the density at A to be augmented in a slightly greater
ratio than half the sum of these tangents to the minimum tangent GT.

[L. & J. note on Rule 4 : Because the density at some place G is inversely as the tangent
GT, which is less near the vertex of the hyperbola than at the place A; it is evident that the
density of the medium near the vertex of the hyperbola is greater than at the position A.
The density at the place A may be called K, at the place G through which the minimal
tangent GT may be drawn, may be called B ; and there will be
2 2
and hence , and
GT AH K B
GT GT AH K K B
B AH K GT K GT
.
+ +
+ +
= = = But 2
K B +
must be the mean density,
if the tangent AH becomes the maximum of all, and thus so that GT is the minimum of all;
and thus, so that the density of the medium may be had as nearly uniform, it may be
required to increase the density at A in the ratio of half the sum of the tangents 2
GT AH +
to
the minimum tangent GT. Truly because the tangent AH is not the maximum of all, but
other tangents drawn to the parts of the curve towards K are greater; the density at A is to
be increased in a ratio a little greater than half the sum 2
GT AH +
to GT, so that the
medium may be considered to be almost uniform. And from this agreement errors arising
from that because the medium at the place A may be supposed denser, they may be almost
corrected by other errors which arise from that because at G the medium may be placed
rarer than for ratio of the curve AGK.]

Rule 5. If the lengths AH, AI, may be given and the figureAGK is required to be described
: produce HN to X, so that there shall be HX to AI as 1 n + to 1, and with centre X and with
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
the asymptotes MX, NX ahyperbola may be described through the point A, by that rule, so
that there shall be AI to some VG as to
n n
XV XI .

[L. & J. note on Rule 5 : If the lengths AH, AI with the angle HAN may be given, and the
figure AGK may be described : from the point H to the horizontal AN send the
perpendicular HN ; produce HN to X, so that ( ) 1 HX n AI = + , as we have shown before
for Rule 1, and with centre X and asymptotes MX, NX the hyperbola is described through
the point A, by that law, so that
n
n
XV AI
VG
XI
= , for some VG : for by example 4,
n n
n n
VG AN XI
AI
DN XV
= = .]

Rule 6. From which the greater the number n is, from that the more accurate these
hyperbolas shall be described in the ascent of the body from A, and the less accurate in the
descent of this body to K; and conversely. The conic hyperbola maintains a mean ratio,
and is simpler than the other curves. Therefore if the hyperbola shall be of this kind, and
the point K is sought, where the projected body falls on some line AN passing through the
point A: AN produced may cross the asymptotes MX, NX at M and N, and NK may be
taken equal to AM.

[L. & J. Extended Note on Rule 6 : Since the larger the number n becomes, there the
greater these hyperbolas in the ascent of the body from A approach to trajectories
described in a uniform medium, and there they are the less accurate in the descent to K;
and conversely. For since the greater the number n, there the smaller the tangent GT,
which is inversely proportional to the density, in the ascent of the body from A it may be
varied; and there the more it may be changed in the descent to K, certainly the density of
the medium shall be given at the A with the angle of projection HAN, and the quantity
2 n
AH
+
proportional to the density at A will be given, by Example 4, and thus there the
tangent AH will be longer as the number n becomes greater; and because from the given
angle HAN, the kind of right angled triangle may be given, and thus the ratio of the sides
AH, AN, HN also are given, it is evident that with the increase in AH or in the number n,
also the sides AN and HN may increase. From the demonstration in Example 4, with the
body ascending, the square of the tangent GT, ( )
2
2 2
GT DN ZV nVG , = + and with the
body descending the square is ( )
2
2 2
GT DN nVG ZV . = + From the nature of the
hyperbola AGK, and thus
n n
n n
DN nAI AN AI
VG
AN DN
nVG .
= = From the demonstration of the 1

st

rule, ( ) ( ) 1 and thus 1 HX n AI NX HN n AI = + = + + , and NX AI HN nAI . = + But
on account of the similar triangles XZV, MNX, MAI,
( ) or ZX DN
MN MA
ZV NX AI
= = , and
separating,
DN AN AN
ZV NX AI HN nAI +
= = ; from which there becomes
DN HN nAI DN
AN
ZV .
+
=
Whereby in the ascent of the body,
( )
2
2 2
n
n
DN HN nAI DN nAI AN
AN
DN
GT DN
+
= + , and in the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
descent
( )
2
2 2
n
n
nAI AN DN HN nAI DN
AN
DN
GT DN
+
= + .
Now truly if the number n were large
enough in the ascent, the lines AH, AN, HN
both in the ascent and in the descent of the
body are longer, and in the ascent from A,
DN is almost equal to AN, in the descent
indeed DN may be permitted to be a little
less than AN. From which in the ascent
from A there is nearly
n
n
nAI AN
DN
nAI
= , and
thus
( )
2
2 2 2 2
DN HN
AN
GT DN DN HN
= + = + nearly. But
2 2 2
AH AN HN = + : whereby the
ratio GT to AH in the ascent of the body from A is almost one of equality, while the
number n may be supposed large enough, and hence the density does not vary very much ;
in the descent indeed to K, DN becomes as some small amount with respect to the given
AN, and thus the quantity
n
n
nAI AN
DN
will increase markedly, and hence the tangent GT is

changed greatly when the number n is large. The opposite happens, if that number shall be
exceedingly small. Again since the number n can be any integer or fraction, and in the
hyperbolic conic n shall be equal to 1, which just as the medium may maintain a place
among all the whole and fractional numbers, it
is shown well enough that the conical
hyperbola maintains a mean ratio between all
the greater and lesser hyperbolas, and because
it is simpler than the others, the true trajectory
of the projectile in the medium can be given.
Therefore if the hyperbola AGK shall be of this
kind, and the point K is sought where the
projected body strikes some right line, horizontal or oblique to the horizontal passing
through the point A : AN produced meets the asymptotes MX, NX at M and N, and NK
may be taken equal to AM, and the point K will be found, by Theorem I, Conics, Apoll.
End of note.]

Rule 7. And hence the method set out may be clear for determining this hyperbola from
phenomena. Two similar and equal bodies may be projected, with the same velocity, at
different angles HAK, hAk, and incident in the horizontal plane at K & k; and the
proportion AK to Ak may be noted. Let this be as d to e. Then with some perpendicular AI
length erected, [note one] assume some length AH to Ah, and thence deduce graphically
the lengths AK, Ak, by rule 6. If the ratio AK to Ak shall be the same as with the ratio d to
e, with the length AH had been correctly assumed [note two]. But if less take on the
infinite line SM a length SM equal to the assumed AH, and erect the perpendicular MN
equal to the difference of the ratios
d AK
Ak e
drawn on some given line. By a similar
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
method from several assumed lengths AB several points N may be found, and through all
by drawing a regular curved line NNXN, cutting the line SMMM in X. Finally AH may be
assumed equal to the abscissa SX, and thence with the length AK found anew; and the
lengths, which shall be to the assumed length, which shall be the assumed length AI and
hence finally AH, as the length AK known by trial and error to the final length found AK,
truly will be these lengths AI and AH [note three], that it was necessary to find. And also
truly with these given the resistance of the medium at the place, clearly which shall be to
the force of gravity as AH to 2AI. But the density of the medium is required to be
increased by rule 4 and the resistance found in this manner, if it may be augmented in the
same manner, and it becomes more accurate.

[L. & J. Note one : For with the tangent AH given, both in magnitude and position, the
vertical HN may be given together with the point N; and because also AI is assumed, also
there is 2 by the demonstraton of Rule 1, because 1; HX AI n = = the centre X of the
hyperbola is given, and thence on account of the given point I, the other asymptote XIM is
given with the point M on the horizontal line MN; and by taking NK equal to the given
MA, the point K is given, and hence the length AK will be obtained. And the other length
Ak may be found in the same way.

Note two : With the density of the medium given at A with the velocity of the body
projected at differing angles HAK, hAk, the perpendicular AI remains, and the tangent AH
is equal to the tangent Ah, by the 1
st
Rule. With the tangent AH and the angle HAK given,
the hyperbola AGK can be described by the 6
th
Rule and the preceding note, and thus it is
given both in kind and magnitude. From which finally the angle HAK and the ratio of the
tangents HA to AI, the kind of hyperbola will be given finally, that is, all the hyperbolas
will be similar that may be described from these two given. Whereby if in hyperbola
AGK, which may be supposed to be described in the diagram, the tangent assumed AH
shall be to the perpendicular AI, as the tangent of the hyperbola (that the body projected
with an angle equal to HAK will describe in the resisting medium), is to its own
perpendicular AI; the hyperbola AGK described on the page will be similar to the
hyperbola which is described in the medium. And by the same argument the other
hyperbola, whose amplitude is Ak, and tangent Ah, with the perpendicular AI remaining,
will be similar to that hyperbola which the body described projected at an angle equal to
hAk , in the second experiment. From which therefore, on account of the similitude of the
figures described on the page and in the resisting medium, the amplitudes AK, Ak will be
between themselves as the homologous amplitudes of the hyperbolas which were
described in the experiments, that is
d AK
Ak e
= .

Note three : For since the abscissa SM shall be assumed to be equal to the length AH, and
the difference of the ratios
d AK
Ak e
may be shown be the ordinate MN; where there
becomes and hence 0 SM SX MN = = , also 0
d AK
Ak e
= , and thus
d AK
Ak e
= , and SX
indeed is equal to AH, by the preceding note. Thus if from the given perpendicular AI and
the true length found AH with the angle HAN required to be found, as above, with the
length AK ; on account of the similar figures in the resisting medium and described on the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
page, the length AK found by experiment and the length AK finally found on the page,
will be as the length AH in the resisting medium to the length AH drawn on the figure, and
also as the perpendicular AI in the resisting medium assumed in the diagram. With which
found, it will be possible to describe a hyperbola equal and similar to the hyperbola the
body describes in the resisting medium. End of notes.]

Rule 8. With the lengths AH, HX found; if now it may be wished to put in place the
position of the line AH, along which the projectile sent with some given velocity, it will
fall on some point K: at the points A and K the right lines AC, KF may be erected to the
horizontal, of which AC tends downwards, and may be
equated to AI or
1
2
HX , [by Rule 5, as 1 n = .] .With
asymptotes AK, KF a hyperbola may be described, the
conjugate of which may pass through the point C, and with
centre A and with and radius AH a circle may be described
cutting that hyperbola at the point H; and the projectile sent
along the right line AH will fall at the point K. Q. E. I.
For the point H, on account of the given length AH, is
located somewhere on the circle described. CH may be drawn
passing through AK and KF, the one in E, the other in F; and
on account of the parallel lines CH, MX and the equal lines
AC, AI, AE equals AM, and therefore also equals KN [note one]. But =
CE FH
AE KN
, and
therefore CE and FH are equal. Therefore the point H falls on the hyperbola described
with the asymptotes AK, KF, the conjugate of which passes through the point C, and thus
is found at the common intersection of this hyperbola and of the described circle. Q. E. D.
Moreover it is to be noted that this operation thus may be had itself, whether with the
right line AKN shall be parallel to the horizontal, or inclined at some angle to the
horizontal : each produce two angles NAH, NAH from the two intersections H, h ; and
because it suffices to describe the circle mechanically once in practice, then apply the
endless ruler CH to the point C thus, so
that the part FH of this, intersected by
the circle and the right line FK, shall be
equal to the part of this CE situated
between the point C and the right line
AK. [note 2]
What has been said about hyperbolas
may also be applied to parabolas. For if
XAGK may designate a parabola that
the right line XV may touch at the
vertex X, and let the applied ordinates
be IA, VG so that any powers of the
abscissas XI, XV :
n n
XI , XV may be
drawn XT, GT, AH, of which XT shall be parallel to VG, and GT, AH may touch the
parabola at G and A: and the body projected with the correct velocity from some place A,
along the right line AH produced, describes this parabola, only if the density of the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
medium, at individual places G, shall be inversely as the tangent GT. But the velocity at G
will be that by which a projectile may go on, in a space without resistance, in a conical
parabola having the vertex G, diameter VG produced
upwards, and the latus rectum
2
2GT
nn n VG
. And the resistance
at G will be to the force of gravity as GT to
2 2
2
nn n
n
VG
.
From which if NAK may designate a horizontal straight
line, and with the density of the medium then remaining at
A, while the velocity by which the body may be projected
at some angle NAH may be changed; the lengths AH, AI,
HX, will remain, and thence the vertex X of the parabola,
and the position of the right line XI, and on taking VG to AI
as to
n n
XV XI , all the points of the parabola G will be
given, through which the projectile will pass. [Extended
final note.]

[L. & J. Note one : For if we suppose H to be the point sought, through which it is
required to draw the line AH, by the construction there will be HX equal and parallel to
IC, and thus CH parallel to IX or MX, and hence the triangles CAE, IAM similar and thus
since there shall be CA AI = , by construction, also there will be AE MA KN = = , by Th. I
Conics, Apoll. But on account of the similar triangles CAE, HNE, and on account of the
parallel lines KF, NH, there is
CE EH FH
AE EN KN
= = ; and hence the point H falls on the
hyperbola, again by Th.1.

Note two : Since the point H may be determined by the intersection of a circle with the
hyperbola, from the demonstration, and the circle can cut the hyperbola in two points,
from the two points of intersection H, h, two angles are produced, or there are two
positions of the tangent AH, along which the projectile sent with a given velocity falls on
the point K.

Extended final note : The line VG may be produced so that it cuts the horizontal line NK
in D, and the line XZ parallel to the horizontal in Z. For BN, BD, NX there may be written
A, O, c. respectively ; and M shall be the intersection of the lines XV, NK; and XN to NM,
or on account of the similar triangles XNM, VZX ,
or
VZ d
ZX DN e
= ; and thus
( ) and
d
e
DN A O, VZ A O . = + = + Indeed because
or
, in the given ratio
n
VG VX XN
XZ DN NM
XV
= ; also there will be as
n
VG DN . Therefore there
may be put
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2 2 3 3
1
1 1 2
12 123
etc
n
n n
n n n A O n n A O n n n A O
DN nA O A
bb bb bb bb . bb . . bb
VG .

+
= = = + + + + , and
there will be

rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
( )
( ) ( )( )
2 2 3 3
1
1 1 2
12 123
etc
n
n n
n n
A O
d
e bb
n n A O n n n A O
d d nA O A
e bb e bb . bb . . bb
GD VZ NZ VG A O c
A c O .

+

= = +
= +

( ) ( )( )
2 3
1
1 1 2
2 6
, and
n n
n
n n A n n n A
nA O d
bb e bb bb
Q ;R S .

= = =

The ordinate Bg may be drawn through the point B, to which
there may be sent the perpendicular Gr from G, and XY shall
be equal and parallel to the tangent GT; and on account of the
similar triangles Grg and XZY,
2 2 2
2 2 2
Gr DN XZ
Gg XY GT
= = ; but there is
( )
2 2 2 2
and thus 1 Gr O , rg QQOO, Gg OO QQ = = = + ;
whereby since also there shall be BN or DN A = , there will be
( )
2
1 1 GT AA QQ , GT A QQ. = + = + Per Corollary 1, Prop. X, the density of the
medium at the place G is as
S A
R GT
and from the demonstration,

2
3
S n
R A
= , and thus
S A
R GT
is
as
2
3
n
GT
; whereby, on account of the given number

2
3
n
GT
, the density varies inversely as

the tangent GT. The velocity at G, by Prop. X, is that, since by which the projectile may
go forwards, in a space without resistance, in the parabolic conic having the vertex G, the
diameter GD, and the latus rectum
1 QQ
R
+
; and thus since there shall be
( )
( )
2 2 2
2
1
2 2
n
A
bb
QQ
GT GT GT
R nn n VG A R
nn n
+

= = = , from the demonstration, the latus rectum of the
parabola will be
( )
2
2GT
nn n VG
. The resistance at G, by Cor. I, Prop. X, is to the force of
gravity
4
3
3 to 4 that is, as to
RR A
S
S GT RR A GT

; but
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 3
2 3
4
2
2
4 and 3
n
n nn n A nn n n
A
bb
b
RR A , S

= = , and thus
2 2 2 4
3 2 2
n
nn n nn n RR A A
S n bb n
VG

= = . Therefore the resistance will be to gravity, as GT to
2 2
2
nn n
n
VG
. The velocity at the place G, by Prop. X, is as

( )
2
1
2
QQ
GT
R nn n VG
,
+

= and thus
on account of the given number
2
nn n
, as
GT
VG
.
Therefore when the body is at A, the resistance of the medium is as
1
AH
, and the
velocity is as
AH
AI
; from which with both the density of the medium at A, as well as the
velocity with which the body is projected, and with some change in the angle NAH, AH
will remain, and
AH
AI
, and hence AI. Again because
rd
Ed.

Book II Section II.
( )
2 2 2 2 2
1 ZY XY XZ GT DN AA QQ AA AAQQ = = = + = , and thus
n
nA d
bb e
ZY Q A A nVG VZ = = = , and ZY VZ VY nVG + = = , there will be in place of
A, and hence Iy n AI , Ay XH nAI AI . = = = Whereby with AI remaining, also HX
will remain, on account of the given number 1 n . The lengths AH, AI and hence HX may
be found using the 7
th
Rule for the hyperbola made; and thence the point H will be given,
by which if there is drawn THX perpendicular to the horizontal, with XH given, the
position of the line XI will be given, and on taking
n
n
VG XV
IA
XI
= , all the points G of the
parabola will be given, through which the projectile will pass.
The most elegant of problems concerning the finding of trajectories that a body will
describe in a medium with the resistance close to the square of the velocity was passed
over by Newton in his Principia. The matter was completely resolved later by the most
distinguished of mathematicians, J ohan Bernoulli, Hermann, and Euler, who found
analytically the trajectory described in some medium that had a resistance as some power
of the velocity. End of extended note.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section III.
SECTION III.
Concerning the motion of bodies in which it is resisted partially in the ratio of the velocity
and partially as the square ratio of the same.

PROPOSITION XI. THEOREM VIII.
If for a body resisted partially in the ratio of the velocity, partially in the ratio of the
square of the velocity, and likewise that may be moved only by the force of inertia in a
similar medium : and moreover the times may be taken in an arithmetic progression ;
magnitudes inversely proportional to the velocities increased by a certain amount, shall
be in a geometric progression.

With centre C, with the rectangular
asymptotes CADd and CH, the hyperbola BEe
may be described, and AB, DE, dc shall be
parallel to the asymptote CH. The points A, G
may be given on the asymptote CD: And if the
time may be put in place by the hyperbolic area
ABED increasing uniformly ; I say that the
velocity can be shown by the length DF, the
reciprocal of which GD together with the
reciprocal of the given CG shall produce the
length CD increasing in a geometric progression.
For the small area DEed given shall be as the smallest increment of the time, and Dd
will be inversely as DE, and thus directly as CD. [For if
then
t
DE
DE Dd t Dd CD
= = .] But the decrement of

1
GD
, which (by Lemma III of
this) is
2
Dd
GD
, will be as
2 2
or
CD CG GD
GD GD
+
, that is, as
2
1 CG
GD
GD
+ . Therefore in the time ABED
increased uniformly by the addition of the given small part EDde,
1
GD
decreases in the
same ratio with the velocity. For the decrease of the velocity is as the resistance, that is
(by hypothesis) as the sum of two quantities, one of which is as the velocity, the other as
the square of the velocity, and the decrement of
1
GD
is as the sum of the quantities
2
1
and
CG
GD
GD
, the former of which is
1
GD
and the latter
2
CG
GD
is as
2
1
GD
: hence
1
GD
is as
the velocity, on account of the analogous decrement. And if the quantity GD, inversely
proportional to
1
GD
itself, may be increased by the qiven quantity CG ; the sum CD, with
the time ABED increasing uniformly, increases in a geometric progression. Q. E. D.

Corol. 1. Therefore if, with the points A, and G given, the time may be shown by the
hyperbolic area ABED, the velocity is able to be shown by the reciprocal of GD itself.

Corol. 2. But with GA to GD taken as the reciprocal of the velocity from the start, to
the reciprocal of the velocity at the end of some time ABED, the point G may be found.
Moreover with that found, the velocity from some other given time is able to be found.

rd
Ed.

[We follow Brougham and Routh, p. 205., changing their notation a little:
The resistance is represented by
2
k
R kv v
= + per unit mass, and the equation of motion,

in the presence of gravity g, becomes
2
dv dv k
dt dx
v g kv v
= = . Thus, in the absence of

gravity, we have
2
dv k
dt
kv v
= , which we can write in the form :

( )
0
0
0
0
0
1 1
1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1
integrate :
or , and
v v
kt kt
v
v
v
dv dv k v kt
v v v v
v v
dt; ln ln ln ln .
e e

+ + + + +
+
+
= = =
= + = +

Thus when the times are in an arithmetical progression, quantities associated with the
reciprocals of the velocity with an added given quantity are in a geometric progression.
We can proceed to a demonstration of the next proposition here, again with zero gravity:
( ) hence
dv k dv k
dx v
v dx

+
= + = , giving ( )
0
kx
v v e

+ = + . In this case, if the
distances are augmented by regular intervals, the velocities with an added constant are
increased in a geometric progression. Proposition XIV finds the velocities that correspond
to uniform increases in the distance gone, in the case of gravity being present.]

PROPOSITION XII. THEOREM IX.
With the same in place, I say that if the distances described may be taken in an arithmetic
progression, the velocities increased by a certain given amount will be in a geometric
progression.

The point R may be given on the asymptote CD, and with the perpendicular RS erected,
which meets the hyperbola at S, a description of the distances may be shown by the
hyperbolic area RSED ; and the velocity will be as the length GD, which with the given
CG puts together the length CD decreasing in a geometric
progression, while meanwhile the distance RSED may be
increased in an arithmetic progression. And indeed on
account of the given increment of the distance EDde, the
linelet Dd, which is the decrement of GD itself, will be
inversely as ED, and thus directly as CD, that is, as the
sum of the same GD and of the given length CG. But the
decrement of the velocity in a time inversely proportional
to itself, in which a small amount of distance DdeE is
described, is jointly as the resistance and the time, that is,
directly as the sum of the two quantities, of which the one is as the velocity, the other is as
the square of the velocity, and inversely as the velocity, and thus directly as the sum of the
two quantities, with one of which given, the other is as the velocity. Therefore the
decrement of the velocity as well as of the line GD, is as the given quantity, and the
decreasing quantity jointly; and will always be analogous decreasing quantities ; without
doubt the velocity and the line GD. Q.E.D.
rd
Ed.


Corol. 1. If the velocity may be shown by the length GD, the distance described will be as
the area of the hyperbola DESR.

Corol. 2. And if some point R may be assumed, the point G may be found by taking GR to
GD, as the velocity is from the start, to the velocity after some described distance RSED.
Moreover with the point G found, the distance is given from the velocity, and conversely.

Corol. 3. From which since (by Prop. XI.) the velocity may be given from the given time,
and by that proposition the distance may be given from the given velocity, the distance
may be given from the given time, and conversely.

PROPOSITION XIII. THEOREM X.
Because on putting in place a body attracted uniformly downwards by gravity, it may
ascend or descent along a right line; and because it may be resisted in part in the ratio of
the velocity and in part in the same ratio squared : I say that, if parallel right lines may
be drawn parallel to the diameters through the ends of the conjugate diameters of a circle
and hyperbola, and the velocities shall be as the segments of certain parallels drawn from
a given point ; the times will be as the sectors of the areas, with right lines drawn to the
ends of the segments cut off : and conversely.

Case I. In the first place we may consider the body rising, and with centre D and with
some radius DB, the quadrant of a circle BETF is described, and through the end of the
radius DB the indefinite line BAP may be drawn, parallel to the radius DF. On that the
point A may be given, and the segment AP may be taken
proportional to the velocity. And since the one part of the
resistance shall be as the velocity and the other part as the
velocity squared ; the whole resistance shall be as
2
2 AP BA.AP + ; DA and DP may be joined cutting the circle
at E and T, and gravity may be shown by DA
2
thus so that
gravity shall be to the resistance as DA
2
to
2
2 AP BA.AP + :
and the time of the whole ascent shall be as the sector of the
circle EDT.
[Note that the physical problem in this case has been replaced by purely geometrical one.
In this case the velocity of a point along the line BP corresponds to the rate at which the
area of the triangle PAD is swept out in the quadrant of the circle, the radius of which is
g ]
Indeed DVQ may be drawn, and marking off the moment PQ of the velocity AP, and
themoment DTV of the sector DET corresponding to the given moment of the time , and
that decrement PQ of the velocity will be as the sum of the forces of gravity DA
2
and of
the resistance
2
2 AP BA.AP + , that is (by Prop. 12. Book 2. Euclid Elem.) as DP
2
.
rd
Ed.

[From elementary geometry, we have
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 below.
k
DP DB BA AP DB BA DA AP BA.AP g kv v
= + + = + = + + + + ]
Therefore the area DPQ, itself proportional to PQ, is as DP
2
; [essentially
2
dv k
dt
g kv v
= as below.]
and the area DTV, which is to the area DPQ as
2 2
to DT DP , is as DT
2
. Therefore the area
EDT decreases uniformly in the manner of the future time, by the subtraction of the given
small elements DTV, and therefore is proportional to the time of the whole ascent. Q.E.D.

[Following Brougham & Routh, in the general case with gravity present for the falling
body, as discussed below by Newton, we have,
2
dv dv k
dt dx
v g kv v
= = giving
2 2
1
or
g g
k k
dv dv k
v v v v
kdt dt

+ +
= = , and thence
( )
2 2
2 4
g
k
dv k
v
dt

+
= , which we may
write as
( )
2
2
2
dv k
v c
dt

+
= , which may be written as :
( ) ( )
2 2
2
dv dv k
c
v c v c
dt

+ + +
= , and
which hence may be integrated to give :
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
0 0 2 2
2
v c v c
kt
c
v c v c
ln ln

+ + +
+ + +
= and
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
0 0 2 2 2 2
2
0 0 2 2 2 2
2
or
kt
c
v c v c v c v c
kt
c
v c v c v c v c
ln e

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
= = ,

thus enabling t to be found in terms of v, and by solving the equation, vice versa.
On the other hand, if the body is rising, as Newton considers above, we have to solve
2
dv dv k
dt dx
v g kv v
= = , giving :
2 2
1
or
g g
k k
dv dv k
v v v v
kdt dt

+ + + +
= = , or
( )
2 2
2 4
g
k
dv k
v
dt

+ +
= ; we now have the problem whether
4 4
or
g g
k k

> < ; if
4
g
k
> then
we have the equation,
( )
2
2
2
2
2
4
where
g
dv k
k
v b
dt , b
+ +
= = . Now the solution becomes :
( ) ( )
0 2 2
1 1
v v
b
b b
tan tan kt

+ +

= . ]

Case 2. If the velocity of the body in the ascent
may be expressed by the length AP as before, and
the resistance may be put to be as
2
2 AP BA AP + , and if the force of gravity shall
be less than may be possible to express by DA
2
;
BD is taken of this length so that
2 2
AB BD shall
be proportional to gravity, and let DF be
perpendicular and equal to DB itself, and through
rd
Ed.

the vertex F the hyperbola FTVE may be described, of which DB & DF shall be the
conjugate semi diameters, which will cut DA in E, and DP, DQ in T and V; the total time
of the ascent will be as the sector TDE of the hyperbola.
For the decrement made in the velocity PQ in a given small time interval, is as the sum
of the resistance
2
2 AP BA AP + and of gravity
2 2
AB BD that is, as
2 2
BP BD .
Moreover the area DTV to the area DPQ, is as DT
2
to DP
2
; and thus, if DF may be sent to
the perpendicular GT, as GT
2
or
2 2
GD DF to BD
2
, and as GD
2
to BP
2
, and separately,
as DF
2
to
2 2
BP BD .
Whereby since the area DPQ shall be as PQ that is, as
2 2
BP BD ; the area DTV will
be as DF
2
given. Therefore the area EDT is described uniformly in individual equal
elements of time, by subtraction of small parts from just as
many given parts of the given DTV, and therefore is
proportional to the time. Q. E. D.

Case 3. Let AP be the velocity of the body in the descent
of the body, and
2
2 AP BA AP + the resistance, and
2 2
BD AB the force of gravity, with a right angle DBA
present. And if from the centre D, with the principle vertex
B, the rectangular hyperbola BETV may be described cutting
DA, DP and DQ produced at E, T and V; DET will be to a
sector of this hyperbola as the total time of descent.
For the increment of the velocity PQ, and proportional to that the area DPQ, is as the
excess of gravity over the resistance, that is, as
2 2 2
2 BD AB BA AP AP or
2 2
BD BP . [As above,
( )
2
k
dv g kv v dt
.]
And the ratio of the areas of the triangles
2
2
=
DTV DT
DPQ
DP
,
[

As and DTV PD QD sin PD Q TDV TD VD sin PD Q; since the triangles
are evanescent, the relevant sides are equal, and thus in the same ratio.],
and thus
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
=
DTV GT GD BD DT
DPQ
DP BP BP

= = , [For if
2 2 2 2 2 2
then y x b GD GT BD = = ]
and thus as
2
2
GD
BD
, and separately as
2
2 2
BD
BD BP
[For we can write
2 2
2
GD BD
BP
+
and to this
may be added the corresponding terms of another equal ratio: in this case
2 2 2
2 2
GD BD GD
BD BP
+ +
+
].
Whereby since the area DPQ shall be as
2 2
BD BP , the area DTV will be as the given
BD
2
. Therefore the areaEDT increases uniformly with the individual increments of the
time, by adding just as many of the given increments DTV, and therefore is proportional
to the time of the descent. Q.E.D.

Corol. If with the centre D the arc At may be drawn similar to the arc ET with the
radius DA drawn through the vertex A subtending the angle ADT: the velocity AP will be
to the velocity, that the body in the time EDT, in a distance without resistance on
ascending may lose, or in descending may acquire, as the area of the triangle DAP to the
rd
Ed.

area of the sector DAt; and thus may be given from a given time. For the velocity, in a
non-resisting medium, is proportional to the time and thus to this sector; in a medium with
resistance it is as the triangle, and in each medium, when that is a minimum, it approaches
the ratio of equality, for the customary sectors and triangles.
[The elemental triangles coincide at the start if there is no resistance, and do so finally
when the resistance vanishes.]

Scholium.
Also it may be possible to show the case in the ascent of the body, when the force of
gravity is less than what may be able to show by DA
2
or
2 2
AB BD + , and greater than
what can be shown by
2 2
AB BD , and must be shown by AB
2
. But I will hurry on to
other matters.

PROPOSITION XIV. THEOREM XI.
With everything the same in place, I say that the distance described in ascending or
descending, is as the difference of the area put in place in that time, and of a certain other
area which may be augmented or diminished in an arithmetic progression; if the forces
from the resistance and from gravity added together may be taken in a geometric
progression.

AC may be taken (in the three final figures) proportional to gravity, and AK to the
resistance. Moreover they may be taken in the same part of the point A if the body
descends, otherwise in the contrary part, Ab may be erected which shall be to DB as DB
2

to 4BA AC : and the hyperbolabN described to the rectangular asymptotes CK and CH,
and with KN to be perpendicular to CK, the area AbNK will be increased or diminished in
an arithmetical progression, while the forces CK are taken in a geometric progression.
Therefore I say that the distance of the body from the maximum height of this shall be as
the excess area AbNK above the area DET.
rd
Ed.

For since AK shall be as the resistance, that is, as
2
2 AP BA AP + ; some given
quantity Z may be assumed, and AK may be put equal to
2
2 AP BA AP
Z
+
; and (by Lemma II
of this section) the moment KL of this AK will be equal to
2 2 2
or
AP PQ BA PQ BP PQ
Z Z
+

and the moment KLON of the area AbNK equals
2BP PQ LO
Z

or
3
2
BP PQ BD
Z CK AB

.
[For, by hypothesis from Theorem IV, there is
2
4
and by construction,
LO CA Ab DB
Ab CK DB BA AC
,
= = , and thus
2 3
4 4
and hence
LO DB DB
DB BA CK BA CK
LO

= = ,
3
2
2
BP PQ LO BP PQ DB
Z Z CK AB

= .]
Case 1. Now if the body ascends, and gravity shall be as
2 2
AB BD + , with the circle
BET present (in the first figure), the line AC which is proportional to gravity, will be
2 2
AB BD
Z
+
, or
2 2 2
2 AP BA AP AB BD + + + will be or AK Z AC Z CK Z + ; and thus
the area DTV will be to the area
2 2
as or to DPQ DT VB CK Z .

Case 2. But if the body ascends, and gravity shall be as
2 2
AB BD , the line AC (in
the second figure) will be
2 2
AB BD
Z
and DT
2
will be to DP
2
as DF
2
or DB
2
to
2 2
AB BD or
2 2 2
2 AP BA AP AB BD + + , that is, asAK Z AC Z + or CK Z .
And thus the area DTV will be to the area VPQ as VB
2
to CK Z .

Case 3. And by the same argument, if the body descends, and therefore gravity shall be
as
2 2
BD AB , and the line AC (in the third figure) may be equal to
2 2
BD AB
Z
, the area
DTV will be to the area DPQ as DB
2
to CK Z : as above.

Therefore since these areas shall always be in this ratio ; if for the area DTV, by which
the moment of the time may always be shown equal to itself, there may be written some
rectangle requiring to be determined, for example BD m , the area will be DPQ, that is,
1
2
BD PQ to BD m as CK Z to BD
2
. And thus there may be
3
PQ BD equal to
2BD m CK Z , and the moment KLON of the area AbNK found above shall be
BP BD m
AB

. The moment, DTV orBD m , of the area DET may be taken away, and
AP BD m
AB

will remain. Therefore the difference of the moments, that is, the moment of the
difference of the areas, equals
AP BD m
AB

; and therefore on account of the given
BD m
AB
, as
the velocity AP, that is, as the moment of the distance that the body will describe either by
ascending or descending. And thus the difference of the areas and that distance shall be
proportional to the moments, either increasing or decreasing, and likewise either arising
or vanishing. Q. E. D.

[Following Brougham & Routh as above, in the general case with gravity present for the
falling body, as discussed above by Newton, we have,
2
dv dv k
dt dx
v g kv v
= = giving
rd
Ed.

( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
0 0 2 2 2 2
2
0 0 2 2 2 2
2
or
kt
c
v c v c v c v c
kt
c
v c v c v c v c
ln e

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
= = , thus enabling t to be found in terms of v,
and by solving the equation, vice versa. The equation
2
dv k
dx
v g kv v
= for the falling

body [case 3] can now be solved :
( )
( )
2 2
2 4
g
k
vdv kdx
v

+ +
= ; setting
2
2
4
g
k
c

= + , we find :
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
1
1
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
and
d v c
dv
vdv kdx kdx
v c v c v c

+
+ + +
= = ; leading to
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
v c
kx
c v c
ln v c ln C
+ +
+

+ + =

, where C corresponds to the l.h.s. when
0
0 and x v v = = .
On the other hand, if the body is rising, as Newton considers above, we have to solve
2
dv dv k
dt dx
v g kv v
= = , giving :
( ) ( )
0 2 2
1 1
v v
b
b b
tan tan kt

+ +

= , for the velocity at
time t. In this case, in a similar manner, if g is made negative above, and
4
k
g

> , then the
quantity c
2
becomes imaginary [case 1]; however, on putting
2
2
4
g
k
b

= , the integral
becomes
( )
( )
2
2
2 1
2
2
v
kx
b b
ln v b tan C
+

+ + =

, with a result similar to the above if
c
2
is still positive, and thus
4
k
g

< [case 2].]

Cor. If the length may be called M, which arises by applying the area DET to the line BD ;
and some other length V may be taken in this same ratio to the length M, that the line DA
has to the line DE: the distance that the body will describe in the whole ascent or descent
in a medium with resistance, will be to the distance that the body in a medium without
resistance can describe by falling from rest in the same time, as the difference of the
aforesaid areas to
2
BD V
AB
: and thus is given from the time. For the distance in this non-
resisting medium in the square ratio of the time, or as
2
V ; and on account of BD and AB
given as
2
BD V
AB
. This area is equal to the area

2 2
2
DA BD M
DE AB

, and the moment of M itself is

m; and therefore the moment of this area is
2
2
2 DA BD M m
DE AB

. But this moment is to the

moment of the difference of the aforesaid areas DET and AbNK, viz. to
AP BD m
AB

as
2
2
DA BD M
DE

to
1
2
BD AP , or as
2
2
DA
DE
by DET to DAP; and thus, when the areas DET and
DAP shall be as small as possible, in the ratio of equality. Therefore the area
2
BD V
AB
, and
the difference of the areas DET and AbNK, when all these areas shall be as small as
possible, have equal moments; and thus are equal. From which since the velocities, and
therefore also the distances in each medium descending from the start or ascending to the
end described in the same time approach equality ; and thus they shall be in turn then as
the area
2
BD V
AB
, and the difference of the areas DET and AbNK; and therefore since the
rd
Ed.

distance in the non-resisting medium always shall be as
2
BD V
AB
, and the distance in the

resisting medium always shall be as the difference of the areas DET and AbNK : it is
necessary that the distances in each medium, described in some equal moments of time,
shall be in turn as that area
2
BD V
AB
, and the difference of the areas DET and AbNK.

Q.E.D.

Scholium.
The resistance of spherical bodies in fluids arises in part from the tenacity, partially
from the friction, and partially from the density of the medium. And that part of the
resistance which arises from the density of the fluid we have said to be in the square ratio
of the speed; the other part, which arises from the tenacity of the fluid, is uniform, or as
the moment of the time: and thus now may be allowed to go to the motion of the body, by
which it is resisted partially by a uniform force or in the ratio of the moments of time, and
partially in the ratio of the square of the velocity. But it suffices to have revealed the
approach regarding this observation in Propositions VIII. & IX. which preceded, and the
corollaries of these. Certainly for the same ascent of the body with uniform resistance,
which arises from the weight of this, it is possible to substitute a uniform resistance,
which arises from the tenacity of the medium, when the body may be moving by the
inertial force alone , and with the body ascending in a straight line it is allowed to add this
uniform resistance to the force of gravity , and to subtract the same, when the body falls
along as straight line. Also it may be allowed to go on to the motion of bodies, in which
the resistance is partially uniform, and partially in the ratio of the velocity, and partially in
the ratio of the square of the velocities. And I have shown the way in the preceding
Propositions XIII and XIV, in which also uniform resistance, which arises from the
tenacity of the medium can be substituted for the force of gravity, or since the same as
before may be added to it. But I hurry on to other matters.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.
SECTION IV.

Concerning the circular motion of bodies in resisting media.

LEMMA III.
Let PQR be a spiral which may cut all the radii SP, SQ, SR, &c. at equal angles. The
right line PT may be drawn touching the same at some point P, and may cut the radius SQ
at T; and with the perpendiculars PO and QO erected concurrent at O, SO may be joined.
I say that if the points P & Q approach each other in turn an coincide, the angle PSO
becomes right, and the final ratio of the rectangle 2 TQ PS to PQ
2
will be the ratio of
equality.

For indeed from the right angles OPQ and OQR
the equal angles SPQ and SQR may be taken away,
and the equal angles OPS and OQS remain.
Therefore the circle which passes through the points
O, S, P will also pass through the point Q. The
points P and Q may coalesce and this circle at the
point of coalescing PQ will touch the spiral, and
thus it will cut the right lineOP perpendicularly.
Therefore OP becomes the diameter of this circle,
and the angle OSP the right angle in the semicircle.
Q.E.D.
The perpendiculars QD, SE may be sent to OP, and the ultimate ratios of the lines will
be of this kind: = =
TQ
TS PS
PD PE PE
, or
2
2
PO
PS
; likewise
2
=
PQ
PD
PQ PO
; and from the disturbed
equation,
2
=
TQ PQ
PQ PS
. From which PQ
2
shall be equal to 2 TQ PS . Q.E.D.

[Note from L. & J. : Because the lines PT, DQ, ES normal to PO are parallel, by Prop. X,
Book VI, Euclid's Elements , there will be = =
TQ
TS PS
PD PE PE
, and on account of the similar
triangles PSO, PES,
2 2
2 2
and thus
TQ
PS PO PO PO
PE PS PS PD PS
= = = . Now because the radii OP and
OQ are perpendicular to the vanishing arc PQ, the point O is the centre, PO the radius,
and 2PO the diameter of the osculating circle to the spiral at P. PQ the arc or chord of this
circle, and thus the abscissa PD is to the chord PQ as PQ to the diameter 2PO. Whereby
the result follows.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.

PROPOSITION XV. THEOREM XII.
If the density of the medium at individual places shall be reciprocally as the distances
of the places from the motionless centre, and the centripetal force shall be as the square
of the density: I say that the body can rotate in a spiral, all the radii of which drawn from
that centre may intersect at a given angle.

Everything may be put in place as in the above lemma, and SQ may be produced to V,
so that SV may be equal to SP. At any time, in the resisting medium, the body may
describe that minimum arc PQ, and in twice the time
double that minimum arc PR; and the decrements of
these arcs arising from the resistance, or the amounts
taken from the arcs which that may be described in the
same times without resistance, will in turn be as the
squares of the times in which they are generated.
[Thus, in modern terms, we may say that the decrease
in the elemental arc length s due to the small resistive
deceleration a, in the increment of the time t , is given
by
2 2
1
2
or s a t s t = .] : And thus the decrement
of the arc PQ is a quarter part of the decrement of the arc PR. From which also, if the area
PSQ thus may be taken equal to an area QSr, the decrement of the arc PQ will be equal to
half the decrement of the linule Rr [see note one below]; and thus the force of resistance
and the centripetal force are in turn as the small lines
1
2
Rr and TQ , which they produce at
the same time. [If the incremental angle
T PQ = and v is the tangential velocity

corresponding to PT, then in the time t , the tangent line or vector rotates through this
angle, and the change in velocity is v , corresponding to TQ, from which the centripetal
acceleration is proportional to
t
v

, towards the centre.] Because the centripetal force, by

which the body is acted on at P, is reciprocally as SP
2
[from the Proposition] and (by
Lem. X, Book I.) the line element TQ, which may be generated by that force, is in a ratio
put together from the ratio of this force and the ratio of the time squared in which the arc
PQ will be described (for I ignore the resistance in this case as infinitely less than the
centripetal force), it follows that
2
TQ SP , that is
2
1
2
PQ SP (by the most recent
lemma), will be in the square ratio of the time, and thus the time t PQ SP ; and the
velocity of the body, by which the arc PQ may be described in that time, will be as
1
or
PQ
PQ SP SP
,
that is, inversely in the square root ratio of SP.

[We may reiterate this as follows :
2
and
c
TQ F TQ t hence
2
c
TQ F t ; but from
the nature of the spiral as shown in the lemma above,
2
2
PQ
PS
TQ = and hence
2 2 2
2 2
c
PQ PQ PS
F PS PS
t PQ PS

= and t PQ PS as required.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.
And by a like argument, the velocity by which the arc QR will be described is inversely
as the square root ratio of SQ or
1
SQ
, [for we already have the arc PQ described by a
velocity as
1
SP
; see note two below]. But these arcs PQ and QR are as the describing
velocities in turn, that is, in the ratio , or as
SQ SQ
SP
SP SQ
; and on account of the equal
angles SPQ and SQr [from the nature of the spiral], and the equal areas given PSQ and
QSr,
arc
arc
PQ SQ SQ
Qr SP
SP SQ
= = . The differences of the following proportions may be taken,
and there arises:
1
2
arc
arc
PQ SQ SQ
Rr VQ
SP SP SQ
= =
[Recall that SP SV = by def., and
2
and hence SQ SP VQ SP SQ SP SP VQ = = ;
hence on extracting the square root, there becomes
2
1
2
8
etc
VQ
SP SQ SP VQ
SP
. = The
other terms past the second can be ignored, because with P and Q coinciding, they vanish
with respect to VQ, and thus there will
be
1 1
2 2
and hence SP SQ SP VQ VQ SP SP SQ , = = , giving the ultimate ratio when P
and Q coincide :
1
2
SQ SQ
VQ
SP SP SQ
].
For with the points P and Q coinciding, the ultimate ratio is equal to
1
2
SP SP SQ
VQ

.
Because the decrement of the arc PQ, arising from the resistance or from 2 Rr , is as the
resistance and the square of the time jointly, the resistance will be as
2
Rr
PQ SP
. But there
was [in the limit]
1
2
arc
arc
PQ SQ
Rr VQ
= , and thence
2
Rr
PQ SP
shall be as
1
2
VQ
PQ SP SQ
, or as
1
2
2
OS
OP SP
.
For with the points P and Q coinciding, SP and SQ coincide, and the angle PVQ shall be
right ; and on account of the similar triangles PVQ and PSO,
1 1
2 2
PQ
OP
VQ OS
= . Therefore
2
OS
OP SP
is to the resistance, in the ratio of the density at P and in the square ratio of the
velocity jointly. The square ratio of the velocity may be taken, clearly the ratio
1
SP
, and
the density of the medium at P will remain as
OS
OP SP
. The spiral may be given, and on
account of the given ratio
OS
OP
, the density of the medium at P will be as
1
SP
. Therefore in
a medium the density of which is inversely as the distance from the centre SP, a body is
able to revolve on this spiral. Q.E.D.

[L. & J. note one: The body with that velocity which it may have at the place P, in equal
times may describe as minimal the arcs Pq, qv in a non resisting medium (the hatched
lines), and the arcs PQ, QR in a medium with resistance, and from the demonstration
above there will be had 4Qq Rv = , but these areas PSq and qSv are equal, by Prop. I,
Book I, and thus on account of the given equal areas PSQ and QSr, by hypothesis also
PSq PSQ or the area QSq equals or qSv QSr rSv QSq , and hence the area rSv is
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.
equal to 2QSq : but with the perpendiculars ST and St send from the centre S to the
tangents QT and rt drawn through the points Q and r, the vanishing area QSq is
1
2
ST Qq , and the area rSv is
1
2
St rv . Whereby
1
2
is equal to ST Qq St rv , and with
the points P and v merging together, there
becomes St ST = and thus
1
2
Qq rv = , and
2Qq rv = . Therefore since above we
have found
4 there becomes 4 2
or 2
Qq Rv Qq Qq,
Qq Rv rv Rr,
=
= =

and thus
1
2
Qq Rr = . And thus in the same
time in which the resistance generates the
decrement Qq, or
1
2
Rr , the centripetal
force, by which the body is drawn back
from the tangent PT see previous
diagram ,as there is a difference in the labeling from the extra diagram here to the point
Q of the arc PQ, generates the decrement TQ, and thus the force of resistance is to the
centripetal force as
1
2
Rr to TQ, (by Cor. 4, Lem. X), and thus all these may be generally
obtained, whatever were the curve PQR, whose properties we have not yet used, nor the
centripetal force, the resistance, nor the velocity of the body.]

[L. & J. note two: For since from the demonstration and
PQ QR PQ Qr
SQ SQ SP
SP SQ
= = , there
will also be
Qr QR
SP
SP SQ
,
= from which there will be

( )
and hence
Qr QR Rr
PQ PQ SQ
SQ Rr
SP SP SQ SP SP SQ
.
=

= = ]

[Brougham & Routh note using analytical methods, p. 213:
The equiangular spiral, by definition, has the property that the tangent at any point
makes contact with the radius vector at the same angle always; call this angle . Let r be
the radius, v the velocity along the spiral1, the central force P, and kv
2
the resistance at
any point on the spiral; thus, Newton's unusual density and force descriptions are not
adhered to in this description to follow we note 'unusual' in the sense 'non physical', and
of course it was adopted by Newton to render his methods of analysis being a
combination of intuition, geometry, and his early form of calculus more tractable. The
equation satisfied at any point is clearly
2
dv
dt
kv Pcos = ; but on all continuous plane
curves,
dr
dt
vcos = and hence
2
1
2
dv dv dr dv dv
dt dr dt dr dr
vcos cos = = = ; hence the above
equation becomes
2
2
2
2
dv k
dr cos
v P
+ = , and this is a general equation for all plane curves.

The equation giving the motion perpendicular to the arc under these circumstances is
well-known in terms of the local radius of curvature R :
2
v
R
Psin = ; but for the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.
equiangular spiral, the radius of curvature is
r
sin
(consult triangle POS in the first
diagram above); hence we have
2
v Pr = ; if we substitute this in above equation
2
2
2
2
dv k
dr cos
v P
+ = , we obtain
( )
2
2
d Pr
k
dr cos
Pr P
+ = , giving
( )
( )
2 2
3 and 3
d P
dr kd r kr dr
P r cos cos r
ln P C

= = +
. Now, if the force varies inversely as the

distance, we have
2
r
P

= then we have
1
2
cos D
r r
k

= = ; that is, the density varies
inversely as the distance, and the negative sign indicates that the body is approaching the
centre of force, or that the angle is greater than a right angle.]

Corol. 1. That velocity at any place P is always the same, with which a body in a non-
resisting medium can rotate in a circle, at the same distance from the centre SP.
[This also follows from
2
v Pr = , and when
2
r
P

= we have
r
v

= .]
Corol. 2. The density of the medium, if the distance SP may be given, is as
OS
OP
, if that
distance is not given, as
OS
OP SP
: From thence the spiral can be adapted to any density of
the medium.
1
2
cos D
r r
k

= = , where
2
cos
D

= . For, if k and r are given, then
can be found. ]

Corol. 3. The force of resistance at any place P, is to the centripetal force at the same
place as
1
2
OS to OP. For these forces are in turn as
1
2
Rr and TQ or as
2
1 1
4 2
and
VQ PQ PQ
SQ SP
, that is, as
1
2
VQand PQ, or
1
2
OS and OP. Therefore for a given spiral
the proportion of the resistance to the centripetal force is given, and in turn from that
given proportion the spiral is given.

Corol. 4. And thus the body is unable to rotate in a spiral except when the force of
resistance is less than half of the centripetal force. Make the resistance equal to half of the
centripetal force, and the spiral agrees with the right line PS, and in accordance with this
the body may fall along the right line to the centre with that velocity, which shall be to the
velocity, as we have proven in the above in the parabolic case (Theorem X, Book I) able
to fall in a non resisting medium, in the square root ratio of one to two. And here the
descent times will be inversely as the velocities, and thus may be given.

2
cos
D

= , where we observe that the magnitude
1
2
D ; when
the angle is zero, the spiral degenerates into the right line SP .

Corol. 5. And because at equal distances from the centre the velocity is the same in the
spiral PQR and along the right line SP, and the length of the spiral to the length of the
right line PS is in a given ratio, evidently in the ratio OP to OS ; the descent time in the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.
spiral will be in the same given ratio to the descent time along the line SP, and hence is
given.

Corol. 6. If from the centre S with any two given radii, two circles may be described ; and
with these two circles remaining, the angle that the spiral maintains with the radius PS
may be changed in some manner : the number of revolutions that the body can complete
within the circumferences of the circles, by going along the spiral from circumference to
circumference, is as
PS
OS
or as the tangent of that angle that the spiral maintains with the
radius PS; truly the time of the same revolutions is as
OP
OS
, that is, as the secant of the
same angle, or also inversely as the density of the medium.

[For if
dr
dt r
vcos .cos
= = , then
dr r dr
vcos
cos
dt

= = , and thus the time to go from a
distance r
1
to a distance r
2
is given by :
( )
3 3
2 2
2 1
2
3 cos
T r r

= ; if the angle is almost
right, then the time is very long, and if 0 = , then the same formula T' gives the time of
descent to any part of the radius vector ; hence we may write
T'
cos
T
= ; and the number of

revolutions also may be found, for if be the angle the radius r makes with some fixed
line, then
dr
r
d tan = , which can be found from the first diagram above in triangle
PQV, where dr TV = , etc., hence
2
1
2 1
r
r
ln tan = , and the number of revolutions will
be
2
1
2
r
tan
r
ln

; this includes corollaries 5 & 6.]

Corol. 7. If a body in a medium, the density of
which is inversely as the distance of the locations
from the centre, has made a revolution along
some curve AEB about the centre, and may have
cut the first radius AS at A and with the same
angle at B as the first, and with a velocity which
was inversely in the square root ratio of its
distance from the centre to its first velocity at A
(that is, so that AS is to the mean proportional
between AS and BS) that body goes on to make
innumerable similar revolutions BFC, CGD, &c.,
and from the intersections it may separate the
radius AS into the parts AS, BS, CS, DS, &c. in continued proportions. Truly the times of
the revolutions will be directly as the perimeters of the orbits AEB, BFC, CGD, &c., and
inversely with the starting velocities at A, B, C ; that is, as
3 3 3
2 2 2
AS ,BS ,CS . And the total
time, in which the body may arrive at the centre, will be to the time of the first revolution,
as the sum of all the continued proportionals
3 3 3
2 2 2
AS ,BS ,CS , going off to infinite, to the
first term
3
2
AS ; that is, as that first term
3
2
AS to the difference of the two first terms
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.
3 3
2 2
AS BS , or as
2
3
to AS AB as an approximation. From which that whole time is found
expeditiously.

Corol. 8. In addition from these it is possible also to deduce the motion of bodies in
mediums, the density of which is not uniform, or which may observe some other
designated law. With centre S, with the radii in continued proportions SA, S B, SC, &c.
describe as many circles, and put in place the time of the revolutions between the
perimeters of any two of these circles, in the medium which we have treated, to be to the
time of revolution between the same in the proposed medium, as the mean density of the
proposed medium between these circles, to the density of the medium which we have
considered, taken approximately as the mean density between the same circles: But also
the secant of the angle by which the determined spiral, in the medium we have treated,
may cut the radius AS, to be in the same ratio to the secant of the angle by which the new
spiral may cut the radius in the proposed medium; also so that the tangents of the same
angles thus to be approximately the number of all the revolutions between the same two
circles. If these are made everywhere between two circles, the motion will be continued
for all the circles. And with this agreed upon we can imagine without difficulty in what
manners and times bodies in some medium ought to rotate regularly.

Corol. 9. And although eccentric motions may be completed in spirals approaching the
form of ovals; yet be considering the individual revolutions of these to stand apart in turn
with the same radius, and to approach the centre by the same steps with the above spiral
described, we will understand also how the motions of bodies may be completed in spirals
of this kind.

PROPOSITION XVI. THEOREM XIII.
If the density of the medium at individual places shall be inversely as the distances from a
fixed centre, and the centripetal force shall be as some power of the same distance : I say
that the body can rotate in a spiral that cuts all the radii drawn from the centre at a given
angle.

This may be demonstrated by the same method as
the above proposition. For if the centripetal force at P
shall be inversely as any power
1 n
SP
+
of the distance
SP, of which the index is 1 n + : it may be deduced as
above that the time, in which the body may describe
some arc PQ will be as
1
2
n
PQ PS ; and the resistance
at P will be as
2 n
Rr
PQ SP
, [these result follow at once
by regarding the curve locally as circular], or as
1
2
1
n
n VQ
PQ SP SQ

, and thus as
1
2
1
1
n
n OS
OP SP
+

, that is,
from
1
2
1 n OS
OP

given, reciprocally as
1 n
SP
+
. And therefore, since the velocity shall be
inversely as
1
2
n
SP , the density at P will be inversely as SP.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IV.
Corol. 1. The resistance is to the centripetal force as
1
2
1 n OS to OP.
Corol.2. If the centripetal force shall be inversely as SP
3
, there will be
1
2
1 0 n = ; and
thus the resistance, and the density of the medium will be zero, as in proposition nine of
the first book.
Corol. 3. If the centripetal force shall be inversely as some power of the radius SP of
which the index is greater than the number 3, the positive resistance will be changed into
a negative resistance.

Scholium.
Besides this proposition and the above ones, which consider unequally dense mediums,
they are required to be understood concerning the motion of very small bodies, so that the
greater density from one side of the body to the other may not be required to be
considered. I suppose also that the resistance to be proportional to the density, with all
other things being equal. From which in media, in which the force of resistance is not as
the density, the density in that must be increased or diminished to such an extent that the
excess resistance may be removed or the deficiency may be supplied.

PROPOSITION XVII. PROBLEM IV.
To find both the centripetal force and the resistance of the medium, by which the body in
a given spiral can rotate with a given law of the velocity.

Let PQR be that given spiral. From the velocity, by
which the body runs through that minimum arc PQ, the
time will be given, and the force will be given from the
altitude TQ, which is as the centripetal force and the
square of the time. Then from the differenceRSr of the
areas PSQ and QSR completed in equal small intervals
of time, the retardation of the body is given, and from
the retardation the resistance may be found and the
density of the medium.

PROPOSITION XVIII. PROBLEM V.
With a given law of the centripetal force, to find the density of the medium at individual
places, that the body will describe in the given spiral.

From the centripetal force the velocity is required to be found at individual places, then
from the retardation of the velocity the density of the medium may be found, as in the
above proposition.
Truly I have uncovered the method required to treat this problem in proposition ten of
this section and the second lemma ; and I do not wish to detain the reader with lengthy
inquires into complexities of this kind. Now other matters are required to be added
towards the progression of bodies by forces, and from the density and resistance of the
mediums, in which the motion up to this point has been treated, and may be completed
from these relations.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.

SECTION V.

Concerning the hydrostatic density and compression of fluids.

The Definition of a Fluid.

A fluid is any body, the parts of which yield to any force inflicted, and by yielding the
parts may move easily among themselves.

PROPOSITION XIX. THEOREM XIV.
All the parts of a homogeneous and motionless fluid, that is confined and pressed
together on all sides in some motionless vessel (with the consideration of condensation,
gravity, and of all centripetal forces disregarded) are pressed together equally on all
sides, and without any motion arising from that pressure, remain in their places.

Case 1. A fluid may be confined to a spherical vessel ABC and
may be uniformly compressed on all sides : I say that no part of
the same will be moved by that compression. For if some part
D may be moved, it is necessary that all the parts of this kind,
in place at the same distance from the centre, likewise may be
moved in a similar motion; and thus because this pressure is the
same and equal generally, and the motion of the whole may be
supposed excluded, unless that which may arise from the
pressure. And all the parts cannot approach closer towards the
centre, unless the fluid may be condensed at the centre ; contrary to the hypothesis. The
parts are unable to recede further from the centre, unless the fluid may be condensing
towards the circumference; also contrary to the hypothesis. They are unable to move in
any direction that maintains their distance from the centre, for by the same reason parts
will be moving in the opposite direction, but the same part cannot be moving in opposite
directions at the same time. Therefore no part of the fluid will be moving from its place.
Q.E.D.

Case 2. I say now, that all the spherical parts of this fluid are compressed equally in every
direction. For let EF be a spherical part of the fluid, if this may not be pressed equally on
all sides, the lesser pressure may be increased, so that then the sphere may be pressed
upon equally; and the parts of this, by the first case, will remain in their places. But before
the pressure increase they would remain in their own places, by the same first case, and
with the addition of the new pressure they will be moved from their places, from the
definition of a fluid. Which two explanations contradict each other. Therefore it was said
incorrectly that the sphere EF may not be pressed on equally in all directions. Q.E.D.

Case 3. I say besides that the pressure on the different parts of the spheres shall be equal.
For the parts of the spheres in contact press on each other equally at the point of contact,
by the third law of motion. And also, by the second case, they are pressed on by the same
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
force on all sides. Therefore any two non contiguous spherical parts, because an
intermediate spherical part can touch each, will be pressed on by the same force. Q.E.D.

Case 4. Now I say that all parts of a fluid are pressed on equally everywhere. For any two
parts can be in contact with spherical parts at any points, and these spherical parts press
there equally : by the third case 3. And in turn they are pressed equally by the others, by
the third law of motion. Q.E.D.

Case 5. Therefore since any part of the fluid GHI shall be enclosed by the remaining fluid
as in the vessel, and pressed upon equally on all sides; moreover the parts of this shall
press mutually on each other equally and shall be at rest among themselves, it is evident
that every part GHI of the fluid, that is pressed on all sides equally, that all the parts press
on each other equally, and are at rest between themselves. Q.E.D.

Case 6. Therefore if that fluid may be retained in a non rigid vessel, and may not be
pressed on equally on all sides, the same fluid will withdraw from the stronger pressure,
by the definition of fluidity.

Case: 7. And thus in a rigid vase the fluid cannot sustain a stronger pressure from one side
than from the other, but concedes to the same [pressure], and that in an instant of time,
because the side of the rigid vessel does not follow the yielding liquid. But on yielding the
opposite side will be acted on, and thus the pressure inclines towards equality in each
direction. And because the fluid, that first is trying to recede from the part with the greater
pressure, may be prevented by the resistance of the vessel on the opposite side, the
pressure will be reduced to equality on both sides, in a moment of time, without
movement from the place : and at once the parts of the fluid, by the fifth case, may press
on each other equally, and will rest between themselves. Q.E.D.

Corol. From which neither can the motions of the parts of the fluids amongst themselves
change, by a pressure inflicted somewhere on the external surface, unless in so far as
either the shape of the surface itself may be changed somewhere, or else all the parts of
the fluid may slide over each other with more or less difficulty on account of pressing on
each other more or less intensely.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.

PROPOSITION XX. THEOREM XV.
If the individual parts of a homogeneous spherical fluid, and at equal distances from
the centre, concentric with the bottom sphere, gravitate towards the centre of the
incumbent whole ; the innermost sphere may sustain the weight of a cylinder, the base of
which is equal to the surface of the bottom sphere, and the height the same as that of the
incumbent fluid.

Let DHM be the bottom surface, and AEI the upper
surface of the fluid. The fluid may be separated into
innumerable spherical surfaces BFK, CGL by shells of
equal thickness ; and consider the force of gravity to
act only on the upper surface of each shell, and the
forces to be equal on equal parts of all of the surfaces.
Therefore the upper surfaceAE is pressed by the
simple force of its own weight, and by which all the
parts of the upper shell and the second surface BFK (by
Prop. XIX.) may be pressed, by its own measure.
Besides the second surface BFK is pressed by the force
of its own weight, which added to the first force makes
the pressure double. The third surfaceCGL is acted on by this pressure, according to its
measure, and in addition to its own weight, that is, by triple the pressure. And similarly
the fourth surface is acted on by four times the pressure, the fifth by five times, and thus
so forth. Therefore the pressure by which any surface may be acted on, is not as the solid
quantity of the fluid acting, but as the number of shells as far as the largest of the fluid,
and is equal to the weight of the lowest shell multiplied by the number of shells : that is,
to the weight of the solid the final ratio of which to the cylinder determined becomes one
of equality (only if the number of shells may be increased and the thickness may be
diminished indefinitely, thus so that the action of gravity from the lowest surface to the
highest may be returned continually). Therefore the lowest surface will sustain the weight
of the determined cylinder. Q.E.D. And by a similar argument it is apparent the
proposition, when the force of gravity decreases in some assigned ratio of the distance
from the centre, and so that where the fluid rarer upwards, denser downwards. Q.E.D.

Corol. 1. Therefore the bottom is not acted on by the whole weight of the incumbent fluid,
but only sustains that part of the weight which will be described in the proposition ; with
the rest of the weight supported by an arched figure of fluid.

Corol. 2. But the size of the pressure is always the same at equal distances from the
centre, whether the surface pressed shall be parallel to the horizontal or the vertical or
oblique, or if the fluid, continued upwards from the pressed surface, rises perpendicularly
along a right line, or may creep along sideways through turning cavities and channels, and
these regular or very irregular, wide or most narrow. And in these circumstances no
change in the pressure is to be deduced, by applying the demonstration of this theorem to
the individual cases of fluids.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.

Corol. 3. It is also deduced from the same demonstration (by Prop. XIX.) that no parts of
the weight of the fluid, from the pressure of the incumbent weight, acquire any motion
between themselves, but only if the motion that may arise from condensation may be
excluded.

Corol. 4. And therefore if another body of the same specific gravity, which shall be free
from condensation [i.e. the immersed body cannot be condensed or change its density by
contracting], may be submerged in this fluid, that will acquire no motion from the
pressure of the incumbent weight : it will neither descent nor ascent, nor will it be forced
to change its shape. If it is spherical, it will remain spherical, not withstanding the
pressure; if it is square, it will remain square; and whether it shall be either soft or more
fluid ; whether it may swim around freely in the fluid, or rest on the bottom. Indeed any
internal part of the fluid has the ratio of the submerged body, and the ratio of every
magnitude of this kind, of the figures and of the specific gravities of the submerged
bodies, is the same. If a submerged body may be liquefied with the weight preserved and
may adopt the form of the fluid ; this, if at first it may have ascended or descended or
adopted a new figure from the pressure, also now it may ascend or descend or may be
forced to form a new figure : and that is the case because the weight and the other causes
of motion remain. But (by case 5. Prop. XIX.) it may now be at rest and it may retain the
shape. And therefore as at first.

Corol. 5. Hence a body which has a slightly greater specific gravity than the fluid will
subside, and that which has a lesser specific gravity will rise, and both the motion and a
change of the shape may follow, as much as the excess or deficiency of the weight can
bring about. In as much as that excess or defect ratio may give an impulse, by which the
body may be forced into equilibrium with parts of the fluid in place elsewhere, and can be
compared with the excess or defect of the weight on either plate of the scales.

Corol. 6. Therefore the weight of bodies constituted in fluids is two-fold : the one the true
and absolute weight, the other the apparent, common and comparative weight. The
absolute weight is the whole force by which the body tends downwards: the relative and
common weight is the excess of the weight by which the body tends more downwards
than the ambient fluid. The parts of all fluids and bodies of the first kind gravitate by
weight in their own places : and thus the weights joined together compose the weight of
the whole body. For any weight, it is the whole that one is allowed to experience, as in
vessels full of liquids, and the weight of the whole is equal to the weight of all the parts,
and thus may be composed from the same. With weights of the other kind, bodies do not
gravitate at their places, that is, they are not weighed down gathered among themselves,
but mutually endeavour to impede the descending of bodies, remaining in their own
places, and thus as if there were no gravity. Which weights present in air and that do not
weigh down, may not be concluded to be the common [or apparent] weight. Which
weights that do weigh down together may be concluded to be the common weights, as
long as they may not be sustained by the weight of the air. Common weights are nothing
other than the excess of the true weight over the weight of the air. And with the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
commonly called levities [i.e. bodies that rise under everyday conditions; thus, at this time
according to L. & J., the terms specific weight or gravity designated the ratio of weight to
volume for a substance that sinks in a given medium, usually water, whereas specific
levity or lightness similarly designates a substance that rises in a given medium], which
are negative weights, and by yielding to the weightiness of the air, they desire to rise
higher. They are comparative levities, not true ones, because they descent in a vacuum.
And thus in water, bodies which on account of greater or lesser weight descent or ascend,
are comparatively and apparently weights or levities, and the apparent and comparative
weight or levity of these is the excess or deficiency by which the true weight either
exceeds the weight of the water or by that is exceeded. Which truly neither descent by
weighing down, nor ascending by not yielding to weighing down, even if they may
increase the total weight by their true weight, yet comparatively in water and in the
common sense they may not gravitate in water. For the demonstration of these cases is
similar.

Corol.7. These things which are demonstrated from weights may be obtained from any
other centripetal forces.

Corol. 8. Hence if a medium, in which some body may be moving, may be acted on either
by gravity proper, or by some other centripetal force, and the body may be acted on more
strongly by that same force, the difference of the forces is that motive force, that we have
considered in the preceding propositions as the centripetal force. But if the body may be
acted on by that lighter force, the difference of the forces must be had for the centrifugal
force.

Corol. 9. But since fluids pressing included bodies shall not change the external shapes of
these figures, it is apparent above (by corollary of Prop. XIX) that they will not change
the position of the internal parts between themselves : and hence, if animals may be
immersed, and the sensation of all the parts may arise from the motion ; neither will fluids
harm these immersed bodies, nor will they excite any sensation, unless at this point they
are able to condense these bodies by compression. And the account is the same of any
system of bodies pressed together by the surrounding fluid. All the parts of the system
will be agitated by the same motion, as if they were put in place in a vacuum, and may
only retain their comparative weight, unless as far as either the fluid may resist the motion
of these parts a little, or according to some sticking together that may come about by
compression.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.

PROPOSITION XXI. THEOREM XVI.
Let the density of a certain fluid be proportional to the compression, and the parts of
this may be drawn downwards by a centripetal force inversely proportional to the
distances of these from the centre : I say that, if the distances may be taken in continued
proportion, the densities of the fluid at the same distances also will be in continued
proportion.

ATV may describe the spherical bottom on which the
fluid will lie, S the centre, SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, SF, &c. the
distances in continued proportion. The perpendiculars AH,
BI, CK, DL, EM, FN, &c. may be erected which shall be as
the densities of the medium at the places A, B, C, D, E, F ;
and the specific gravities at the same places will be as
CK AH BI
AS BS CS
, , , &c.
[i.e. the local specific gravity
density
distance from
local density acc. of gravity
S
,]

or, which likewise is thus, as
CK AH BI
AB B C CD
, , ,&c. Consider
first these weights to be uniformly continued well enough
from A to B, from B to C, from C to D, &c. by the steps of
the decrease at the points B, C, D, &c. And these weights [or specific gravities] multiplied
by the heights AB, BC, CD, &c. will make the pressures AH, BI, CK, etc. by which the
bottom ATV (as in Theorem XV.) is acted on. Therefore the small element A will sustain
all the pressures AB, BI, CK, DL, going of indefinitely, and also the element B all the
pressures except AH; and the element C all except the first two AB, BI ; and thus
henceforth : and thus the density AH of the first element A is to the density B of the
second element as the sum of all AH BI CK DL + + + to infinity, to the sum of all
BI CK DL + + , &c. And the second density BI of the element B is to the density CK of
the third C, as the sum of all BI CK DL + + , &c. to the sum of all CK DL + , &c.
Therefore these sums are proportional to their differences AH, BI, CK, &c., and thus are
continued proportionals (by Lem. I of this section) and hence the proportional differences
AH, BI, CK, &c. from the sums, are also continued proportionals. Whereby since the
densities at the places A, B, C, &c. shall be as AH, BI, CK, &c. these are also continued
proportions. It may advance by a leap, and from the equation with the distances SA, SC,
SE in continued proportions, the densities AH, CK, EM will be in continued proportions.
And by the same argument, with the distances in some continued proportions SA, SD, SG,
the densities AH, DL, GO will be in continued proportions. Now the points A, B, C, D, E,
&c. may coalesce, so that therefore the progression of specific gravities from the bottom
A to the top of the fluid may be returned continually, and in some continued proportions
in the distances SA, SD, SG, the densities AH, DL, GO, also present as continued
proportions, will also remain continued proportionals. Q.E.D.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
Corol. Hence if the density of the fluid may be given at two places, for example, A and
E, it is possible to deduce its density at some other place Q. With centre S, with the
rectangular asymptotes SQ and SX a hyperbola may be described cutting the
perpendiculars AH, EM, QT at a, e, q, and so the perpendiculars HX, MY, TZ, sent to the
asymptote SX, at h, m and t. The area YmtZ is made to the given area YmhX as the given
area EeqQ to the given area EeaA; and the line Zt produced
will cut the proportional line of the density QT. For if the lines
SA, SE, SQ are continued proportionals, the areas EeqQ and
EeaA are equal, and thence the areas YmtZ and XhmY are also
equal from these proportionals, and the lines SX, SY, SZ, that is
AH, EM, QT are continued proportionals, as required. And if
the lines SA, SE, SQ maintain some other order in the
continued series of proportions, the lines AH, EM, QT, on
account of the proportional hyperbolic areas, will maintain the
same order in another series of quantities in continued
proportion.

[Note from L. & J. : Indeed the hyperbolic areas EeaA and QqaA are the logarithms of the
lines SE and SQ, and equally the areas YmtZ and XhtZ are the logarithms of the lines SY
and SX; but since the areas YmtZ and XhtZ shall be by construction proportional to the
areas EeaA and QqaA , these areas YmtZ and XhtZ by the theory of logarithms can
become the logarithms of the lines SE and SQ; therefore since the same quantities shall be
able to be the logarithms both of the quantities SE and SQ, as well as of the quantities SY
and SX, it is required that these quantities SE, SY and SQ, SX will occupy corresponding
places in the geometric progressions to which they belong.]

PROPOSITION XXII. THEOREM XVII.
Let the density of a certain fluid be proportional to the compression, and the parts of
this may be drawn downwards by a weight inversely proportional to the squares of the
distances from the centre: I say that, if the distances are taken in a harmonic progression,
the density of the fluid at these distances are in a geometric progression.

Let S designate the centre, and SA, SB, SC, SD, SE the distances in a geometric
progression. The perpendiculars AH, BI, CK,
etc. may be erected which shall be as the
densities of the fluid at the places A, B, C, D,
E, etc. and the specific gravities of this at the
same places will be as
2 2 2
CK AH BI
SA SB SC
, , , &c.
Suppose these gravities to continue
uniformly, the first from A to B, the second
from B to C, the third from C to D, etc. And
these multiplied by the heights AB, BC, CD,
DE, etc. or, as it is likewise, by the distances
SA, SB, SC, etc. proportional to these heights, make the exponents of the pressure
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
CK AH BI
SA SB SC
, , etc. Whereby since the densities shall be as the sum of these pressures, the
differences of the densities AH BI , BI CK, etc. will be as the sum of the differences
CK AH BI
SA SB SC
, , , etc. With centre S, with the asymptotes SA and Sx some hyperbola may be
described, which will cut the perpendiculars AH, BI, CK, etc. at a, b, c, etc. and so also the
perpendiculars sent to the asymptote Sx, Ht, Iu, Kw in h, i, k; and the differences of the
densities tu, uw, etc. will be as
AH BI
SA SB
, , etc. And the rectangles tu th,uw ui , etc., or tp,
uq, etc. as
AH th BI ui
SA SB
, ,

etc. That is , as Aa, Bb, etc. For there is, from the nature of the
hyperbola, SA to AH or St, as th to Aa, and thus
AH th
SA
is equal to Aa. And by similar

reasoning,
BI ui
SB
is equal to Bb, etc. Moreover Aa, Bb, Cc, etc. are in continued
proportion, and therefore proportional to the differences of these : Aa Bb, Bb Cc , etc.;
and thus the rectangles tp, uq, etc. are also proportional to these differences, and as with
the sums of the differences or Aa Cc Aa Dd , the sums of the rectangles tp+uq
ortp uq wr + + . Let there be a number of terms of this kind, and the sum of all the
differences, such as Aa Ff , will be proportional to the sum of all the rectangles, such as
zthn. The number of terms may be increased and the distances between the points A, B, C,
etc. diminished indefinitely, and these rectangles emerge equal to the area of the
hyperbola zthn, and thus the differenceAa Ff is proportional to this area. Now there
may be assumed some distances, such as SA, SD, SF in a harmonic progression, and the
differences Aa Dd, Dd Ff will be equal; and therefore with these differences
proportional to the area , thlx and xlnz will be equal to each other, and the densities St, Sx,
Sz, that is, AH, DL, FN, continued proportionals. Q.E.D.

Corol. Hence if some two densities of the fluid may be given, for example AH and BI, the
area thiu will be given, corresponding to the differencetu of these ; and thence the density
FN may be found at some height SF, on taking the area thnz to that given area thiu, the
difference Aa Ff is to the difference Aa Bb .

[L. & J . Note : Truly since the area thiu is to the areathnz as the logarithm of the line St or
AH to the logarithm of the line Sz or FN, the density FN can be found from a table of
logarithms. And conversely, with the density FN given, the height SF may be found : for
by the above proposition, Aa Ff will be given, and thence Ff will be given, from which
SA An
Ff
FS

= .]
Scholium.
By a similar argument it is possible to prove, that if the particular gravity of a fluid be
diminished in the triple ratio of the distances from the centre, and the reciprocals of the
squares of the distances SA, SB, SC, etc. (clearly
3 3 3
2 2 2
, ,
SA SA SA
SA SB SC
) may be assumed in an
arithmetic progression ; the densities AH, BI, CK, etc. will be in a geometric progression.
And if the gravity may be diminished in the quadruple ratio of the distances, and the
inverse cubes of the distances are taken in an arithmetic progression (such as
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
4 4 4
3 3 3
, ,
SA SA SA
SA SB SC
, etc.) ; the densities AH, BI, CK, etc. will be in a geometric progression.
And thus ad infinitum. Again if the gravity of a particular fluid shall be the same at all
distances, and the distances shall be in an arithmetic progression, the densities will be in a
geometric progression, as Edmund Halley, the most distinguished of men, has found. If
the gravity shall be as the distance, and the squares of the distances shall be in an
arithmetic progression, the densities will be in a geometric progression. And thus
indefinitely. These thus are had themselves where with the compression of the fluid the
density of condensation is as the force of compression, or just as because the distance
occupied by a fluid is inversely as this force. Other laws of condensation can be devised,
so that the cube of the compressing force shall be as the fourth power of the density, or
the same triplicate ratio of the force with the quadruple ratio of the density. In which case,
if the gravity is inversely as the square of the distance : from the centre, the density will
be inversely as the cube of the distance. It may be devised that the cube of the
compressing force shall be as the fifth of the density, and if gravity is inversely as the
square of the distance, the density shall be inversely as the three on two ratio of the
distance. [See the final L & J. notes 177 & 178 below.] It may be devised that the
compressing force shall be in the duplicate ratio of the density, and gravity inversely in
the duplicate ratio of the distance as the distance. It would be tedious to run through all
the cases. Finally it is agreed by experiment that the density of the air shall be as the
compressing force, either accurately or at least approximately : and therefore the density
of the air in the earth's atmosphere is as the weight of all the incumbent air, that is, as the
height of mercury in a barometer.

[Extended note 177 from L. & J . : Let the centripetal force of some fluid be as some
power of the distance, the index of which is n; S may designate the centre, and SA, SB,
SC, CD, SE may designate the distances in a geometric progression. The perpendiculars
AH, BI, CK, etc., may be erected which shall be as the fluid densities at the places A, B, C,
D, E, etc. And the specific gravities of this at the same places will be etc
n n n
CK AH BI
SA SB SC
, , , .
Suppose these gravities to be continued uniformly first from A to B, second from B to C,
third for C to D, etc. And thus multiplied by the heights AB, BC, CD, DE, etc., or what
amounts to the same, by the distances AS, SB, SC, etc. , by these proportional heights, puts
in place the terms of the pressure
1 1 1
etc
n n n
CK AH BI
SA SB SC
, , , .

Whereby since the densities shall
be as the sum of these pressures, the differences of the densities etc AH BI , BI CK, .
will be as the differences of the sums
1 1 1
etc
n n n
CK AH BI
SA SB SC
, , , .

made by the same
constructions, as above in Prop. XXII., and the difference of the densities tv, uw, etc. will
be as
1 1 1
etc
n n n
CK AH BI
SA SB SC
, , , .

and the rectangles etc tv th,uw ui , . , or tp, uq, etc. as
1 1
1 1
etc that is, as , ,etc
n n
n n
AH th BI ui
SA SB
, , ., Aa Bb .

For indeed, by Theorem IV by Hypothesis,
equals AH th, SA An, and Aa inversely as SA, or directly as
1
SA
, and thus
1
1
as
n
n
AH th
SA
SA Aa Aa ,
or as
1 n
Aa

since there shall be 1 SA Aa = , and by a similar
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
argument
1
1
as etc
n
n
BI ui
SB
Bb , .
; but Aa, Bb, Cc, etc., and thus

1 1 1
etc
n n n
Aa ,Bb ,Cc , .

are
continued proportionals, and therefore with the differences of these
1 1 1 1
etc
n n n n
Aa Bb ,Bb Cc , .

proportionals, and thus with these differences the
proportionals are the rectangles tp, uq, etc. and as with the sum of the differences
1 1 1 1
or
n n n n
Aa Cc , Aa Dd

the sums of the rectangles or tp uq, tp uq wr. + + +
There will be several terms of this kind, and the sum of all the differences; for example
1 1 n n
Aa Ff ,

will be the sum of all the rectangles, for example zthn, with the
proportionals. The number of terms may be increased, and the separations of the points A,
B, C, etc., diminished indefinitely, and these rectangles become equal to the hyperbolic
areas zthn, and thus the difference
1 1 n n
Aa Ff

is proportional to this area.
Now there may be taken powers of any distances you please, such as SA, SD, SF,
1 1 1
etc
n n n
SA ,SD ,SF , .

in a harmonic progression, and thus the reciprocals of these
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
etc or
n n n
n n n
SA SD SF
, , , . Aa ,Dd ,Ff

are in an arithmetic progression, and the
differences
1 1 1 1 n n n n
Aa Dd ,Dd Ff

will be equal; and therefore the differences
from these proportional areas thlx, xlnz are equal to each other, and the densities St, Sx,
Sz, that is, AH, DL, FN are continued proportionals. Whereby if the weights of the
particles of fluid may be diminished in some multiple of the distances, the exponent of
which shall be n, and of the powers
1 1 1
etc
n n n
SA ,SB ,SC , .

, the reciprocals (evidently
1 1 1
etc
n n n
n n n
SA SA SA
SA SB SC
, , , .

, in which SA has been given) may be taken in an arithmetic
progression; the densities AH, BI, CK, etc., will be in a geometric progression.
And if therefore in place of n there may be written the numbers 3,4,5,6, etc.,
indefinitely; and again there may be written 0,-1, -2, -3, etc., indefinitely, the truth of the
scholii in the hypothesis of the proportional density for the compressing force. But when
0 n = , or when the gravity of a particular fluid is the same at all distances, there is
1 1
n n
n n
SA SA
SA SB
SA, SB

= = , and thus if the distances may be taken in an arithmetical
progression, the densities will be in a geometric progression, and thus the distances are as
the logarithms of the densities, because with increased distances in the arithmetical
progression, the densities will decrease in a geometric progression. Because truly it is
agreed by experiment, that the density of air, with all else being equal and mainly with the
same degree of heat remaining, shall be as the force of compression either accurately or
perhaps as an approximation in air that we are able to expose by experiments, but the
force on the air being pressed below, with all else being equal, shall be equal to the weight
of all the incumbent air, and thus proportional to the height of mercury in a barometer,
and besides the weight of particles of air, perhaps at small distances from the surface of
the earth, will be agreed upon to be constant, it is apparent that, with all else equal, the
density of the air at small distances of this kind, we are able to measure with logarithms.
Consult the work of Wolfe, Elementis Aerometriae, Book II of Phoronomiae by
Hermann, and section 10 of Hydrodynamicae by Daniel Bernoulli.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.

PROPOSITION XXIII. THEOREM XVIII.
If the density of a fluid composed from particles mutually repelling each other shall be
as the compression, the centrifugal forces of the particles are inversely proportional to
their distances from their centres. And in turn, the small particles with the forces which
are inversely proportional to the distances of their centres mutually repelling each other
comprise an elastic fluid, the density of which is proportional to the compression.

The fluid may be understood to be enclosed
within the cubical space ACE, then on
compression to be reduced into a smaller cubical
volume ace; and of the particles, maintaining a
similar position in each case between each other,
the distances will be as the cube roots of the sides
AB, ab ; and the densities of the mediums inversely
as the containing volumes
3 3
and AB ab . On the
side of the greater cube in the plane ABCD, the square DP may be taken equal to the side
in the lesser cube db; and from hypothesis, the pressure, by which the square DP presses
on the enclosed fluid, will be to the pressure, by which that square db presses on the
enclosed fluid, as the medium densities in turn, that is, as
3 3
to ab AB . But the pressure,
by which the square DB presses on the enclosed fluid, is to the pressure, by which DP
likewise presses on the fluid, as the square DB to the square DP, that is, as
2 2
to AB ab .
Therefore, from the equality, the pressure by which the square DB presses on the fluid, is
to the pressure by which the square db presses on the fluid, as ab to AB. With the planes
FGH and fgh drawn through the middles of the cubes, the fluid may be separated into two
parts, and these press on each other mutually by the same forces, by which they were
pressed upon by the planes AC and ac, that is, in the proportion ab to AB: and thus the
centrifugal forces, by which these pressures may be sustained, are in the same ratio. On
account of the same number of particles and the similar situation in each cube, the forces
which all the particles exercise on the planes FGH, fgh generally, are as the forces which
the individual particles exert on the individual particles. Therefore the forces, which the
individuals exert on the individuals following the plane FGH in the larger cube, are to the
forces, which the individuals exert on the individuals following the plane fgh in the minor
cube, ab to AB, that is, inversely as the separations of the particles in turn. Q.E.D.
And vice versa, if the forces of the individual particles are inversely as the separations,
that is, inversely as the cube root of the sides AB, ab ; the sum of the forces will be in the
same ratio, and the pressures of the sides DB, db will be as the sum of the forces ; and the
pressure on the square DP will be to the pressure of the side DB as ab
2
to AB
2
. And, from
the equation, the pressure of the square DP to the pressure of the side db as ab
3
to AB
3
,
that is, the force of compression to the force of compression as the density to the density.
Q.E.D.
[L. & J. Note : D and d shall be the separations of the particles in the volumes of the
cubes ACE and ace which are as AB and ab, the centrifugal forces of the same inversely
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
as D
n
and d
n
, the densities of the fluids E and e, and the compressing forces shall be as
2 2
3 3
and
n n
E e .
+ +

For since the sum of the forces which all the forces exert at the same time on the sides
DB and db shall be as the forces of the individual particles, the sum of these forces will be
inversely as D
n
and d
n
, or as and
n n
ab AB directly; and the pressure of the square DP to
the pressure of the square db , as ab
2
to AB
2
; from which equation the pressure of the
square DP to the pressure of the square db, that is, the compressing force in the space
ACE to the compressing force in the space ace, as
2 2
to
n n
ab AB
+ +
. But the densities,
either are as E to e, or as
3 3
to ab AB , and thus
2 2
3 3
2 2
to as to
n n
n n
E e ab AB
+ +
+ +
.
Whereby the compressing forces are as
2 2
3 3
and
n n
E e .
+ +
And conversely, etc.]

Scholium.
By a similar argument, if the centrifugal forces of the particles shall be in the inverse
square ratio of the distances between the centres, the cubes of the compressing forces are
as the fourth powers of the densities. If the centrifugal forces shall be in the triplicate or
quadruplicate ratio of the distances, the cubes of the compressing forces will be as the
squares cubes or the cubed cubes of the densities. And generally, if D may be put for the
distance, and E for the density of the compressed fluid, and the centrifugal forces shall
be inversely as some power of the distance D, the index of which is the number n, the
compressing forces will be as the cube roots of the power
2 n
E
+
, the index of which is
2 n + : and conversely. Truly all these are to be understood concerning the centrifugal
forces of the particles which are restricted to nearby particles, but do not spread out far
beyond. We have an example with magnetic bodies. The attractive force of these may be
restricted almost to nearby bodies of the same kind close to themselves. The magnetic
force may be drawn together by interposing a sheet of iron, and may be almost be
restricted to the iron. For bodies beyond are not attracted by the magnet as much as the
iron. In the same manner, if particles repel other particles of the same kind close to
themselves, but exert no force on more remote particles, fluids may be composed from
particles of this kind as has been acted on in this proposition. Because if the force of
particles of this kind may be propagated to infinity, there would be a need for a greater
force to equal the condensation of a greater quantity of fluid. Or indeed the physical
question is, that it may be agreed that an elastic fluid may
consist of a particles mutually repelling each other. We have
shown our property of fluids mathematically from particles of
this kind agreeing mathematically, so that we may offer an
opening to philosophers towards treating that question.

[Extended note 178 from L. & J. : It will be better to treat the
general formula, from which the individual cases will be
elicited in a more pleasing manner. Therefore with the same
which have been put in place above, let the variable distance
SC x = , the height CD dx = , the density CK y = , the total
compressing force at the place C v = , the force of gravity at
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
the same place g = ; and the specific gravity at the same place will be as gy, and with this
multiplied by the vanishing height CD or dx there may be prepared the moment of the
pressure gydx dv = . But take the fluxion to be negative, because by increasing the
distance x, the incumbent weight v may decrease.
Let the gravity g be as
1
m
x
, the density y as the compressing force to the power
n
v , and
thus
1
a
n
y s v , and on taking the fluxions
1
1
a
n
n
n
y dy s dv
. In place of g and dv these values

may be substituted into the equation gydx dv = , and there arises
1 1 2
1 1
or
n n
n n
m m
ydx
dx
n n
x x
y dy y dy

= = . Truly in these equations we have set out no
equalities, but only proportionalities, and thus we have ignored the given coefficients.
If there is put 1 n = in the final equation, that is, the density of the proportional
compressing force, will be
m
dy
dx
y
x
= . The quantities
1
1
m
x

may be taken in arithmetic
progression; and the fluxions of these, or the differentials arising
( ) 1
m
m dx
x
, and thus
m
dx
x

also will be constants, and therefore the quantities
dy
y
also given; and hence the
proportional densities y from its differentials dy, will be continued proportionals, by
Lemma II, Book II. If under the same hypothesis there may be put 1 m= , there shall be
dy
dx
y x
= ; hence if there may be taken the constant quantities
dx
x
, or the distances x in a
geometric progression, the quantities
dy
y
will also be constant, and thus the densities y are
in a geometric progression. In short as has been demonstrated in Prop. XXI and Prop.
XXII, and the first scholium of this section. On taking the fluents, the equation
1 2 1
1
1 1 1
1 1
will become
n n
n n
m
m
dx
n n m
x
y dy y x Q,

= = + in which it is apparent that that
there cannot be 1; 1; or 0 m n n = = = , and Q is a constant. But in order that the value of
the constant Q may be determined, initially the height SF must be defined, where the
density y vanishes; Now if that height is finite and it may be said to be a = , on putting
0 y = , there will be had
1
1
1
and hence
m
m
Q a ,
=
1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1
n m m m m
n x a a x
n m m
y ,

= = in
which equation
1 n
n
must be a positive number less than one, so that with increasing

distances x, the densities y decrease, and conversely. If the height SF at which the density
y vanishes may be supposed to be infinite, the constant Q will be equal to zero, and hence
the equation
1
1
1 1
1 1
n
n
m
n m
y x .

= For if in the equation
1 1 1
1
1 1
n m m
n x a
n m
y ,

= y may be put
equal to zero and x becomes infinite, the constant quantity a will be infinite, contrary to
the hypothesis.
Now indeed if gravity is inversely as the square of the distance, that is if 2 m= , the
equation
1
1
1 1
1 1
n
n
m
n m
y x

= changes into
1
1 1
1
n
n
n x
y

= , from which
1
1
n
n
x
y
. It may be
supposed that the cube of the compressing force shall be as the quadruple power of the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section V.
density, or
3
4
4 3
3
4
and thus and hence y v y v , n = , and there will be
3
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
y
=
[there is a misprint here in the L. & J. text], and hence the density y varies inversely as x
3
,
or the density varies inversely as the cube of the distance. Again, the cases mentioned by
Newton,
3
5
5 3
3
5
and thus and hence y v y v , n = , and there will be
3
2
1
x
y ; again,
1
2
2
1
2
and thus and hence y v y v , n = , gives y inversely proportional to x. See
Monumenta Academiae Regiae Scientiarum (1716), where P. Varignon has treated this
material. ]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.

SECTION VI.
Concerning the motion and resistance of simple pendulums.

PROPOSITION XXIV. THEOREM XIX.
The quantities of matter in suspended bodies, the centres of oscillation of which are
equidistant from the centre of suspension, are in a ratio compounded from the ratio of the
weights and in the square ratio of the times of the oscillations in a vacuum.

[In this proposition and corollaries, the suspended bodies which are to be compared, are
supposed to be oscillating on cycloidal arcs or on the arcs of exceedingly large circles. In
addition, the acceleration of gravity is not assumed constant, but varies from place to
place between the pendulums, and the force hence likewise on account of the gravitational
forces differing, while the inertial masses in turn give rise to differing accelerations.
(From an L. & J. note).
This section follows on from Section10, Book I, which the reader may wish to consult.
We may also note here the use of the word funipendulus by Newton in describing what
we call a simple pendulum, which is a made up Latin word, describing a body hanging
from a rope or cord, and implied able to swing freely, or in this case for the cord to wrap
around cycloidal cusps; the involute of the cycloid described being a similar inverted
cycloid. A vertical cycloid arc supports simple harmonic motion of any amplitude for a
particle travelling along such a curve under the influence of gravity, as can be worked out
from the parametric equations of the curve, found in most older books on mechanics. (We
note however, that the motion of a bead on a smooth wire of this shape has different
boundary conditions from a pendulum swinging and suspended between the inverted arcs
of a cycloid: as in the latter case the length of the pendulum is taken customarily as twice
the diameter of the circle that generates the cycloid, so that the bob never comes into
contact with the cycloid walls, only the string.) Thus the arc length is proportional to the
( ve) acceleration, and so to the force acting on the mass. These questions were taken up
and solved analytically by Euler in Book II of his Mechanica, Chapter 3, 545 601;
see e.g. the translations by this writer. We will give here in addition, the partial analytic
solutions of Brougham and Routh and from modern sources; the relevant notes of Leseur
& J anquier are used occasionally to augment Newton's arguments.]

For the velocity, that a given force in a given material, can generate in a given time, is
as the force and the time directly, and as the [quantity of] matter indirectly. So that the
greater the force or the greater the time or the less the matter, from that a greater velocity
will be generated. Because that is evident from the second law of motion. Now truly if
the pendulums are of the same length, the motive forces in places at equal distances from
the perpendicular are as the weights : and thus if two bodies describe equal arcs by
oscillating, and these arcs may be divided into equal parts ; since the times in which the
bodies describe the corresponding parts of arcs shall be as the times of the whole
oscillations, the velocities in turn, in the corresponding parts of the oscillations, shall be
as the motive forces and the times of the whole oscillations directly, and inversely as the
quantities of matter : and thus the quantities of matter are as the [motive] forces and the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
times of oscillations directly and inversely as the velocities. But the velocities are
inversely as the times, and thus the times directly and the velocities inversely together are
as the squares of the times, and therefore the quantities of matter are as the motive forces
and the squares of the times, that is, as the weights and the squares of the times. Q.E.D.
[Thus, in an obvious notation,
2
2
m w t
M W
T
.]
Corol. 1. Thus if the times shall be equal, the quantities of matter in the individual bodies
shall be as the weights.
Corol. 2. If the weight shall be equal, the quantities of matter shall be as the squares of the
times.
Corol. 3. If the quantities of matter shall be equal, the weights shall be inversely as the
squares of the times.
Corol.4. From which since the squares of the times, with all else being equal, shall be as
the lengths of the pendulums, and if both the times and the quantities of matter are equal,
the weights shall be as the lengths of the pendulums.
Corol. 5. And generally, the quantity of matter of the pendulum is as the weight and the
square of the time directly, and inversely as the length of the pendulum.
Corol. 6. But also in a non resisting medium, the quantity of matter in the pendulum is as
the comparative weight, the square of the time directly, and the length of the pendulum
inversely. For the comparative weight is the motive force of the body in some heavy
medium, as I have explained above; and thus likewise performs in such a non-resisting
medium as the absolute weight in a vacuum.
Corol. 7. And hence an account may be clear both of comparing bodies between each
other, as far as the quantity of matter in each, as well as comparing the weights of the
same bodies in different places, and requiring an understanding of the variation of gravity.
But with the most accurate experiments performed I have always found that the quantity
of matter in individual bodies are proportional to the weights of these.

PROPOSITIO XXV. THEOREMA XX.
Bodies suspended as simple pendulums in which, with some medium present that
resists in the ratio of instants of time, and suspended bodies which may be moving without
resistance in a medium of the same specific gravity, complete oscillations on a cycloid in
the same time, and describe proportional parts of the arcs in the same time.

Let AB be the arc of a cycloid, that the body D will
describe by oscillating in some time in a non resisting
medium. The same may be bisected in C, thus so that
C shall be the lowest point of this ; and the
accelerative force by which the body may be urged on
if in some place D or d or E shall be as the length of
the arc CD or Cd or CE. That force may be shown by
the same arc, and since the resistance shall be as a moment of time [which is taken to
mean that the resistance is constant], and it may be given thus, the same may be shown by
the part CO of the given arc of the cycloid, and the arc Od may be taken in the ratio to the
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
arc CD that the arc CB has to the arc CB: and the force by which the body may be acted
on at d in the resisting medium, since it shall be the excess of the force Cd over the
resistance CO, may be shown by the arc CD, and thus it will be to the force, by which the
body may be acted on in the medium without resistance at the place D, as the arc Od to
the arc CD; and therefore also at the place B as the arc OB to the arc CB. Therefore if two
bodies, D, d may depart from the place B, and may be acted on by these forces: since the
forces from the beginning shall be as the arcs CB and OB, the first velocities and the first
arc will be described in the same ratio. Let these arcs be BD and Bd, and the remaining
arcs CD and Od will be in the same ratio. Hence the forces will remain proportional to
CD and Od themselves in the same ratio and from the
start, and therefore the bodies may traverse the arcs to be
likewise described in the same ratio. Therefore the forces
and the velocities and the remaining arcs CD and Od will
always be as the whole arcs CB and OB, and therefore
these remaining arcs will be described likewise. Whereby
the two bodies D and d will arrive at the places C and O
at the same time, indeed the one at the place C in the non-
resisting medium, and the other at the placeO in the resisting medium. But since the
velocities at C and O shall be as the arcs CB and OB; these arcs, which the bodies
likewise describe by going further, will be in the same ratio. Let these be CE and Oe. The
force by which the body D may be retarded in the non-resisting medium at E is as CE, and
the force by which the body d may be retarded in the resisting medium at e is as the sum
of the force Ce, and of the resistance CO, that is as Oe; and thus the forces, by which the
bodies may be retarded, are as the arcs CB and OB proportional to the arcs CE, Oe; and
hence the velocities, retarded in that given ratio, remain in that same given ratio.
Therefore the velocities and the arcs described by the same are always in that given ratio
of the arcs CB and OB; and therefore if the whole arcs AB and aB may be taken in the
same ratio, the bodies D and d likewise describe these arcs, and all the motion may be let
go from the places A and a at the same time. Therefore all the oscillations are
isochronous, and any parts of arcs BD and Bd, or BE and Be which are described at the
same time shall be proportional to the whole arcs BA and Ba. Q.E.D.

Corol. Therefore the most rapid motion does not fall on the lowest point C, but is found at
that point O, by which the whole arc described aB may be bisected. And the body at once
by progressing to a, may be retarded by the same steps by which before it was accelerated
in its descent from aB to O.

[This proposition follows at once from the isochronous nature of the oscillations, being
independent of the amplitude; thus, the role of the resistance is merely to enable the
system to pass through successive isochronous oscillations of diminishing amplitudes : on
the assumption that there is no dependence of the time of oscillation on the resistance,
which is certainly the case for damping of this kind.
For a modern analysis; see, e.g. Chorlton, Textbook of Dynamics, p.96, V.N.: Let l be
twice the radius of the generating circle, s the arc length from C, v the velocity, and take
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
the mass of the particle as unity. Let
2
g
l
f be the constant resistance. We note that the
intrinsic equation of the cycloid can be written as 2 s l sin = , where is the angle the
tangent to the cycloid makes at this point, in the sense of increasing s. The motive force
on the body can be written as
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2 2 2
or
d s f
g g g
d s
l l l
dt dt
s f s f
+ = = ; this is the
standard differential equation for S.H.M. about a point distant f to the right of the lowest
point, with the angular frequency
2
g
l
, and we can immediately write down
( ) ( )
0
2
g
l
s t s f cos t f = + for the first half cycle of the motion starting from s
0
and
reaching the maximum tangential speed at f, where the attracting force becomes zero;
however, when the particle comes to rest after completing the arc, the sign of the
resistance changes, and a new equation can now be set up
( )
( )
2
2
2
d s f
g
l
dt
s f
+
= + for the
other half of the swing, and solved for these conditions; the outcome being amplitudes of
swings decreasing in an arithmetic progression, as an arc f is removed in each half swing
while the frequency and hence the period of the oscillation is unchanged, as Newton has
shown. B. & R. have incorrectly used l rather than 2l in their derivations.]

PROPOSITION XXVI. THEOREM XXI.
The oscillations of simple pendulums on a cycloid, which are resisted in the ratio of the
velocities, are isochronous.

For if two bodies, at equal distances from the centre of suspension, by oscillating
describe unequal arcs, and the velocities in the corresponding parts of the arcs shall be in
turn as the total arcs ; the resistances proportional to the velocities, also in turn they will
be as the same arcs. Hence if with the motive forces arising from gravity, which shall be
as the same arcs, these resistances may be taken away or added on, the differences or the
sums in turn will be in the same ratio of the arcs : and since the increments or decrements
of the velocities shall be as these differences or sums, the velocities always will be as the
whole arcs : Therefore the velocities, if in any case they shall be as the whole arcs, always
will remain in the same ratio. But at the start of the motion, when the bodies begin to
descend and to describe these whole arcs, the forces, since they shall be proportional to
the arcs, will generate velocities proportional to the arcs. Therefore the velocities always
will be as the whole arcs described, and therefore these arcs may be described in the same
times. Q.E.D.
[In this case analytically, the force equation can be written as
2
2
2
2 0
g
d s ds
dt l
dt
k s + + = ; in the
case of under damped motion, the particle oscillates with a reduced frequency, depending
on the size of the damping coefficient k, and decays exponentially, or the amplitudes are
in a geometric progression . Again, this is a standard equation that can be found in the
appropriate texts.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.

PROPOSITION XXVII. THEOREM XXII.
If for funicular bodies there is resistance in the square ratio of the velocities, the
differences between the times of the oscillations in a resisting medium and the times of the
oscillations in a non-resisting medium of the same specific gravity, will be nearly
proportional to the arcs described.

For with equal pendulums in the resisting medium, unequal arcs A and B may be
described ; and the resistance of the body in the arc A to the resistance of the body in the
corresponding arc B will be in the square ratio of the velocities, that is, as A
2
to B
2
, as an
approximation. If the resistance in the arc B should be to the resistance in the arc A as AB
to A
2
; the times in the arcs A and B become equal, by the above Proposition. [As the
resistances are again in the ratio of B to A.] And thus the resistances A
2
in the arc A, or
AB in the arc B, brings about the excess of the time in the arc A above the time in the non-
resisting medium, and the resistance B
2
brings about an excess of the time in the arc B
above the time in the non-resisting medium. But these excesses are as the effecting forces
AB and BB as an approximation, that is, as the arcs A and B. Q.E.D.

Corol 1. Hence from the times of the oscillations made, in the resisting medium, in
unequal arcs, the times of the oscillations are able to become known in the non-resisting
medium of the same specific gravity. For the differences of the times will be to the excess
of the time in the smaller arc above the time in the non-resisting medium, as the
difference of the arcs to the minor arc.

Corol. 2. The shorter oscillations are more isochronous, and the shortest may be carried
out in the same times as in the non-resisting medium, approximately. Truly of these which
are made in the greater arcs, the times then become a little greater, and therefore so that
the resistance in the descent of the body in which time it may be produced, shall be
greater for the ratio of the length to be described in the descent, than the resistance in the
subsequent ascent in which the time is shortened. Moreover the time of the oscillations
both of the shorter as well as of the longer may be seen never to be produced by the
motion of the medium. For with the bodies slowed there is a little less resistance, for the
ratio of the velocities, and with the accelerations a little more than from these which are
progressing uniformly : and thus because the medium, from that motion it has acquired
from the bodies, may be progressing in the same direction, in the first case is disturbed
more, in the second less; and hence may agree more or less with the motion of the body.
Therefore with descending pendulums the resistance will be greater, and in the ascent less
than with the ratio of the velocities, and the time is increased from each cause.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
PROPOSITION XXVIII. THEOREM XXIII.
If, with a simple pendulum oscillating in the cycloid, it may be resisted in the ratio of
the moments of time [i.e. constant resistive forces], the resistance of this to the force of
gravity will be as the excess of the whole descending arc described over the whole
ascending arc subsequently described, to the length of the pendulum doubled.

Let BC designate the descended arc described, Ca the
ascended arc described, and Aa the difference of the arcs
: and with the demonstrations and constructions which
were put in place in Proposition XXV, the force will be,
by which the oscillating body may be urged at some
location D, to the force of resistance as the arc CD to the
arc CO, which is half of that difference Aa. And thus the
force, by which the oscillating body may be acted on in
the beginning or at highest point of the cycloid, that is, the force of gravity, will be to the
resistance as the arc of the cycloid between the highest point of that and the lowest point
C to the arc CO; that is (if the arcs may be doubled): as the whole arc of the cycloid, or
twice the length of the pendulum, to the arc Aa. Q. E. D.

PROPOSITION XXIX. PROBLEM VI.
For a body put in place oscillating on a cycloid resisting in the square ratio of the
velocity, to find the resistance at individual places.

Let Ba be the whole arc described in
an oscillation, and let C be the lowest
point of the cycloid, and CZ the half arc
of the whole cycloid, equal to the
length of the pendulum ; and the
resistance may be sought at some place
D. The indefinite right line OQ may be
cut at the points O, S, P, Q, by that rule,
so that (if the perpendiculars OK, ST, PI, QE may be erected and with centre O and with
the asymptotes OK, OQ , the hyperbola TIGE may be described cutting the
perpendiculars ST, PI, QE in T, I & E, and through the point I , KF may be drawn parallel
to the asymptote OQ meeting the asymptote OK in K, and the perpendiculars ST and QE
in L and F), the hyperbolic area PIEQ to the hyperbolic area PITS shall be as the arc BC
described by the descent of the body to the arc Ca described by the ascent, and the area
IEF to the area ILT as OQ to OS. Then the hyperbolic areaPINM may be cut by the
perpendicular MN which shall be to the hyperbolic area PIEQ as the arc CZ to the arc BC
described in the descent. And if the hyperbolic areaPIGR may be cut by the perpendicular
RG, which shall be to the area PIEQ as some arc CD to the arc BC described in the whole
descent, the resistance at the point D to the force of gravity, shall be as the area
OR
OQ
IEF IGH to the area PINM.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
For since the forces arising from gravity by which the body may be acted on at the
places Z, B, D, a, shall be as the arcs CZ, CB, CD, Ca, and these arcs shall be as the areas
PINM, PIEQ, PIGR, PITS; then both the arcs as well as the forces may be represented by
these areas respectively. Let Dd above be as the minimum distance described in the
descent of the body, and likewise there may be shown by the areaRGgr taken as the
minimum from the parallels RG, rg, and rg may be produced to h, so that GHhg and RGgr
shall be the decrements of the areas IGH and PIGR during the same time. And the
increment or
Rr Rr
OQ OQ
GHhg IEF, Rr HG IEF of the area
OR
OQ
IEF IGH , will be
to the decrement RGgr of the area PIGR, or to or
Rr
OQ
OR HG IEF OR GR OP PI ,
that is (on account of the equality of
OR HG, OR HR OR GR, ORHK OPIK, PIHR & PIGR IGH + ),
as to
OR
OQ
PIGR IGH IEF OPIK + . Therefore if the area
OR
OQ
IEF IGH may be
called Y, and the decrement RGgr of the area PIGR may be given, the increment of the
area Y will be as PIGRY.
But if V may designate the force arising from gravity, proportional to the arc CD
described, by which the body may be acted on at V, and R may be put in place for the
resistance; V R will be the whole force by which the body is acted on at D. And thus
the increment of the velocity is as V R and that small element of the time in which it
has been made jointly. But also the velocity itself shall be as the increment of the
distance described directly and inversely to the same element of the time. From which ,
since the resistance by hypothesis shall be as the square of the velocity, the increment of
the resistance, (by Lemma II) will be as the velocity and the increment of the velocity
jointly, that is, as the moment of the distance and V R together ; and thus, if the moment
of the distance may be given, as V R ; that is, if for a given force V it may be expressed
by writing PIGR, and the resistance R may be expressed by some other area Z, as
PIGR Z .
Therefore the area PIGR uniformly decreasing by the removal of the given moments,
the areas Y increase in the ratio PIGR Y , and the area Z in the ratio PIGR Z . And
therefore if the areas Y and Z may be taken together and they shall be equal from the
beginning, these by the addition of equal moments will be able to go on equal, and
likewise from the equal moments at once the decreases vanish together. And in turn, if
they both begin and vanish together, they will have equal moments and they will always
be equal: hence that is the case because if the resistance Z may be increased, the velocity
together with the that arc Ca, which will be described in the ascent of the arc, will be
diminished, and at the point at which all the motion together with the resistance may
cease by approaching closer to the point C, the resistance may vanish more rapidly than
the area Y. And conversely it will arise when the resistance is diminished.
Now truly the area Z begins and is definite when the resistance is zero, that is, in the
first place the motion of the arc CD may be equal to the motion of the arc CB everywhere
and the right line RG begins on the right line QE, & in the end the motion everywhere of
the arc CD may be equal to the arc Ca and RG falls on the right line ST. And the area Y or
OR
OQ
IEF IGH begins and is defined where it is zero, and thus and
OR
OQ
IEF IGH are
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
equal everywhere : that is (by the construction) where the right line RG successively
begins on the right lines QE and ST. And hence these areas begin and vanish together, and
therefore they are always equal. Therefore the area
OR
OQ
IEF IGH is equal to the area
Z, by which the resistance is expressed, and therefore it is to that area PINM through
which gravity is expressed, as the resistance to the weight. Q.E.D.

Corol. I. Therefore the resistance at the lowest place C is to the force of gravity, as the
area
OP
OQ
IEF to the area PINM.

Corol: 2. But the maximum shall come about, when the area PIHR is to the area IEF as
OR to OQ. For in that case the moment of this (without doubt PIGR Y ) becomes zero.

Corol. 3. Hence also the velocity at individual places may become known, clearly which
is in the square root ratio of the resistance, and the motion from the beginning itself may
be equal to the velocity of the body on the same cycloid without resistance of oscillation.
Subsequently, on account of the difficult calculation by which the resistance and the
velocity are required to be found by this proposition, it has been considered to attach the
following proposition.

[It is convenient to give here the Brougham & Routh derivation, starting from
2 2
dv
ds
v s kv = in an obvious notation, where
2
2
g
l
= ; initially the particle is moving
in the direction of the increasing arc; when it returns, the damping factor must change
sign. B & R point out that the displacement cannot be written finitely as a function of
time; however, it is possible to find the velocity of the particle at any point on the arc
using an integrating factor. Put the equation in the form :

2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 or 2 2
ks ks ks
dv dv
ds ds
kv s e ke v e s + = + = , giving
( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 or 2
ks
d v e
ks ks ks
ds
e s v e e sds = =

, which in turn gives :
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
2
2
ks
ks ks ks ks
e
k k k
v e e sds e s e ds C s

= = =

. The constant C may
be found by putting
2
2
2
2
when 0; in which case
k
v V s C V

= = = ; if the damping is
small, this finite expression can be expanded out approximately. These writers dismiss
Newton's geometrical solution for the velocity as, ' of no value except as a matter of
curiosity'. We follow on with B. & R.'s analysis for deducing the law of the resistance
from experiments with a pendulum, before examining Newton's general formulation of
the problem in the next two propositions, for a small disturbance produced in the
oscillation of any kind whatever.
Let the quantities s, t, , etc., have the same meaning as before, and let f be some
small disturbance acting along the tangent of the motion of the particle. The equation of
motion will then be, on adapting the original terminology slightly to more modern :
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
2
2
2
d s
dt
s f . + =
If 0 f = , the motion will be given by ( ) ( ) ; s Asin t v A cos t = + = + ; we assume
that these are the equations of motion when f is not zero, and in which case A and are
functions of the time t (Camb. Phil. Trans. 1826), were the second equation is the
differential of the first: ( ) ( )
( )
( )
d
dA
dt dt
sin t Acos t A cos t
+ + + + = + ; or

( ) ( ) 0
d
dA
dt dt
sin t Acos t

+ + + = ;

and since these equations satisfy the original equation of motion, we have
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
or
d
dv dA
dt dt dt
s f , cos t A sin t Asin t f
+ = + + + + + = ;
leading to :
( ) ( )
d f
dA
dt dt
cos t A sin t
+ + = .

Solving these equations, we have :

( ) ( ) and
f d f
dA
dt dt A
.cos t .sin t

= + = + ]

These equations, when solved, will give the changes in the arc and the time, produced by
the cause f.
If f is very small, then so are the variations of the amplitude A and of the phase , and
so can be ignored when multiplied by f, as quantities proportional to
2
f arise. Hence, if A'
and ' are the new values of A and ,

( ) ( )
1 1
and
A
A' A f cos t dt ' f sin t dt

= + = +

;
from which we learn that if f consists of two disturbing causes, the total disturbance will
be equal almost to the sum of the two disturbances separately.
Suppose that
m
f kv = , i.e. the resistance is proportional to the m
th
power of the
velocity, then the velocity in moving from the lowest point is :

( ) ( ) and hence
m m m
v A cos t f kA cos t = + = + ;

on substituting in the above integrals, and integrating between the limits
2 2
and t t

+ = + = , we have
( )( )
( )( )( )
2 4 ...
2
1 1 3......
. , and 0
m m m
m m
m m m
A' A k . A '

+
= =

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
where if is odd, and 2 if is even. m m = = Hence on ignoring second order
quantities, since the phase is preserved, the time of the oscillations is unchanged, and the
arcs decrease continually, and the difference between the arc described in the descent and
that described on the subsequent ascent will be proportional to the same power of the arc
that expresses the power of the velocity for the velocity, all else being unchanged. Thus
the law governing the resistance can be found.]

PROPOSITION XXX. THEOREM XXIV.
If the right line aB shall be equal to the arc of the cycloid that the body will describe by
oscillating, and at the individual points of this D the perpendiculars DK may be erected,
which shall be to the length of the pendulum as the resistance of the body at the
corresponding points of the arc to the force of gravity : I say that the difference between
the arc described in the whole descent and the arc described in the subsequent whole
ascent multiplied by the half sum of the same arcs, will be equal to the area BKa occupied
by all the perpendiculars DK.

For both the arc of the cycloid may be expressed in a whole oscillation, described by
that right line itself equal to aB, as well as the arc which may be described in a vacuum by
the length AB. AB may be bisected in C, and the point C will represent the lowest point of
the cycloid, and CD will be the force
arising from gravity, by which the
body at D may be urged along the
tangent to the cycloid, and it will have
that ratio to the length of the pendulum
that the force at D had to the force of
gravity. Therefore that force may be
expressed by the [arc] length CD, and
the force of gravity expressed by the
length of the pendulum, and if DK may be taken on DE, in that ratio to the length of the
pendulum that the resistance has to the weight, DK will be expressing the resistance.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
[It is convenient to interrupt Newton's discourse here, by noting that the intrinsic equation
of the inverted cycloid is 4 s a sin = , where is the tangent angle to the horizontal at
the point P in question where the bob is present, and at this point the force along the
tangent is
4
mgs
a
mg sin = , where 4a is the length of the pendulum and also the length of
the complete arc of the cycloid, where the generating circle has radius a. Thus the force
along the tangent at this point to the force of gravity is as the arc length to the length of
the pendulum, as stated by Newton. In turn, the resistance f is to mg as the arc DE is to the
whole arc 4a. Thus as above, all the tangential forces are represented by corresponding
arcs, while the tangential velocity at this point is 4 s a cos = . In the diagram below, the
radii CA and CB are of length 4a, and ratios are taken for which the quantity is the
same for the damped and undamped cases.]

The semicircle BEeA may be put in place with centre C and with the radius CA or CB.
Moreover, the body may describe the distance Dd in a minimum time, and with the
perpendiculars DE and de erected, meeting
the circumference at E and e, these will be
as the velocities which the body in a
vacuum, by descending from the point B,
may acquire at the places D and d. This is
apparent (by Prop. LII. Book I.) And thus
these velocities may be expressed by these
perpendiculars DE and de; and the velocity
DF as that acquired at D by [the body]
falling from B in the resisting medium.
And if, with centre C and with radius CF, a circle FfM may be described crossing the
right lines de and AB at f and M, M will be the place to which it would ascend henceforth
without further resistance, and df the velocity that it may acquire at d. From which also if
Fg may indicate the moment of the velocity that the body D, by describing the distance
taken as minimum Dd, loses from the resistance of the medium ; and CN may be taken
equal to Cg: N will be the place to which the body henceforth would ascend without
resistance, and MN will be the decrease in the ascent arising from the loss of that velocity.
The perpendicular Fm may be sent to df, and the decrement Fg of the velocity DF arising
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
from the resistance DK, will be to the increment of this same velocity fm arising from the
force CD, as the generating force DK to the generated force CD. But also on account of
the similar triangles Fmf, Fhg, FDC: fm is to Fm or Dd as CD is to DF ; and from the
equality, Fg is to Dd as DK to DF . Likewise Fh is to Fg as DF to CF; and from the
rearranged equation, Fh or MN to Dd is as DK to CF or CM; and thus the sum of all the
terms MN CM will be equal to the sum of all the terms Dd DK . At the moveable
point M a rectangular coordinate may always be understood to be erected equal to the
indeterminate CM, which may be drawn by a continued motion along the whole length
Aa; and the trapezium described by that motion or equal to this rectangle
1
2
Aa aB will
be equal to the sum of all the products MN CM , and thus to the sum of all Dd DK ,
that is, to the area BKVTa. Q.E.D.

[We see now that Newton's diagram above considers the arc length lost due to the friction
in a half cycle: in the one hand it is the sum of all the decrements of the arc given by the
sum of Dd DK , and on the other
hand it is the difference of the initial
and final arcs in the half oscillation,
given by the sum of MN CM . We
return now to B. & R., who give a
simple explanation of the final
formulas produced by Newton geometrically in the following corollary : Let the straight
line aB be drawn equal to the arc of the cycloid described by the oscillating body, and at
each point D draw the perpendicular DK equal to the fraction
2
1
of the resistance at D.
Let
0 1
and a a be the arcs described in the descent and subsequent ascent , then the area
under the curve aKB is ( )
1 0
+
1 0
2
a a
a a . This can be proven readily, for the equation of
motion is
2
dv
ds
v s f , + = for some resistance f; and we have
1
1
0
0
2 2 2 2
then on integrating, 2 ds
a
a
dv
ds
a
a
v s R, v s f
+
+

+ = + =

. Now, at the limits of
integration, the speed v is zero, and hence
( )
1
0
2 2 2
1 0
2
a
a
a a fds
+
=

, or
( )
1
2
0
2 2
1
1 0
2
a
fds
a
a a
=

as required.
We have now to find the nature of the resistance that describes the curve aKB. As
previously, we have ( ) ( ) and s Asin t v A cos t = + = + . Now, if y is the ordinate
and the resistance is of the form
m
kv , then DK or y becomes equal to
( ) ( )
2
2 m m m m m m
k
y A cos t kA cos t
= + = + , while the distance x from the

initial geometric centre +half the differences of the ascending and descending arcs,
1 0
2
a a
,
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
gives an average location about which the oscillation takes place : thus, at least
approximately, ( )
1 0
2
a a
x Asin t
+ = + .
Now, if the resistance varies as the velocity, then ( )
1 0
2
a a
x Asin t
+ = + and
( )
k
y Acos t
= + , and on eliminating t, we have approximately,

( ) ( )
1 0
2 2
2
2
a a y
k
x A

+ + = , which is the equation of an ellipse, if we consider A as being
time independent. (There is a misprint in the original equation here.)
Again, if the resistance varies with the velocity squared, we have
( )
1 0
2
a a
x Asin t
+ = + as before, while ( )
2 2
y kA cos t = + , and on eliminating t, we
have :
( )
1 0
2
2
2
a a y
k
x A
+ + = , which is the equation of a parabola, again on treating A as

constant. ]

Corol. Hence from the law of the resistance and the difference of the arcs Ca and CB the
difference Aa can always be deduced for the proportion of the resistance to the weight
approximately.
For if the resistance DK shall be uniform, the rectangular figure BKTa will be under Ba
and DK; and thence the rectangle under
1
2
Ba and Aa will be equal to the rectangle under
Ba and DK, and DK will be equal to
1
2
Aa . Whereby since DK shall be expressing the
resistance, and the length of the pendulum an expression of the weight, the resistance to
the weight will be as
1
2
Aa to the length of the pendulum ; everything has been shown as
in Prop. XXVIII.
If the resistance shall be as the velocity, the figure BKTa will approximate to an
ellipse. For if the body, in the non-resisting medium, may describe by oscillating the
whole length BA, the velocity at some place D may be as the applied ordinateDE of the
circle with diameter AB. Therefore with Ba in the resisting medium, and BA in the non
resisting medium, they may be described in around equal times ; and thus the velocities at
the individual points of Ba, shall be approximately to the velocities at the corresponding
points of the length BA, as Ba is to BA; the velocity at the point D in the resisting medium
will be as the applied ordinateBa of the circle or ellipse described on the diameter ; and
thus the figure BKVTa will be approximately an ellipse. Since the resistance may be
supposed proportional to the velocity, OV shall be an expression of the resistance at the
middle point O; and the ellipse BRVSa, with centre O, described with semi-axes OB and
OV, and the figure BKVTa, equal to the rectangle Aa BO , will be approximately equal.
Therefore Aa BO is to OV BO as the area of this ellipse to OV BO : that is, Aa to OV
as the area of the semicircle to the square of the radius, or approximately as 11 to 7: And
therefore
7
11
Aa shall be to the length of the pendulum as the resistance of the oscillating
body at O to the weight of the same.
But if the resistance DK shall be in the square ratio of the velocity, the figure BKVTa
will be nearly a parabola having the vertex V and the axis OV, and thus will be
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
approximately equal to the rectangle under
2
3
Ba and OV. Therefore the rectangle under
1
2
Ba and Aa is equal to the rectangle under
2
3
Ba and OV, and thus OV equals
1
4
Aa : and
therefore the resistance of the oscillating body at O to the weight of this is as
3
4
Aa to the
length of the pendulum. And I think that these conclusions have been taken care of
abundantly enough in practical matters. For since the ellipse or parabola BRVSa may
agree with the figure BKVTa at the mid-point V, this if either the part BRV or VSa
exceeds that figure, it will be deficient from that figure by the same for the other part, and
thus it will be approximately equal to the same.

PROPOSITION XXXI. THEOREM XXV.
If the resistance in the individual proportional parts of the arcs of an oscillating body
described may be augmented or diminished in a given ratio ; the difference between the
arc described in the descent and the arc subsequently described in the ascent, will be
increased or diminished in the same ratio.

For that difference arises from the retardation of the pendulum by the resistance of the
medium, and thus is proportional to that retarding resistance. In the above proposition the
rectangle under the right line
1
2
aB and the difference Aa of these arcs CB and Ca was
equal to the area BKTa. And that area, if the length aB may remain, may be increased or
decreased in the ratio of the applied ordinates DK [i.e. the y ordinate]; that is, in the ratio
of the resistance, and thus is as the length aB and the resistance jointly. And hence the
rectangle under Aa and
1
2
aB is as aB and the resistance jointly, and therefore Aa is as the
resistance. Q.E.D.

Corol. I. From which if the resistance shall be as the velocity, the difference of the arcs in
the same medium will be as the total arc described , and conversely.

Corol. 2. If the resistance shall be in the square ratio of the velocity, that difference will
be in the square ratio of the whole arc, and conversely.

Corol. 3. And generally, if the resistance shall be in the cubic or some other power of the
velocity, the difference will be in that same ratio of the total arc, and conversely.

Corol. 4. And if the resistance shall be partially in the simple ratio of the velocity, and
partially in the same square ratio, the difference will be partially in the ratio of the whole
arc and partially in the ratio of the whole arc squared, and conversely. The law will be the
same both for the ratio of the resistance for the velocity, and which is also the law of that
difference for the length of the arc.

Corol. 5. And thus if with a pendulum successively describing unequal arcs, the ratio of
the increment or decrement of this difference for the length of the described arc can be
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
found and also the ratio may be come upon of the increment and decrement of the
resistance for a larger or smaller velocity.

General Scholium.
From these Propositions, through the oscillations of pendulums in mediums of any
kinds, it is permitted to find the resistance of the mediums. Indeed I have investigated the
resistance of the air by the following experiments. A wooden sphere weighing
7
22
57
ounces Avoirdupois, made with a diameter of
7
8
6 London inches, I have hung from a
hook securely enough by a thin thread, thus so that between the hook and the centre of
oscillation of the sphere should be
1
2
10 feet. I noted a point on the thread ten feet and one
inch distance from the centre of suspension, and in the region of that point I have put in
place a ruler separated into inches, with the aid of which I could observe the lengths of the
arcs described by the pendulum. Then I have counted the oscillations in which the sphere
lost an eighth part of its motion. If the pendulum may be drawn away from the
perpendicular to a distance of two inches, and then it may be sent off, thus so that in its
whole descent it may describe an arc of two inches, and in the first whole oscillation,
composed from the descent and the subsequent ascent, an arc of almost four inches : the
same lost an eighth part of its motion in 164 oscillations, thus so that in its final ascent it
described an arc of one and three quarter inches. If the first arc described an arc of four
inches; it lost an eighth part of the motion in 121 oscillations, thus so that in the final
ascent it described an arc of
1
2
3 inches. If the first descent described an arc of eight,
sixteen, thirty two or of sixty four inches , then an eighth part of the motion was lost in
1 1 2
2 2 3
69 35 18 , 9 , , , oscillations respectively. Therefore the difference between the first arc
descended and the final arc ascended, in the first, second, third, forth, fifth and sixth case
was of
1 1
4 2
1248 , , , , , inches respectively. These differences may be divided in each case by
the number of oscillations, and into one mean oscillation, by which the arc of
1 1
4 2
3 , 7 ,153060120 , , , inches were described, the difference of the arcs described in the
descent and subsequent ascent [i.e. the difference in the amplitude per half oscillation in
modern terms] will be
8 1 1 1 4 24
656 242 69 71 37 29
, , , , , parts of an inch respectively. But these are
approximately in the square ratio of the arcs described in the larger oscillations, truly in
the smaller a little greater than in this ratio ; and therefore (by Corol. 2. Prop. XXXI. of
this book) the resistance of the sphere, when it may be moving faster, is in the square ratio
of the velocity as an approximation; when it moves slower, a little greater than in this
ratio.
Now V may designate the maximum velocity in some oscillation, and let A, B, C be
given quantities, and we may suppose that the difference of the arcs shall be
3
2
2
AV BV CV + + . Since the maximum velocities in the cycloid shall be as half of the arcs
described in the oscillation, truly in the circle as half chords of these arcs, and thus with
equal arcs the velocities shall be greater in the cycloid than in the circle, in the ratio of
half the arcs to the same chords ; but the times in the circle shall be greater than in the
cycloid in the inverse ratio of the velocity, it is apparent the differences of the arcs (which
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
are as the resistance and the square of the time jointly) to be approximately the same, in
each curve : for these differences must be increased in the cycloid, together with the
resistance, in around the square ratio of the arc to the chord, on account of the velocity
increased in that simple ratio ; and to be diminished, together with the square of the time,
in the same square ratio. And thus so that it comes about by reduction to the cycloid, that
the same differences of the arcs are required to be taken which were observed in the
circle, indeed the greatest velocities are required to be put in place analogous either with
the halve or whole arcs, that is to the numbers
1
2
1 2 4 816 , , , , , . Therefore we may write in
the second, fourth and sixth case the numbers 1, 4 and 16 for V; and in the second case
there will be produced the difference of the arcs
1
2
121
A B C = + + ;
1
2
2
35
4 8 16 A B C = + +
in the fourth case ; and
2
3
8
9
16 64 256 A B C = + + in the sixth case. And from these
equations, by placing together and reducing analytically, there shall be
00000916 00010847 00029558 A , , B , , & C , = = = . Therefore the difference of the arcs
is as
3
2
2
00000916 00010847 00029558 , V , V , V + + ; and therefore since (by the corollary
of Proposition XXX applied to this case) the resistance of the sphere in the average arc
described in the oscillation, where the velocity is V, shall be to the weight of this as
3
2
2
7 7 3
11 10 4
AV BV CV + + to the length of the pendulum ;
[for this theorem asserts that at any point in the oscillation, the resistive force f shall be to
the weight of the bob mg as the ordinate DK to the length of the pendulum l :
f
DK
l mg
= ;
we have shown above that the area under the curve is ( )
1 0
+
1 0
2
a a
a a ; and for the case of
an approximate ellipse, half the area of such an ellipse is
11
2 7
ab
ab
, where the semi-

minor axis b is the maximum resistance f
m
, and the semi-major axis a is
2
aB
; hence
( ) ( ) ( )
1 0 1 0
+ +
7 7 7 11
1 0 1 0 1 0
2 7 2 11 11 11
or
a a a a
aB
m m
aB
a a f f a a a a AV = = ; Newton gives
a similar argument in the corollary above for the elliptic case and also for the parabolic
case depending on the square of the velocity, while the middle term is an approximate
average of both cases.]

If the numbers found may be written with A, B and C, the resistance of the sphere to its
weight becomes as
3
2
2
00000583 00007593 00022169 , V , V , V + + to the length of the
pendulum between the centre of suspension and the ruler, that is, to 121 inches. From
which since V may be appointed equal to 1 in the second case, 4 in the fourth, and 16 in
the sixth: the resistance will be to the weight in the second case as 0,0030345 to 121, in
the fourth as 0,041748 to 121, and in the sixth as 0,61705 to 121.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
The arc that the noted point on the string described in the sixth case was
2
3
8 5
29 9
120 or 119 inches. And therefore since the radius must be 121 inches, and the
length of the pendulum between the point of suspension and the centre of the sphere must
be 126 inches, the arc that the centre of sphere described was
3
31
124 inches. Because the
maximum velocity of the body, on account of the resistance of the air, does not fall on the
lowest point of the arc described, but is situated almost at the centre of the arc : this
motion will be almost the same if the sphere described the half arc of
3
62
62 inches in a
non-resisting in the whole descent in a cycloid, to which we have reduced the motion of
the pendulum above: and therefore the velocity will be equal to that velocity that the
sphere may acquire, by falling perpendicularly, and in that case describing an arc equal to
the versed sine of that height.

[Note from L. & J. : The body by
oscillating may describe the arc Ba in the
resisting medium, and the arc BA in the
non-resisting medium; let C be the lowest
point of the cycloid; O, the midpoint of the
arc Ba; and the arc CD shall be equal to the
arc BO : the maximum velocity acquired in
the descent of the body in the resisting
medium in the arc BO is to the maximum
velocity acquired in the arc BC in the
resisting medium as the arc BO, to the arc
BC. But if the body by falling from the
location D in the non-resisting medium may describe the arc DC, also its velocity at C
acquired by the descent through the arc DC, in the same place in the descent through the
arc BC will be as the arc CD, or equally, BO, to the arc BC. Therefore the velocity in the
resisting medium acquired by the resisting medium at O is equal to the velocity that the
body falling in the non-resisting medium by the arc DC BO = may have at C; and
therefore that velocity is equal to that velocity that the body may be able to acquire by
falling perpendicularly in the non-resisting medium, and in that case by describing its own
height FC equal to the versed sine of the arc CH. Now P shall be the point of suspension,
PC the length of the pendulum; SDC the half cycloid; SG and DF normals to PC, and
CHGC the circle with the diameter GC described cutting the secant DF in H. The chord
CH may be joined, and the arc of the cycloid 2 2 SD GC CH = , and the arc 2 SG GC =
and thus the arc 2 DC CH = . But moreover, from the nature of the circle,
( )
2
4 2 2 or
and hence or
CF CH CF CH DC
CH CG CG PC CH DC
, = = ; that is, the versed sine CF is to the arc
CD, as the same arc to double the length of the pendulum.]
But that versed sine in the cycloid is to the arc itself
3
62
62 as the same arc to a length
double the length of the pendulum 252, and therefore equal to 15,278 inches. Whereby
that velocity is what a body itself may be able to acquire, and in its own case by falling
through a distance of 15,278 inches. Therefore with such a velocity the sphere is subject
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
to a resistance, which shall be to its weight as 0,61705 to 121, or (if that part of the
resistance only may be considered which is as the square ratio of the velocity) as 0,56752
to 121.
But I have found by a hydrostatic experiment that the weight of this wooden sphere to
be equal to a water sphere of the same size as 55 to 97: and therefore since 121 shall be in
the same ratio to 213,4, the resistance of the prepared sphere with the velocity of
progression to the weight itself is as 0,56752 to 213,4 that is, as 1 to
1
50
376 . From which
since the weight of the water sphere, in which time the sphere continued uniformly with
the velocity may describe a length of 30,556 inches, may be able to generate all that
velocity by the sphere falling, it is evident that the force of the resistance continued
uniformly in the same time may be able to remove a velocity in the smaller ratio 1 to
1
50
376 , that is, the part
1
50
1
376
of the whole velocity. And therefore in which time the
sphere, with that uniform velocity continued, may be able to describe a length of half its
own diameter, or of
1
16
3 inches, and it may lose the
1
3542
part of its motion.
I was also counting the number of oscillations in which the pendulum lost the fourth
part of its motion. In the following table the top numbers indicate the lengths of the arcs
described in the first arc, expressed in inches and parts of inches : the middle numbers
indicate the length of the arc described in the final ascent ; and at the lowest level stand
the number of oscillations. I have described the experiment as more accurate than in
which only the eighth part was lost. Anyone who wishes may test the calculation.

First descent 2 4 8 16 32 64
Final ascent
1
2
1 3 6 12 24 48
Number of osc. 374 272
1
2
162
1
2
83
2
3
41
2
3
22

Later I suspended a leaden sphere with a diameter of 2 inches, and with a weight of
1
4
26 ounces Avoirdupois by the same thread, thus so that the interval between the centre
of the sphere and the point of suspension should be
1
2
10 , and I counted the number of
oscillations in which a given part of the motion was lost. The beginning of the following
tables shows the number of oscillations in which an eighth part of the whole motion had
ceased; the second the number of oscillations in which a quarter part of the same
oscillations had been lost.

First descent 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Final ascent
7
8

7
4

1
2
3 7 14 28 56
Number of osc. 226 228 193 140
1
2
90 53 30

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.

First descent 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Final ascent
3
4

1
2
1 3 6 12 24 48
Number of osc. 510 518 420 318 204 121 70

In the first table by selecting from the third, fifth, and seventh observations, and by
expressing the maximum velocity for these observations particularly by the numbers 1, 4,
16 respectively, and generally by the quantity V as above: from the third observation
1
2
193
A B C = + + will arise, in the fifth
1
2
2
90
4 8 16 A B C = + + , and in the seventh
8
30
16 64 256 A B C = + + . Truly these reduced equations give
00014 0000297 0000879 A , , B , , C , = = = . From thence the resistance of motion of the
sphere arises with the velocity V in that ratio to its weight of
1
4
26 ounces, that it has
3
2
2
00009 0000208 0000659 , V , V , V + + to the length of the pendulum of 121 inches. And
if we may consider only that part of the resistance which is in the square ratio of the
velocity, this will be to the weight of the sphere as
2
0000659 , V to 121 inches. But this
part of the resistance in the first experiment was to the weight of the wooden sphere of
2
7
22
57 ounces as 0002217 to 121 , V : and thence the resistance of the wooden sphere to
the resistance of the leaden sphere (with the same velocities of these), as
7 1
22 4
57 by 0002217 to 26 by 0000659 , , , that is, as
1
3
7 to 1. The diameters of the two
sphere were of
7
8
6 and 2 inches, and the squares of these are in turn as
1
4
47 and 4, or
15
16
11 and 1 approximately. Therefore the resistances of these equally moving spheres
were in a smaller ratio than the double of the diameters. But we have not yet considered
the resistance of the thread, which certainly by the size it was, and that ought to be taken
away from the resistance of the pendulums found. This I was not able to define
accurately, but yet I found it to be greater than the third part of the resistance of the
smaller pendulum; and then I have learned that the resistance of the spheres, without the
resistance of the thread, are almost in the square ratio of the diameters. For the ratio
1 1 1
3 3 3
7 to 1 , or
1
2
10 to 1 is not far removed from the ratio of the diameters
15
16
11
squared to 1.
Since the resistance of the thread shall be of less concern in the larger spheres, I have
also tested an experiment with a sphere the diameter of which was
3
4
18 inches. The length
of the pendulum between the point of suspension and the centre of oscillation was
1
2
122 inches, between the point of suspension and the knot on the string
1
2
109 inches. The
first arc of the pendulum in the descent from the node described 32 inches. The arc in the
ascend after five oscillations from the same knot described 28 dig. The sum of the arcs or
the whole arc described in the oscillation from the centre was 60 inches. The difference
of the arcs was 4 inches. The tenth part of this or the mean difference between the descent
and the ascent the oscillation was
2
5
of an inch. So that as the radius
1
2
109 to the radius
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
1
2
122 , thus the whole arc 60 inches described by the knot in the oscillation from the
centre, to the whole arc
1
8
67 inches described in the oscillation from the centre of the
sphere, and thus the difference
2
5
in. to the new difference 0,4475 in. If the length of the
pendulum, with the length of the arc described remaining, were increased in the ratio 126
to
1
2
122 ; the time of the oscillation may be increased and the velocity of the pendulum
may be diminished in that square root ratio, the true difference of the descent and
subsequent ascent of the arcs 0,4475 may remain. Then if the arc described may be
increased in the ratio
3 1
31 8
124 to 67 , the difference 0,4475 itself may be increased in that
ratio squared, and thus 1,5295 will arise. Thus these may themselves be considered, under
the hypothesis that the resistance of the pendulum may be in the square ratio of the
velocity. Hence if the pendulum may describe the whole arc of
3
31
124 inches, and the
length of this between the point of suspension and the centre of oscillation should be126
inches, the difference of the arcs described in the descent and subsequent ascent should be
1,5295 inches. And this difference taken by the weight of the pendulum, which was 208
inches, gives 318,136. Again when the above pendulum constructed from the wooden
sphere with the centre of oscillation, that was 126 inches from the point of suspension,
described a whole arc of
3
31
124 inches, the difference of the descending and ascending
arcs was
2
3
126 8
121 9
by , which taken by the weight of the sphere, which was
7
22
57 ounces,
produced 49,396. Moreover I multiplied these differences into the weights of the spheres
so that I could find the resistances of these. For the differences are arising from the
resistances, and they are as the resistance directly and the weights inversely. Therefore the
resistances are as the numbers 318,136 and 49,396. But the part of the resistance of the
small sphere, which is in the square ratio of the velocity, was to the whole resistance as
0,56752 to 0,61675, that is, as 45,453 to 49,396 ; and the part of the resistance of the
greater sphere may be almost equal to the whole resistance itself, and thus these parts are
as 318,136 to 45,453 approximately, that is, as 7 to 1. But the diameters of the spheres
3 7
4 8
18 and 6 ; and the squares of these
9 17
16 64
351 and 47 are as 7,438 to 1, that is,
approximately as the resistances of the spheres 7 to 1. The difference of the ratios in not
much greater, than what can arise from the resistance of the string. Therefore these parts
which are of the resistances, which are with equal spheres, as the squares of the velocities;
are also, with equal velocities, as the squares of the diameters of the spheres.
Of the other spheres, with which I have used in these experiments, the greatest was not
perfectly spherical, and therefore in the calculation reported here I have ignored certain
details for the sake of brevity ; not being too concerned in the accuracy of the calculation
in a not very satisfactory experiment. And thus I might have chosen, since the
demonstration of empty space may depend on these, so that experiments might be tried
with several greater and more accurate spheres. If spheres may be taken in geometric
proportion, e.g. the diameters of which shall be 4, 8, 16, 32 inches ; from the progression
of the experiments it may be deduced what must come about from still larger spheres.
Now indeed for comparing the resistances of different fluids between each other I have
tried the following. I have prepared a wooden box four feet long, with width and height of
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
one foot. This I filled with spring water without the lid, and I have arranged so that
immersed pendulums may be moving by oscillating in the water medium. Moreover a
leaden sphere with a weight of
1
6
166 ounces, and with a diameter of
5
8
3 inches is moved
as we have described in the following table, it may be seen with the length of the
pendulum from the point of suspension to a certain marked point on the string of 126
inches, but to the centre of the oscillation of
3
8
134 inches.

First descent arc described by point
marked on the string, in inches
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1
2

1
4

Final ascent arc described, in inches 48 24 12 6 3
1
2
1
3
4

3
8

5
16

Difference of the arcs, proportional to
the motion lost, in inches.
16 8 4 2 1
1
2

1
4

1
8

1
16

Number of oscillations in water.
29
60

1
3
1 3 7
1
4
11
2
3
12
1
3
13
Number of oscillations in air.
1
2
85 287 535

In the experiment of the fourth column, an equal motion with 535 oscillations in air,
and
1
3
1 in water were lost. The oscillations in air were indeed a little faster than in water.
But if the oscillations in water were accelerated in that ratio so that the motion of the
pendulums in each medium were made with equal velocities, the same number
1
3
1 of
oscillations would remain in water, from which the same motion was lost as at first, on
account of the increased resistance and likewise the square of the time diminished in the
same ratio squared. Therefore with equal velocities of the pendulums equal motions have
been lost, with 535 oscillations in the air and with
1
3
1 oscillations in water; and thus the
resistance of the pendulum in water is to its resistance in air as 535 to
1
3
1 . This is the
proportion of the whole resistance in the case of the fourth column.
Now
2
AV CV + may designate the difference of the arcs described in the descent and
in the subsequent ascent by the sphere in air I set in motion with the maximum velocity V
; and since the maximum velocity in the case of the fourth column shall be to the
maximum velocity in the case of the first column, as 1 to 8; and that difference of the arcs
in the case of the fourth column to the difference in the case of the first column as
1
2
16 2
535 85
to or as
1
2
85 to 4280: we may write in these cases 1 and 8 for the velocities, and
1
2
85
and 4280 for the differences of the arcs, and there becomes
1
2
85 A C + = ; and
8 64 4280 A C + = or 8 535 A C + = ; and thence by the reduction of the equation there
comes about
3 1 2
2 4 7
7 449 , 64 , and 21 C C A = = = : and thus the resistance since it shall b
as
2
7 3
11 4
AV CV + , it will become as
2
6 9
11 56
13 48 V V + . Whereby in the case of the fourth
column when the velocity was 1, the whole resistance is to its proportional part with the
square of the velocity, as
6 9 9 12
11 56 17 56
13 48 or 61 to 48 + ; and thus the resistance of the
pendulum in water is to that part of the resistance in air, which is proportional to the
square of the velocity, and which alone in the more rapid motions come to be considered,
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
as
9 12
17 56
61 to 48 and 535 to
1
5
1
taken jointly, that is, as 571 to 1. If the whole string of the
pendulum should be immersed in water, its resistance would be greater still ; and thus that
resistance of the pendulum oscillating in water, which is proportional to the square of the
velocity, and which alone comes to be considered in more rapidly moving bodies, shall be
to the resistance of the same whole pendulum, oscillating in air with the same velocity, as
around 850 to 1, that is, as the density of water to the density of air approximately.
In this calculation that part of the resistance of the pendulum in the water must also be
taken, which might be as the square of the velocity, but (which may be considered as a
surprise) the resistance in water may be increased in a ratio greater than the square. With
the cause of this matter requiring to be investigated, I came upon this [explanation], that
the area should be exceedingly narrow for the size of the sphere of the pendulum, and the
motion of the water going before was being impeded exceedingly by its own narrowness.
For if the sphere of a pendulum, the diameter of which was one inch, were immersed, the
resistance was increased approximately in the square ratio of the velocity. I tested that by
the construction of a pendulum with two spheres, the lower and smaller of which could
oscillate in water, the upper and greater being attached just above the water, and by
oscillating in the air, might aid the motion of the pendulum and render it more long
lasting. Moreover the experiments set up in this manner may themselves be had as
described in the following table.

Arc described in the first descent. 16 8 4 2 1
1
2

1
4

Arc described in the final ascent. 12 6 3
1
2
1
3
4

3
8

5
16

Diff. of the arcs, prop.to motion lost. 4 2 1
1
2

1
4

1
8

1
16

Number of oscillations.
3
8
3
1
2
6
1
12
12
1
5
21 34 53
1
5
62

By requiring the resistances of mediums to be compared between each other, I also
arranged that iron pendulums could oscillate in quicksilver. With the length of the string
of the iron pendulum to be nearly three feet, and the diameter of the sphere of the
pendulum to be a third of an inch. But another leaden sphere was fixed to the string near
the surface of the mercury of such a size that the motion of the pendulum could continue
for some time. Then a vessel, that could hold almost three pounds of quicksilver, I filled
alternately with quicksilver and ordinary water, so that with a pendulum oscillating
successively in each fluid, I was able to find the proportion of the resistances : and the
resistance of quicksilver to water was produced as around 13 or 14 to 1 : that is, as the
density of quicksilver to the density of water. When I used an iron sphere a little larger,
for example with a diameter that should be around
1 2
3 3
or of an inch, the resistance of the
quick silver was produced in that ratio to the resistance of water, that the number 12 or 10
has to 1 roughly. But the first experiment is more trustworthy, because that vessel in these
final experiments was exceedingly narrow for the size of the sphere immersed. With the
sphere enlarged, the vessel also is required to be enlarged. I set up certain experiments of
this kind in larger vessels and with liquids both of melted metals as well as with certain
others to be repeated with hot as well as with cold liquids: but there was not time to prove
everything, and now from the description it may be clear enough how the resistance of
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
bodies moving rapidly may be approximately proportional to the density of the fluids in
which they are moving. I do not say accurately. For more tenacious fluids, on a par with
the density, without doubt are more resistant than the more liquid, such as cold oil rather
than hot oil, cold rather than hot rainwater, water rather than spirit of wine [i.e. brandy].
Truly with liquids, which are fluid enough to the senses, as with air, water either sweet or
salty, with spirits , spirits of wine, of turpentine and salts, with oil freed from its dregs by
distillation and by heating, and with oil of vitriol and with mercury, and with liquefied
metals, and others which there may be, which are both fluid so that they may conserve a
long time impressed motion of agitation, and on being poured and running away freely
may be resolved into drops, I have no reason to doubt that the rule already laid down may
prevail accurately enough : especially if experiments with larger pendulous bodies with
faster motions may be put in place.
Finally since it shall be the opinion of some, of a certain must subtle ethereal medium
extending afar, that may permeate all the pores of all bodies freely; moreover the
resistance must originate from such a medium flowing through the pores of bodies : So
that I can test the resistance that we experience from the motions of bodies, whether the
whole shall be on the external surface of these, or the resistance may be perceived also
from the various internal parts near the surfaces, I have thought out a test for such. With a
string eleven feet long firmly attached by a steel hook, I hung up a round wooden box by
means of a steel ring, towards constructing a pendulum of the aforestated length. The
upper concave edge of the hook was sharpened, so that the ring resting on its upper arc
could move freely on the sharp edge. Moreover the string was attached to the lower arc.
The pendulum thus constituted I drew away from the vertical to a distance of around six
feet, and that along a plane perpendicular to the plane of the sharpened hook, lest the ring,
with the pendulum oscillating, might slip beyond the side of the sharpened edge of the
hook. For the point of the suspension, in which the ring touches the hook, must remain
motionless. Therefore I marked the place accurately, to which I drew the pendulum aside,
then with the pendulum sent off I noted the three other places to which it returned at the
end of the first, second, and third oscillation. I repeated this more often, so that I could
find these places most accurately. Then I filled the box with lead and with metal weights
which were at hand. But first I weighed the empty box, together with the part of the string
that was tied around the box and with half of the remaining part which was being
stretched between the hook and the pendulum box. For the extended string always acts
with half its weight on the pendulum when drawn aside from the perpendicular. To this
weight I added the weight of the air that the box contained. And the whole weight was as
if a 78
th
part of the weight full of the metal. Then because with the box filled with metal,
with the weight itself by stretching the string, the length of the pendulum must be
increased, I shortened the string so that now the length of the pendulum oscillating should
be the same as at first. Then with the pendulum drawn aside and released from the first
marked place, I counted around 77 oscillations, then the box returned to the second
marked place, and just as many one after the other until the box returned to the third
marked place, and again with just as many until the box returned to reach its fourth
marked place. From which I conclude that the whole resistance of the full box did not
have a greater proportion to the resistance of the empty box than 78 to 77. For if the
resistance of both should be equal, the full box on account of its inertial force , which was
rd
Ed.

Book II Section VI.
78 times greater than the inertial force of the empty box, the motion of its oscillations
must be maintained for such a longer time, and thus always with 78 oscillations
completed to have returned to that marked place. But it returned to the same after 77
complete oscillations.
Therefore A may designate the resistance of the box on the external surface, and B the
resistance of the empty box from the inside parts; and if the resistances of the bodies of
the same velocities in the inside parts shall be as the matter, or the number of small parts
by which it is resisted : 78 B will be the resistance of the full box from the inside parts :
and thus the whole resistance A B + of the empty box will be to the total resistance of the
full box 78 A B + as 77 to 78, and separatelyA B + to 77B, as 77 to 1, and thence A B + to
B as 77 77 to 1, and separately A to B as 5918 to 1. Therefore the resistance of the
empty box from the interior parts is more than 5000 times less than the same resistance of
this from the external surface. Thus truly we may question that hypothesis that the greater
part of the resistance of the full box may arise from no other hidden cause than from the
action alone of some subtle fluid enclosed in the metal.
This experiment I have recalled from memory. For the page, in which I have described
that a little, has become lost. From which certain fractional parts of the numbers, which
have disappeared from memory, I have been compelled to omit.
For there is not time to try everything anew. In the first place, since I was using an
infirm hook, the full box was being slowed down more. On seeking the reason, to be
found that a weak hook yielded to the weight of the box, and in the oscillations of this was
being bent by all the parts giving way. Therefore I prepared a strong hook, so that the
point of suspension might remain fixed, and then everything thus came about as we have
described above.
[It seems likely that the extra friction at the loaded knife edge gave the slightly different
results.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VII.

SECTION VII.

Concerning the motion of fluids & the resistance of projectiles.

PROPOSITION XXXII. THEOREM XXVI.
If two similar systems of bodies may consist of an equal number of particles, and the
corresponding particles shall be similar and proportional, with an individual in one
system to an individual in the other, and situated similarly to each other, and in turn they
may have a given ratio of density to each other, and they may begin to move similarly
between each other in proportion to the time (these amongst themselves which are in one
system and those amongst themselves which are in the other system), and if those which
are in the same system may not touch each other, except at instants of reflection, nor
attract each other, nor repel each other, except by accelerative forces which shall be
inversely as the corresponding diameters of the particles and directly as the squares of
the velocities : I say that these particles of the systems may in proportional times go on
moving similarly among themselves.

[In this proposition, Newton sets out his mechanical view of the world, essentially
following the geometrical lines of Euclidean geometry : the motions of particles proceed
along straight lines in time; groups of particles or bodies may describe geometrical figures
under the influence of action at a distance forces ; collisions between particles and bodies
also are geometrical in form, in that they have outcomes known from calculation given
the in-going boundary conditions ; thus, the whole motion of a system of particles and
bodies proceeds like some giant piece of clockwork, for ever; thus, such a system could
be traced back to some starting configuration in the past, as Laplace was to observe later.
The formulas introduced here in the notes correspond to these in Ch. IV, B. & R.; these
authors have changed the order of presenting Newton's work at this point.]

I say that similar bodies, situated similarly, move similarly amongst themselves in
proportional times, the situations of which in turn at the end of these times shall be similar
always: for example, the particles of one system may be compared with the corresponding
particles of the other system. From which the times shall be proportional, in which the
parts of similar and proportional figures will be described by corresponding particles [in
the given system]. Therefore if there shall be two systems of this kind, on account of the
similitude of the starting motions, they will proceed to move similarly, until finally they
may meet each other. For if they are not disturbed by forces, they may be progressing
uniformly on right lines by the first law of motion. If they may be mutually disturbed by
some forces, and these forces shall be inversely as the diameters of the corresponding
particles and directly as the velocity squared, because the situations of the particles are
similar and the forces proportional, the whole forces by which the corresponding particles
are agitated, composed from individual agitating forces (by the corollary of the second
law), will have similar determinations, and likewise as if the forces may be considered
acting between the centres of similarly situated particles ; and those total forces in turn
will be as the individual composing forces, that is, inversely as the diameters of the
rd
Ed.

corresponding particles and as square of the velocities directly: and therefore the forces
act so that the particles go on to describe corresponding figures. Thus these themselves
may be had (by Corol.1 & 8, Prop. IV. Book. I.) only if the centres may be at rest. But if
the centres may be moving, because on account of the similitude of the translations, the
particles of the systems remain in their places ; similar changes may be produced in the
figures which the particles describe. Therefore the motions of the corresponding particles
are similar until their first meeting, and therefore there are similar meetings and
reflections, and from that (by that shown) the motions among themselves again are similar
until they next meet, and thus henceforth indefinitely. Q.E.D.

Corol.1. Hence if any two [large] bodies, which shall be similar and similarly put in place
corresponding to the particles of the systems, similarly may begin to move between
themselves in proportional times, and the magnitudes of these bodies shall be as the
densities and in turn as the magnitudes and densities of the corresponding particles: these
bodies may likewise proceed in proportional times and to be moving similarly. For the
ratio of each of the greater parts of the system and of the particles is the same.

Corol. 2. And if all similar and similarly placed parts of systems are at rest relative to
each other: and two parts of these, which shall be larger than the rest, and may correspond
between each other mutually in each system, may begin to move with some motion along
similar lines similarly situated : these may excite similar motions in the remaining parts of
the systems, and may go on to move similarly between themselves in proportional times ;
and thus to describe distances proportional to their own diameters.

PROPOSITION XXXIII. THEOREM XXVII.
With the same in place, I say that the greater parts of the system are resisted in the
ratio composed from the square of their velocities and the square ratio of the diameters
and in the ratio of the densities of the parts of the system.

For the resistance arises partially from the centripetal or centrifugal forces by which
the particles of the systems mutually disturb each other, partially from the coming
together and reflections of the particles, and of the greater parts [present in the systems].
Moreover, the resistances of the first kind in turn shall be as the whole motive forces from
which they arise, that is, the accelerations and quantities of matter in the corresponding
parts ; that is (by hypothesis) as the squares of the velocities directly and inversely as the
distances of the corresponding particles, and directly as the quantities of matter in the
corresponding parts :
[We may write these resistive forces algebraically, in an obvious notation, in the
form:
2
3 2 2
v
d
d v d . = ]
and thus since the distances of one system of particles shall be to the corresponding
distances of the other particles, as the diameter of the particle or of the parts in the first
system to the diameter of the particles, or to the corresponding parts in the other, and the
quantities of matter shall be as the densities of the parts and the cubes of the diameters;
rd
Ed.

the resistances shall be in turn as the squares of the velocities and the squares of the
diameters of the parts of the systems. Q.E.D.
The resistances of the second kind are as the number of corresponding reflections and
the forces taken together. But the number of reflections are in turn as the velocities of the
corresponding parts directly, and inversely as the distances between the reflections of
these. And the forces of the reflections are as the velocities and the magnitudes and
densities of the corresponding parts jointly ; that is, as the velocities and the cubes of the
diameters and the densities of the parts. And from all these ratios jointly, the resistance of
the corresponding parts are in turn as the squares of the velocities and the squares of the
diameters and the densities of the parts jointly. Q. E. D.

[In the second case, the resistances can be written as the frequency of the collisions by the
momentum change per collision. The frequency is given by
v
d
, where d is the particle
separation and v the velocity; the momentum change per collision is proportional to
3
v d , giving same result
3 2 2
v
d
v d v d = as above.]

Corol. 1. Therefore if these systems shall be two elastic fluids after the manner of air, and
the parts of these may be at rest within themselves : moreover two similar bodies may be
projected along certain lines put in place in some manner, similarly put in place among
these parts, as long as the magnitude and density shall be proportional, and moreover the
accelerative forces, by which the particles of the fluid disturb each other, shall be
inversely as the diameters of the projected bodies, and directly as the squares of the
velocities: then these bodies will excite motions in the fluids proportional to the times,
and describe similar distances with their diameters proportional to these.

Corol. 2. Therefore in the same fluid a swift projectile suffers a resistance, which is in the
square ratio of the velocity approximately. For if the forces, by which distant particles
mutually agitate each other, may be increased in the square ratio of the velocity, the
resistance will be in the same ratio squared accurately ; and thus in a medium, the parts of
which in turn are disturbed by no forces with the distances, the resistance is accurately in
the square ratio of the velocity. Therefore let there be three mediums A, B, C with similar
and equal parts consistently set out regularly along equal distances. The parts of the
mediums A and B may mutually repel each other by forces which shall be in turn as T and
V, and these parts of the medium C shall be completely free from forces of this kind. And
if four equal bodies D, E, F, G may be moving in these mediums, the first two D and E in
the first two mediums A and B, and the other two F and G in the third medium C.
[i.e. D is in medium A, E is in medium B; F and G are in medium C.]
The velocity of the body D to the velocity of the body E, and the velocity of the body F to
the velocity of the body G shall be in the square root ratio of the forces T to the forces V
[i.e.
vel.of vel.of
vel.of vel.of
D F T
E G V
= = ; recall that the resistances are as the square of the velocities
and inversely as the diameters of the particles, which latter are equal in this case, and
hence]
rd
Ed.

: the resistance of the body D will be to the resistance of the body E, and the resistance of
the body F to the resistance of the body G, in the square ratio of the velocities, and
therefore the resistance of the body D will be to the resistance of the body F as the
resistance of the body E to the resistance of the body G.

[ i.e.
res.of res.of
res.of res.of
and if vel.of vel.of then vel.of vel.of
D F T
E G V
D F E G. = = = = ]

Let the bodies D & F have equal velocities, as with the bodies E & G; and on increasing
the velocities of the bodies D and F in some ratio, and by reducing the forces of the
particles of the medium B in the same ratio, the medium B will approach to the form and
condition of the medium C as it pleases, and on that account the resistances of the equal
bodies and of the bodies moving equally E & G in these mediums, may always approach
to equality, thus so that the difference may emerge finally less than any given amount.
Hence since the resistances of the bodies D and F shall be in turn as the resistances of the
bodies E and G, these similarly approach to the ratio of equality. Therefore the resistances
of the bodies D and F are approximately equal, when they are moving fastest : and
therefore since the resistance of the body F shall be in the square ratio of the velocity, the
resistance of the body D will be approximately in the same ratio.
[Thus, if a body is moving much faster than the particles of the medium, they can be
considered at rest, and all the collisions occur with particles as if at rest, for which the v
2

formula holds accurately.]
Corol. 3. The resistance of the fastest moving body in some elastic fluid is almost the
same as if the parts of the fluid were without their centrifugal forces, and with these not
mutually repelling each other : but only if the elastic force of the fluid may arise from the
centrifugal forces of the particles, and the velocity shall be so great that the forces have
not enough time to act.

Corol. 4. Hence since the resistances of similar and equally swift bodies, in a medium of
which the distant parts do not fly apart mutually, shall be as the squares of the diameters ;
also the resistances of the fastest and equally speedy bodies in an elastic fluid are as the
squares of the diameters approximately.

Corol: 5. And since similar bodies, equal and equally swift, in mediums of the same
densities, the particles of which do not mutually fly apart, these particles either shall be
more plentiful and smaller, or fewer and larger, may impinge on equal quantities of matter
in equal times, may impress an equal quantity of motion, and in turn (by the third law of
motion) from the same they may experience an equal reaction, that is, they are resisted
equally : it is evident also that the resistances of the same density of elastic fluids shall be
approximately the same, when they are moving the quickest, whether that fluid shall
consist of grosser particles, or be constituted from the most subtle of all. From the most
subtle resistance the speed of the fastest projectiles is not much diminished.

Corol. 6. All these thus may themselves come about in fluids, the elastic force of which
has its origin in the centrifugal forces of the particles. But if that may arise otherwise, or
as from the expansion of the particles in the manner of wool or the branches of trees, or
rd
Ed.

from any other cause whatever, by which the motions of the particles among themselves
are rendered less free, on account of smaller fluidity of the medium, it will be greater than
in the above corollaries.

[We now need to consider the effect of the individual shapes of bodies on the resistance.
It is necessary to assume that the density of the fluid particles is much rarer than of the
solid body, and each fluid particle can deliver its blow independently without interference
from other particles of fluid]

PROPOSITION XXXIV. THEOREM XXVIII.
If a sphere and a cylinder be described with equal diameters moving with equal
velocity, in a rarefied medium with equal particles, and with these being placed freely at
equal distances along the direction of the axis of the cylinder : the resistance of the
sphere will be half the resistance of the cylinder.
For because the action of the medium on the same body is the same (by corol.5 of the
laws) whether the body may be moving in a medium at rest, or the particles of the
medium may strike the body at rest with the same velocity : we may consider the body as
being at rest, and we may consider by which impetus it
may be urged by the moving medium. Therefore ABKI
may designate the spherical body described with centre
C and with radius CA, and medium particles may be
incident on that spherical body with a given velocity,
along right lines parallel to AC itself : and let FB be a
right line of this kind. On that LB may be taken equal
to the radius CB, and BD may be drawn a tangent to
the sphere at B. The perpendiculars BE and LD may be
sent to the lines KC and BD, and the force by which a
particle of the medium, by being incident obliquely along the right line FB, strikes the
sphere at B, will be to the force by which the particle may strike the same cylinder
ONGQ at b, with the axis ACI described perpendicularly around the sphere, as LD to LB
or as BE to BC
[i. e. as the cosine of the angle ; thus, the normal component of the force striking the
body on a small planar area A at that point varies as
2 2
Av cos , where the average
value of
2
cos must be calculated. Since only the component of this force along the
direction of motion is required, the resistance is as
2 3
Av cos . Thus for a spherical
surface, the force on an annulus is proportional to
2 3 2
2 r sin cos v d , which
integrates to give
2 2
4
2
r
v r ; which is half the value for a great circle; below we show
how S. & J . tackle this problem geometrically.]
Again the effectiveness of this force to the movement of the sphere along its direction FB
or AC, is to the same effectiveness of the sphere moving along the direction of its
determination, that is, along the direction BC by which the sphere may be urged directly
as BE to BC. And with the ratios taken jointly, the effectiveness of a particle on the sphere
along the oblique right line FB, to the same being moved along the direction of its
rd
Ed.

incidence, is to effectiveness of the same particle incident on the cylinder along the same
right line perpendicularly, to that required circle to be moved in the same direction, as BE
squared to BC squared. Whereby if on bE, which is perpendicular to the circular base of
the cylinder NAO and equal to the radius AC, bH may be taken equal to
. BEquad
CB
; bH will
be to bE as the effectiveness of the force of the particle on the sphere to the effectiveness
of the force of the particle on the cylinder. And therefore the solid that may be occupied
by all the right lines bH will be to the solid which may be occupied by all the right lines
bE, as the effect of all the particles on the sphere to the effect of all the particles on the
cylinder. But the first solid is a paraboloid described with vertex C, axis CA and with the
latus rectum CA , and the latter solid is the circumscribed cylinder to the paraboloid : and
it is to be noted that the paraboloid shall be half of the circumscribed cylinder. Therefore
the total force of the medium on the sphere is twice as small as the same total force on the
cylinder. And therefore if the particles of the medium are at rest, and both the cylinder
and the sphere may be moving with equal velocities, the resistance of the sphere will be
less than the resistance of the cylinder by a factor of two. Q.E.D.

[L. & S. notes : If on all the points of the right line
NA perpendiculars may be erected as bH and bE, and
let NHC be that curve the point H always touches,
and the line KC the locus of all the points E; the
solid that may be occupied by all the perpendiculars
bH, drawn through the whole base of the cylinder,
will be equal to a conoid or to the solid figure which
may be generated by the rotation made of the plane
figures NHCA about the axis CA, and the solid that
may be formed from all the right lines bE will be the
cylinder described by the rotation of the rectangle
AK made about the same axis.
Since, by construction, there shall be
2
2 2 2
and thus
BE
CB
bH bH CB BE BC CE = = = , and from the nature of the circle,
BC CA KC = = , and thus ( )
2 2 2
and or , BE KC CE bH CB, KC EH KC = or
2 2 2
KC KC EH KC CE , = and thus
2
; KC EH CE = but if the point H may be
drawn to CA, the perpendicular ordinate, this must be equal to CE, and from CA there
may be cut the part equal to EH. Whereby the rectangle under the given abscissa and the
given line KC or CA, is equal to the square of the ordinate the perpendicular CA; thence
the curve CHN, by Theorem I (de parabola ; Apollonius) is a parabola the vertex of which
is C, the axis CA, and the latus rectum CA.
The paraboloid or solid generated from the rotation of the parabola CHN, about the
axis CA is half of the circumscribed cylinder, which is produced from the rotation of the
rectangle AK about the line CA. Through the moveable point P, the normal PM is erected
to the axis CA, cutting the parabola in H, and the right line KN in M; and in the rotation of
the whole figure about the axis CA, the lines PH and PM describe circles, which will be
among themselves as the squares of the radii PH and IM, or, from the nature of the
rd
Ed.

parabola and on account of PM AN = , as the abscissae CP and CA. Now the point P is
drawn with the vertical PHM through the whole altitude CA, and the solid arising from
the rotation of the figure CHN will be to the cylinder arising from the rotation of the
rectangle CKNA, as the sum of all the circles which the moving line PH will describe by
rotating, to the sum of all the circles which the right line PM will describe, that is, as the
sum of all CP , to the sum of all CA. On the line AN there may be taken AR equal to AC,
CR is joined cutting PH in L, and the perpendicular RQ is erected to AR, cutting PM in V;
since there shall always be and PL CP, PC CA, = = the sum of all CP, or PL, by the
whole altitude CA, is the isosceles triangle CRA, and the sum of all CA, or PV, by the
same altitude CA, is the square CARQ; therefore since the triangle CRA, shall be half of
the square CARQ, the paraboloid is also half of the circumscribed cylinder.]

Scholium.
By the same method other figures may be compared between themselves as far as
concerns resistance, and these found which are more suited to continue their motion in
resisting mediums. So that if to the circular base CEBH, which will be described with
centre O, with radius OC, and with the altitude OD, the
conic frustum CBGF shall be constructed, which of all
constructed with the same base and height and their axis
following towards the direction of progression D shall be
resisting the least: bisect the height OD in Q and produce
OQ to S so that there shall be QS equal to QC, and S will
be the vertex of the cone of which the frustum is sought.

[Following B & R, if the left hand base of the cone has
radius r, the right hand base has radius r htan , and
the resistance of the curved surface will be proportional to
( )
2
2 2
sin r r htan , while
that of front circle will be proportional to( )
2
r htan , on omitting other constant factors.
The total resistance can be seen to be
2 2 2
2 r rhsin h sin + ; to find the turning point,
differentiate w.r.t. h and we find
2
2 hsin cos r r sin = ; if x is the whole height of the
cone, then this equation becomes :
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 4
2 and
xr h h r
r x r x
h r r x hx r x r
+ +
= = = + + , leading to the above
construction.]

From which by the way, since the angle CSB
shall always be acute, it follows that if the solid
ADBE made may be generated by the rotation
of the elliptic or oval figure ADBE about the
axis AB, and the generating figure may be
touched by the three right lines FG, GH, HI at
the points F, B and I, by that rule so that GH
shall be perpendicular to the axis at the point of
rd
Ed.

contact B, and FG, HI may contain with the same GH the angles FGB and BHI of 135
0
of
the solid, that may be generated by rotation of the figure ADFGHIE about the same axis
AB, resists less than the first solid; but only if each may be progressing along the direction
of its axis AB, and each end B goes in front. Indeed which proposition I consider to be of
use in the future construction of ships.
But if the figure DNFG shall be a curve of this kind, so that if the perpendicular NM
may be sent from some point N of this curve to the axis AB, and from some given point G
the right line GR may be drawn which shall be parallel to the tangent of the figure at N,
and may cut the axis produced at R, MN will be to GR as GR
3
to
2
4BR GB ; the solid
that is described by the revolution made of the figure about the axis AB, in the
aforementioned rare medium by moving from A towards B, will be resisted less than some
other encircled solid described with the same length and breadth.

PROPOSITION XXXV. PROBLEM VII.
If a rare medium may consist of the smallest equal particles at rest and in turn to be
placed at equal distances freely : to find the resistance of a sphere progressing uniformly
in this medium.

Case 1. A cylinder described with the same diameter and altitude may be understood to
be progressing with the same velocity along the length of its axis in the same medium.
And we may consider that the particles of the medium, on which the sphere or cylinder is
incident, may recoil with the greatest force of reflection.

[Thus, elastic collisions offer the greatest resistance to motion, and completely inelastic
collisions the lest resistance, in this model. Thus, for a cylinder of length l, the time to
describe half the axis will be
2
2 1
2
and the acceleration giving a velocity in this time is
l v
v l
v ; hence the resistance is
simply
2
2Av , where A is the base area of the cylinder and the velocity.]

And since the resistance of the sphere (by the latest Proposition) shall be half as great as
the resistance of the cylinder, and the [volume of the] sphere shall be to the [volume of
the] cylinder as two to three, and the cylinder by being incident on the particles
perpendicularly, and these by being maximally reflected, may impart twice their velocity :
the cylinder progressing uniformly in that time will describe half the length of its axis,
will communicate the motion to the particles, which shall be to the whole motion of the
cylinder as the density of the medium to the density of the cylinder ; and the sphere, in
which time the whole length of its diameter will be described in progressing uniformly,
will share the same motion with the particles ; and in that time in which it will describe a
motion two thirds part of its diameter, that it will communicate to the motion of the
particles, which shall be to the whole motion of the sphere as the density of the medium to
the density of the sphere. And therefore the sphere suffers a resistance, which shall be to
the force by which the whole motion of this may be taken away or generated in which
time the two thirds part of its diameter will be described by progressing uniformly, as the
density of the medium to the density of the sphere.
rd
Ed.

Case 2. We may consider that the particles of the medium incident on the sphere or
cylinder are not reflected, and by being incident perpendicularly on the particles the
cylinder will simple communicate its velocity, and thus the resistance experienced is half
as great as in the previous case, and the resistance of the sphere will also be half as great
as before.
Case 3. We may consider that the particles of the medium are reflected neither
maximally nor not at all, but they may circle from the sphere in some manner in between,
and the resistance of the sphere will be in the same mean ratio between the resistance in
the first case and the resistance in the second case. Q.E.I.
Corol. 1. Hence if the sphere and the particles shall be indefinitely hard, and therefore
destitute of all elasticity and all force of reflection : the resistance of the sphere will be to
the force by which the whole of that motion may be removed or generated, in the time
that the sphere can describe four thirds parts of its diameter, as the density of the medium
to the density of the sphere.
Corol. 2. The resistance of the sphere, with all else being equal, is in the square ratio of
the velocity.
Corol. 3. The resistance of the sphere, with all else being equal, is in the square ratio of
the diameter.
Corol. 4 The resistance of the sphere, with all else being equal, is as the density of the
medium.
Corol. 5 The resistance of the sphere is in a ratio which is composed from the square
ratio of the velocity and the square ratio of the diameter and in the ratio of the density of
the medium.
Corol. 6. And the motion of the sphere with its resistance may be explained thus. Let
AB be the time in which the sphere can lose all its motion by a uniformly continued
resistance. The perpendiculars AD, BC may be erected to AB. And BC shall be that total
motion, and through the point C a hyperbola CF may be described with the asymptotes
AD and AB ; AB may be produced to some point E.
The perpendicular EF may be erected crossing the
hyperbola at F. The parallelogram CBEG may be
completed, and AF may be drawn crossing BC at H.
And if the sphere in some time BE, continued
uniformly by its own initial motion BC, in a non-
resisting medium may describe the distance CBEG
shown by the area of the parallelogram, likewise in
the resisting medium it describes the distance
CBEF shown by the hyperbolic area, and the motion of this at the end of the time may be
shown by the ordinate EF of the hyperbola, with the part of its motion EG lost. And the
resistance of this at the end of any time may be expressed by the length BH, with the part
CH lost to resistance. All these are apparent by Corol.1.& 3, Prop. V. Book II.

[Thus, using customary integration, if a body is dropped from rest ,with the resistance
proportional to the velocity squared given by
2
r
F kmv = , and g' is the apparent
acceleration of gravity, with u the terminal velocity given by
2
g' ku = , then at any instant,
rd
Ed.

2
2 2
2 2 2
and 2
g' g'
dv dv
dx dx
u u
v g' v v g' = + = ; this requires the integration factor
2
2
g'
u
x
e , and
hence
2 2
2 2 2
2
g' g'
u u
x x
d
dx
v e g' e = , giving
2
2 2 2
1
g'
u
x
v u e

=

;
again,
( ) 2 2
2 2
1 1
and 2
dv dv
dt u v u v
u v
k u v ukdt
+
= = + = giving 2
u v
u v
ln ukt C
+
= + ; from
which in turn
2
2
1
1
kut kut kut
kut kut kut
e e e
e e e
v u u utanhkut

+ +
= = = ; hence

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 1 1
2 2
1 1 1
1
1 1 2]
kut kut
kut kut
dp kut kut kut kut
dx e e
dt k p k k
e e
kut kut
k k k
u x ln e e lne e
ut ln e C ut ln e ln .
+

= = = + = +
= + + + = + +

Corol. 7. Hence if the sphere may lose its whole motion M in the time T by a resistance R
continued uniformly: the same sphere in the time t in the resisting medium, by a
resistance R decreasing as the square of the speed, may lose a part
tM
t T +
of its motion M,
with the part
TM
t T +
remaining ; and it will describe a distance that shall be to the distance
described by the uniform motion M in the same time t, as the logarithm of the number
t T
t
+
multiplied by the number 2,30258092994 is to the number
t
T
, as that hyperbolic area
BCFE is in this proportion to the rectangle BCGE .

[It seems appropriate to give here the geometrical explanations of L. & J. for Cor. 7,
which although they are rather longer than the modern calculus approach, may yield some
clues as to Newton's manner of thinking at the time:
And the resistance at the end of this time, etc. The
resistance, at the beginning of the motion when the
velocity is BC, may be shown by the same line BC,
and because the resistances are as the squares of the
velocities, and BC shall be to FE as the velocity
from the start of the motion to the velocity at the end
of the time BE, to FE
2
, as BC to the line which may
show the resistance at the end of the time BE, and
thus this line is equal to
2
FE
BC
: that is
2 2
0
2
t t
R
BC BC FE
t
R R BC
FE
R = = = . Now, from the nature of the hyperbola, we have
AB BC AE FE = , and in addition from the similar triangles, ABH & AEF,
BC AE FE
FE AB HB
= = , and hence
2
FE
BC
HB = . Whereby the right line HB will show the resistance
at the end of the time BE, and hence the part of the right line CH may show the part of the
resistance that has been lost since the start of the motion, shown by the line BC.
Thus proceeding, the part of the motion M remaining at the end of the time t may be
called m, and since and hence
T t T AB AE
t BE T AB
+
= = , and besides
CB M AE
m FE AB
= = , there will
rd
Ed.

be
T t M
T m
+
= , from which there may be had
MT
T t
m
+
= , and thence the part of the motion M
lost is
Mt MT
T t T t
M
+ +
= as required.
Proceeding further, the parts of the axis and ordinates of hyperbola may be called
AB a,BC b,BE x, AE a x; = = = = + and from the nature of the hyperbola, as
ab
a x
FE y
+
= = , the element of the area CFEB will be
abdx
a x +
, and the area CFEB itself, is
equal to
dx
a x
ab
+
, which integral (fluent) thus is to be summed so that it may vanish when
0 x = , but the integral
dx
a x +
thus taken is the logarithm (called L. in this work, but which
we shall call ln) of the number
a x
a
+
, chosen from the logistic curve the subtangent of
which is unity (see the additional material for Section 1 of Book 2 : essentially the
definition of the exponential function, or antilogarithm curve in these days, being that
curve, which on finding the gradient at the point x, y, gives a right angled triangle under
the tangent, for which the tangent of the angle with the x axis is y/1 ; or dy/dx =y), or
what amounts to the same thing, from the hyperbola of which the power is one; if indeed
there may be put 0 x = , the number
a x
a
+
becomes equal to 1, and thus
( )
0
a x
a
ln .
+
=
Whereby the area BCFE
( )
a x
x
ab ln
+
= ; truly the rectangle BCGE bx = . Therefore the
hyperbolic area BCFE is to the rectangle ACGE as
( )
:
a x
x
ab ln bx
+
, that is , as
( )
:
a x x
x a
ln
+
. Indeed here we have and
a x T t x t
a T a T
+ +
= = ; whereby the hyperbolic area
BCFE is to the rectangle BCGE , as
( )
to
T t t
T T
ln
+
. Therefore it remains to find the
logarithm of the number
T t
T
+
; by the logarithmic curve of which the subtangent is one.
Again the logarithms of different kinds of the same number are between themselves in a
given ratio, and the number 2,302585092994 is the logarithm of the number ten in the
species of logarithms the subtangent of which is unity (i.e. natural logarithms) and the
logarithm of the number ten taken in tables is 10000000 1 , = ; thus as the logarithm of the
number
T t
T
+
taken in tables to the logarithm of the same number taken in logarithms the
subtangent of which is unity, or in the hyperbola the power of which is 1; therefore the
logarithm sought , if the logarithm of the number
T t
T
+
taken from tables may be
multiplied by the number 2,302585092994. ]

Scholium.
In this proposition I have set out the resistance and retardation of spherical projectiles
in non continuous mediums, and I have shown that this resistance shall be to the force by
which the whole motion of the sphere shall be removed or generated in the time in which
the sphere may describe two thirds parts of the diameter, with a uniformly continued
velocity, as the density of the medium to the density of the sphere, but only if the sphere
and the particles of the medium shall be completely elastic and they may be influenced by
the maximum force of reflection: and that this force shall be half as great when the sphere
and the particles of the medium are infinitely hard, and evidently without any force of
rd
Ed.

reflection. But in continuous mediums such as water, hot oil, and quicksilver, in which the
sphere is not incident at once on all the fluid particles generating resistance, but presses
only to the nearby particles and these press on other particles, and these in turn still
others, the resistance is hence twice as small. Certainly a sphere in mediums of this kind
of the most fluid, experience a resistance which is to the force by which the whole motion
of this may either be removed or generated in the time, with that motion continued
uniformly, eight third parts of its diameter will be described, as the density of the medium
to the density of the sphere. That which we will try to show in the following medium.

PROPOSITION XXXVI. PROBLEM VIII.
To define the motion of water flowing from a hole made at the bottom of a cylindrical
vessel.
[An excellent introduction to the history of this complex problem can be found in : Die
Werke von Daniel Bernoulli : Gesammelten Werke der Mathematiker und Physiker der
Familie Bernoulli (Basel; Boston; Birkhauser, 1982-2002; ed. David Speiser.) Vol. I,
page 200. Early studies on the outflow of water from vessels, by G.K. Mikhailov (tr. from
Russian into English by Rainer Radok.); this includes an independent modern view of
Newton's contributions.]

Let ACDB be the cylindrical vessel, AB the upper opening of
this, CD the base parallel to the horizontal, EF a circular hole in
the middle of the base, G the centre of the hole, and GH the
axis of the cylinder perpendicular to the horizontal. And
imagine a cylinder of ice APQB to be of the same width as the
cavity of the vessel, and to have the same axis, and to be
descending with a constant uniform motion, and the parts of
this that first touch the surface AB become liquid, and
converted into water to flow by their own weight into the
vessel, and the head of flowing water formed by falling
ABNFEM passes through the hole EF, and likewise to be filled
equally.
[One might wonder initially why Newton considered this rather odd way of obtaining a
constant head of water; perhaps it was just a domestic problem that intrigued him..... In
any case, there are fundamental defects in Newton's approach, which does not agree with
experiment for the motion of the water within the vessel near the walls; thus the idea of a
funnel or an ice funnel through which the water flowed was completely erroneous, if that
is what Newton had in mind; however, he may well have realized that the original
problem was too hard to solve, so that he decided to solve an easier problem, involving
the ice funnel, for which he was able to calculate the shape, and thus have a far better idea
of the flow of water through such a shape, as we show below in an L & S derivation. In
addition, in the first edition, the initial contraction or waisting of the stream of water
emerging the vena contracta - had been ignored totally to be fixed up in the second
edition after complaints from the Bernoulli camp; otherwise, Newton may have
considered water to be far stickier or to have a much greater viscosity than it really does,
as his approach might well describe the fall of a sticky liquid such as honey or oil through
rd
Ed.

the hole at the bottom of a vessel. For in truth all the particles of water in the vessel
descent slowly with no horizontal motion until the level of the hole is reached, at which
stage there is considerable horizontal motion of a complex nature. Did Newton not bother
to observe what actually happens, or could not see because he used wooded vessels ? It
certainly would be atypical of his methods in investigating natural phenomena, such as
the decomposition of light into its spectrum, if this were the case. As it was, his
investigations described here provided a foundation for further inquiries, which had
actually started some time previously, as the above reference sets out; in particular, his
lines drawn in the fluid are essentially the lines of force or flow lines along which the
particles travel. The hydrodynamics text of Daniel Bernoulli a little later gave improved
explanations of the phenomena involved, following his [Bernoulli's] Principle, which
made use of Leibniz's vis viva idea : the missing half was to create havoc in understanding
kinetic energy for at least 100 years! So the complete idea of laminar flow had to await
the concept of energy conservation before it could be placed on a firmer footing. The
question of the shape of the vessel and the nature of its surface more or less dictates
whether or not turbulent flow will occur near the hole; thus, this is still a very difficult
problem to solve, and Newton may have been content to give approximate answers only
by solving another problem.]

As indeed there shall be a constant velocity of the ice descending and with the adjoining
water [formed] in that case describing the circle AB, so that the water by falling can
acquire an altitudeIH, and both IH and HG may be placed along the same direction, and
through the point I the right line KL may be drawn parallel to the horizontal, and meeting
the sides of the ice at K & L. And the velocity of the water flowing through the hole EF,
will be as that the water, by falling from I, is able to acquire in its own case by describing
the height IG . And thus by a theorem of Galileo, [really Torricelli] IG will be to IH in the
square ratio of the velocity flowing from the orifice to the velocity of the water in the
circle AB, that is, in the square ratio of the circle AB to the circle EF; for these circles are
inversely as the velocities of the water which through themselves may adequately be
passed in the same time and in an equal amount. [Thus, the continuity equation of fluid
flow is called upon, and also the conversion of potential into kinetic energy, in modern
terms, of any small particle of the fluid.] Here we are concerned with the velocity of the
water that is disturbed horizontally : the motion parallel to the horizontal by which the
parts of water falling may approach in turn will not be considered here, since it does not
arise from gravity, nor may the motion arising from gravity perpendicular to the
horizontal change. Indeed we may suppose that the parts of the water adhere just a little,
and by it cohesion in falling approach each other through a motion parallel to the
horizontal, so that they may form only a single stream downwards and may not be divided
into several: but we shall not consider here the motion parallel to the horizontal arising
from that cohesion.
Case 1. Consider now the whole cavity in the vessel, in the circulation of the falling
water ABNFEM, to be filled with ice, so that the water may only pass through the ice as
by a funnel. And if the water may hardly touch the ice, or what amounts to the same thing,
if yet it may touch and on account of its great smoothness may slide freely and without
any resistance, the water may run down through the opening EF with the same velocity as
rd
Ed.

at first, and the whole weight of the column of water ABNFEM may be pressing on the
flow of this being produced as at first, and the bottom of the
vessel will sustain the weight of the surrounding column of ice.
Now the ice in the vessel may liquefy; and the efflux of the
water will remain the same as at first. It will not be less,
because ice dissolved in water is trying to descend : nor
greater, because ice dissolved in water cannot descend unless
by impeding the descent of water descending equally to itself.
The same force must generate the velocity of the flowing
water.
But the aperture at the bottom of the vessel, on account of
the oblique motion of the particles of water flowing out, must
be a little greater than at first. For the particles of water do not
all pass through the opening perpendicularly, but flow together from each side of the
vessel and converge on the opening, and they pass through with oblique motions, and in
the course of their downwards motion they conspire in the stream of water by bursting
forth, which is a little smaller below the hole than at the hole itself, with the diameter of
this present to the diameter of the hole as 5 to 6, or
1
2
5 to
1
2
6 as an approximation, but
only if I have measured the diameters correctly. Certainly I had obtained a thin plane
sheet pierced by a hole in the middle, with the diameter of the circular hole present of five
eights of an inch. And so that the stream of water bursting forth might not be accelerated
by falling and by the acceleration rendered narrower, thus I fastened this sheet not onto
the base but onto the side of the vessel, so that that stream may emerge along a line
parallel to the horizontal. Then when the vessel should be full of water, I uncovered the
hole so that the water could flow out; and the diameter of the stream produced of
th

21
40
of
an inch as accurately as could be measured, at a distance around half an inch from the
opening. Therefore the diameter of the circle of this hole to the diameter of the stream was
as 25 to 21 approximately. Therefore the water by passing through the hole, converges on
all sides, and after it has flowed out from the vessel, is rendered narrower by converging,
and it is accelerated by the attenuation on arriving at a distance of half an inch from the
hole, and with that narrower at that distance it shall be faster than at the hole itself in the
ratio 25 25 to 21 21 or approximately as 17 to 12, that is around the ratio of the square
root of 2 to 1.
[Thus, from the continuity equation,
1 1 2 2
A v A v = , and the ratio of the velocities
2 1
1 2
625
441
142 2
v A
v A
. ... = = = , where A
1
and A
2
are the areas of cross-section.]
Indeed it is agreed by experiment that the quantity of water, which flows out in a given
time through the circular hole made in the bottom of the vessel, shall be with the predicted
velocity, not only through that hole, but it must flow also in the same time through the
circular hole, the diameter of which is to the diameter of this hole as 21 to 25. And thus
that water flowing has a velocity downwards at this [actual] hole describing
approximately by the falling of a weight through half the height of the water at rest in the
vessel. [Translator's italics and underlining here and below.] But after it has escaped from
the vessel, it may be accelerated by converging until it arrives at a distance from the
rd
Ed.

opening nearly equal to the diameter of the hole, and it will have acquired a velocity
greater nearly in the ratio of the square root of two, than certainly in this case it can
acquire a velocity described approximately by a weight falling the whole height of the
water at rest in the vessel.
Therefore in the following the diameter of the stream may be designated by that
smaller hole that we have called EF. And another superior planeVW is understood to be
drawn parallel to the plane of the opening EF at a distance approximately equal to the
diameter and with a greater hole ST bored through, through which certainly the stream
falls, which completely fills the lower hole EF, and thus the diameter of this shall be to
the diameter of the lower opening approximately as 25 to 21. For thus the stream will be
able to cross over perpendicularly from the lower opening ; and the quantity of water
flowing out, for the size of this hole, will be as the solution of the problem postulated
approximately. Indeed the distance, that is enclosed by the two planes and by the stream
falling, can be considered as the bottom of the vessel. But so that the solution of the
problem shall be simpler and more mathematical, it may be agreed to take only the lower
plane for the base of the vessel, and to imagine that the water either flowing through the
ice or through the funnel, and escaping from the vessel at the opening made in the lower
plane EF , perpetually maintains its motion, and the ice remains at rest. In the following
therefore let ST be the diameter of the circular opening Z described through which the
stream flowed from the vessel when all the water in the vessel is fluid. And EF shall be
the diameter of the opening through which by falling the stream may adequately pass
through, either the water may exit from the vessel through that upper opening ST, or it
may fall through the middle of the ice in the vessel as if it were through a funnel. And let
the diameter of the upper opening ST be to the diameter of the lower EF as around 25 to
21, and the distance of the perpendicular between the planes of the openings shall be
equal to the diameter of the smaller opening EF. And the velocity of the water escaping
from the vessel by the opening ST there will be in the opening itself as the velocity that a
body can acquire by falling from a height of half IZ : but the velocity of each stream by
falling in the opening EF there will be as a body would acquire in falling from the whole
height IG.
[Thus we have
2 2
2 v u gs = + , which essentially is an energy conservation equation where
unit mass is falling ; Newton considers that the motion of the water through EF is not
vertically downwards, and the average velocity downwards corresponds to the water
falling a height equal to half the height of the column; however, the column narrows,
really by surface tension forces, so that the area of cross-section diminishes by 2, and at
this point the water is considered to be flowing downwards only, and a drop can be
considered to have fallen the whole height of the column, approximately; the extra
distance being ignored. It is convenient here to consider the actual shape of the ice funnel
proposed by Newton: as developed by L. & J . in Note 272 :
With these items in place, the geometrical figure of the cataract is readily defined. Let
MN cut the axis IG at P; and because the altitude IP is in the square ratio of the velocity at
P, truly this velocity is inversely as the circle MN, and thence the circle MN is in the
square ratio of the radius MP, and thus IP or the abscissa is in the inverse fourth power of
the radius or of the ordinate MP, or
4
1
MP
IP , and
4
MP IP a given quantity. (Thus,
rd
Ed.

the Galilean proportionality
2
h v is combined with the continuity equation
2 4
2
1 1 1
to give
v
A r
A h v )
Therefore the curve EMA is a hyperbola
of the fourth order, having the asymptotes
IG, IK, to which convexity it turns
towards. The arc EMA and the asymptotes
IK may be produced indefinitely towards
the parts X, and the figure EAXXIG
describes the cataract, rotated around the
asymptote or the axis IG, produced
indefinitely to the parts X, x ; truly the figure EMAHG will be generated, that part of the
cataract which is contained within the vessel ABDC.]

Case 2. If the opening EF shall not be in the middle of the base of the vessel, but the
base may be perforated in some manner : the water may flow out with the same velocity
as before, but only if the hole shall have the same size. For indeed a weight descends in a
longer time through the same depth along an oblique line than along the perpendicular
line, but in falling it acquires the same velocity in each case, as Galileo has shown.
Case 3. The velocity of water is the same flowing out from a hole in the side of the
vessel. For if the opening shall be small, so that the interval between the surfaces AB and
KL may be considered to vanish, and the jet of water springing forth horizontally will
form the a parabolic figure: from the latus rectum of this parabola it may be deduced,
what that velocity of the water flowing out from the water at rest in the vessel shall be, as
a body may be able to acquire by falling with a height HG or IG. Certainly with that
experiment done I found that, if the height of the water at rest above the opening should
be twenty inches and the height of the opening above a plane parallel to the horizontal
should also be twenty inches, the stream of water streaming out would fall on that plane at
a distance of around 37 inches from the perpendicular that may be taken in that plane
from the opening. For without resistance, the jet would have been incident in that plane at
a distance of 40 inches, with the latus rectum of the parabolic jet arising of 80 inches.

[Note from L & S : A drop of water from the location D, may gush out along some
horizontal direction DT with that velocity which it can acquire by falling through the (half
the height of the vessel) BD, and being borne by
the resistance of the medium, may describe the
parabola DNZ, the vertex of which D, the tangent
DT, and diameter DH or with the vertical line BD
produced, the abscissa DH may be taken equal to
the height BD, and the ordinate HZ may be drawn,
which will be parallel to the tangent DT; and in that
time taken for the drop of water to fall through the
height BD or DH under gravity, it will describe the
length HZ of BD or DH squared. The latus rectum
DNZ of the parabola pertaining to the diameter DH
rd
Ed.

is
2
HZ
DH
, and thus since there shall be 2 2 HZ DH BD, = = the latus rectum is 4BD:( i.e.
2
4 y ax = ). Therefore the height BD that the water must
describe by falling as the velocity it may acquire with
that bursting out from the place D, is the fourth part of
the latus rectum pertaining to the diameter DH of the
parabola DNZ.]

Case 4. Truly the water flowing out, also if it were
carried upwards, emerges with the same velocity. For
the small jet of water streaming out rises in a
perpendicular motion to the height GH or GI of the
water at rest in the vessel, except in as far as its ascent
may be impeded a little by air resistance ; and hence that flows out with the velocity that
it may be able to acquire by falling from that height. Each particle of the water at rest is
pressed equally on all sides (by Prop. XIX, Book. 2.) and by conceding to the pressure to
all the parts there is imparted an equal impetus, either it may fall through a hole in the
bottom of the vessel, or may flow out horizontally through a hole in the side of this, or it
may go out along a pipe and thence ascent through a small hole made in the upper part of
the pipe. An the velocity by which the water flows is that, as we have assigned in this
proposition, not only is it deduced from reasoning, but also it is shown by the well known
experiments now described.
Case 5. The velocity of the water emerging is the same whether the shape of the
opening D shall be circular or square or triangular or some other equal to the circular
shape. For the velocity of the water emerging does not depend on the figure of the
opening but arises from the height of this below the plane KL.
Case 6. If the lower part of the vessel ABDC may be immersed in still water, and the
height of the still water above the bottom of the vessel shall be GR: the velocity with
which the water in the vessel may flow out through the hole EF into the still water, will be
as that which the water can acquire describing by falling in that case the height IR. For the
weight of all the water in the vessel which is below the surface of the still water, will be
sustained in equilibrium by the weight of the still water, and thus the motion of the water
descending in the vessel will be accelerated less. In this case it will also be apparent by
experiments, evidently by measuring the time in which the water flowed out.

Corol. 1. Hence if the height of the water CA may be produced to K, so that there shall
be AK to CK in the square ratio of the area of the opening made in some part of the
bottom, to the area of the circle AB : the velocity of the water flowing out will be equal to
the velocity that the water is able to acquire by falling and by describing the height KC in
that case.
[Thus, we apply the continuity equation to a circle of water at AB, and to the water at the
opening EF: The speed acquired by the water falling twice the height AK may be called
v
A
, and the speed at EF may be called v
E
, then
2 2 4 4
and
A E
v AB v EF AK AB GI EF = = .]
rd
Ed.

Corol. 2. And the force, by which the whole motion of the water streaming forth can be
generated, is equal to the weight of the cylindrical column of water, the base of which is
the opening EF, and the height 2GI or 2CK. For the
water rushing out is able to acquire its emergence
velocity, to which in time that column may be equated,
by its own weight falling from a height of GI.
[Thus, the force is taken to be this weight of water in
modern terms
2
2 EF g GI . The actual
mechanism for the acceleration of the water in the
opening to form the jet emerging is not explained, but
we are to accept the final speed of emergence in modern
terms, correcting for the vena contracta, as being
2g GI .]
Corol. 3. The weight of all the water in the vessel ABDC is to the part of the weight,
which is used in the out flowing of the water, as the sum of the circles AB and EF to the
double of the circle EF. For if IO is the mean proportional between IH and IG; and the
water emerging through the opening EF, in the time that a drop falling from I may be able
to describe the height IG, will be equal to a cylinder the base of which is the circle EF and
the height is 2IG, that is, to a cylinder whose base is the circle AB and height is 2IO, for
the circle EF is to the circle AB in the square root ratio of the height IH to the height IG,
that is, in the simple ratio of the mean proportional IO to the height IG: and in which time
the drop by falling from I can describe the height IH, the water passing out will be equal
to the cylinder of which the base is the circle AB and the height is 2IH : in which time the
drop by falling from I through H to G will describe the difference of the heights HG, the
water emerging, that is, all the water in the figure ABNFEM will be equal to the difference
of the cylinders, that is, to a cylinder of which the base is AB and the height 2HO. And
therefore the total water in the vessel ABDC is to the total water fallen in the figure
ABNFEM as HG to 2HO, that is, as HO OG + to 2HO, or IH IO + to 2IH. But the weight
of all the water in the figure ABNFEM is expended in the out flowing of the water: and
hence the weight of all the water in the vessel is to the part of the weight which is
implemented in the out flowing of the water, as IH IO + to 2IH, and thus as the sum of
the circles EF and AB to twice the circle EF.

[Enlarged note from L. & J. : Thus, the same velocity of
the efflux arises from the whole circle AB and the
height 2IO as from the circle EF and the height 2IG, or
what amounts to the same, cylinders which have these
equal volumes. Again, the same amount of water passes
through the circles AF and EF in the same time, and the
amount of water passing through AB will be in the time
that a drop falls through the height IH, equal to the
volume of a cylinder of water of which the base is the
circle AB and the height 2IH. We may add to this, inverted, that
E
A
v Area AB
IG
Area EF v
IH
= = .
rd
Ed.

Now, if or
IG IO
IO IH
IO IG IH = = then
E
A
v Area AB
IG IG IO
Area EF v IO IH
IH
= = = = . Thus, in the
time a drop falls the distance IH, the jet emits a volume of water equal to
2 the area AB IH , due to the waist narrowing; then by simple proportion, in the time a
drop falling from I to G via H describes the difference of the heights GH, that is the whole
volume of water in the ice funnel ABNFEM, the jet will emit a volume equal to the
difference of the (whole) cylinders, that is, a cylinder with base AB and height 2HO.
Hence, the total amount of water in the vessel is to the water escaped through the ice
funnel, as HG to 2HO. The volume of water contained in the vessel ABDC is equal to the
capacity of the vessel or cylinder the base of which is the circle AB, and the height HG;
and therefore the total water in the vessel ABCE, is to the total water falling in the solid
ABNFEM, as HG to 2HO, that is, as
2
HO OG
HO
+
, and because by hypothesis:
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
,
there is = = .]
Area EF
IO IO IH HO IH
Area AB IO IG IG IO OG
Area AB Area EF
HG HO OG IH IO AB EF
HO HO IH Area EF
EF
+
+ + +

= = = =
= =

Corol. 4. And hence the weight of all the water in the vessel ABDC is to the part of the
weight that the base of the vessel sustains, as the sum of the circles AB and EF to the
difference of the same circles.
[The weight of all the water in the vessel ABCD shall be P, the part of that weight which
is involved in the efflux of the water shall be p, and hence the part P p of the whole
weight or clearly equal to the difference of the circles CD and EF which is sustained by
the bottom of vessel and is not involved in the efflux. And, by Cor. 3, there will be
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2
and hence .
P AB EF P AB EF
p P p
EF AB EF
+ +

= = ]
Corol. 5. And the part of the weight that the base of the vessel sustains, is to the other
part of the weight, which is implemented in the out flowing of the water, as the difference
of the circles AB and EF to twice the smaller circle EF,
or as the area of the base to twice the aperture.
[ Since
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
, also .
P p
P AB EF AB EF
p p
EF EF
+
= = ]

Corol. 6. But the part of the weight, by which the
base only may be acted on, is to the whole weight of
the water, which will press perpendicularly on the
base, as the circle AB to the sum of the circles AB and
EF, or as the circle AB to the excess of twice the circle
AB above the base. For the part of the weight, by
which the base may be acted on alone, is to the weight
of the whole water in the vessel, as the difference of
the circles AB and EF to the sum of the same circles by Cor. 4 :
[As above,
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2
and hence
P p p
P AB EF AB EF EF
p p P
EF EF AB EF
+
+
= = , giving
2 2
2 2
P p
AB EF
P
AB EF

+
= and
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
or
p
P
P AB EF AB
P p P p
AB EF AB EF
+

= = and
2
2 2
2 2
p p
P P
P p
AB
P p P P
AB EF

+
= = ]
rd
Ed.

and the weight of all the water in the vessel is to the weight of all the water which presses
normally on the base, as the circle AB to the difference of the circles AB and EF. And thus
from the rearranged equation, the part of the weight, by which the base alone is acted on,
is to the weight of all the water, which presses normally on the base, as the circle AB to
the sum of the circles AB and EF, or the excess of twice the circle AB above the base.
Corol. 7. If a small circlePQ may be located in the middle of the hole EF described
with centre G and parallel to the horizontal : the weight of water which that circle shall
sustain, is greater than the weight of a third part of the cylinder of water the base of which
that circle and the height is GH. For let ABNFEM be the cataract or column of water
falling having the axis GH as above, and as it is understood all the water in the vessel has
become frozen, as long as the most immediate and fastest may not be required in the
circulation of the cataract above the circle. And let PHQ be the column of water frozen
above the circle, having the vertex H and the height GH. And consider the cataract both to
fall by its own total weight, and not in the least to encumber or press upon PHQ, but to
slide past freely and without friction, except perhaps at the vertex of the ice itself from
which the cataract itself may begin to fall in the cavity. And in whatever manner the
frozen water in the circuit of the cataract AMEC, BNFD is convex on the internal surface
AME, BNF falling towards the cataract, thus also this column PHQ will be convex
towards the stream, and therefore greater than for a cone the base of which is that circle
PQ and with the height GH, that is, greater than a third part of the cylinder with the same
base and with the height described. But the circle may sustain the weight of that column,
that is, the weight which is greater than the weight of the cone or a third part of the
cylinder.
[Thus, the weight of water sustained by the small circle is greater than the weight of the
cone, given by
1
3
Ch. g in an obvious notation with C the area of the small circle, while
in the following, the weight is again less than the weight of a semi-spheroid, given
by
2
3
Ch. g . If the circle is very small, then the weight supported can be taken as he
arithmetic mean, that is
1
2
Ch. g (Cor. 8 & 9 following.) ; this leads on in the following
to an examination of the frictional force on a horizontal circle in a stream.]
Corol. 8. The weight of water that a very small circle PQ can sustain, may be seen to
be less than two thirds of the cylinder of water the base of which is that circle and the
altitude is HG. For with everything now remaining in place, it may be understood to have
described half of a spheroid, the base of which is that circle and the semi axis or height is
HG. And this figure will be equal to two third parts of that cylinder and it may be
understood that the circle may sustain the weight of this frozen column of water PHQ. For
as the motion of the water shall be mainly straight [down], the surface of that column may
meet externally with the base PQ in some acute angle, therefore as with the water falling
it always will be accelerated, and on account of the acceleration it shall become narrower,
and since that angle shall be less than a right angle, this column will be laid within the
half spheroid in the lower parts of this. Truly the same upwards will be acute or pointed,
lest the horizontal motion of the water at the vertex of the spheroid shall be infinitely
faster than the motion of this towards the horizontal. And so that the smaller the circlePQ
becomes the more acute the vertex of the column becomes to that ; and with the tiny circle
diminished indefinitely, the angle PHQ will be diminished indefinitely, and therefore that
rd
Ed.

column will be placed within the half spheroid. Therefore that column is less than the half
spheroid, or than two thirds parts of the cylinder of which the base is that small circle, and
with the altitude GH. But the small circle sustains the force equal to the weight of the
water of this column, since the weight of the water around is employed in the outflow of
this water.
Corol 9. The weight of water that a very small circle PQ may sustain, is equal to the
weight of the cylinder of water the base of which is that circle and the height is
1
2
GH
approximately. For this weight is the arithmetical mean between the weights of the cone
and of the aforementioned hemisphere. But if that circle shall not be very small, but may
be increased until it may equal the opening EF ; here it will be the weight of all the water
itself overhanging perpendicularly, that is, the weight of the cylinder of water of which
the base is that circle and the height is GH.
Corol. 10. And (as far as I know) the weight that the little circle sustains is always to
the weight of the cylinder of water, the base of which is that little circle and of which the
height is
1
2
GH , as EF
2
to
1
2
2 2
EF PQ , or as the area of the circle EF to the excess of
this circle above half the area of this circle of this circle PQ, as an approximation.

[L & S note : For this supposition satisfies the above requirements : For if p shall be the
weight of water sustained by the small circle, and P the weight of the cylinder of water
sustained by the small circle and with the height GH; and if there is put
2
1
2 1 1
2 2 2 2
1
2
2 2 2
: : then
P EF
EF PQ
p P EF EF PQ p .
= = But the quantity

2
2 2
2
P EF
EF PQ
is always
greater than
1
3
P , as it may satisfy Cor. 7, and likewise it can be shown always to be less
than
2
3
P.
B. & R. proceed here as follows: the weight of the water on the little circle is
1
2
P Ch. g = , from the above average, if the area of the circle is very small; however, it is
comparable to the cross-sectional area B of the pipe EF, we may assume this weight takes
the form
1
C
B
P Ch g
= , then when C is very small with respect to B, this reverts to the

above result, so that
1
2
= , and when C B = , the weight supported is that of a cylinder
with base C and height h, so that also
1
2
= ; hence, while C is less than
2
B
, the
expression
1
2 1
2
B
B C
P Ch g
= makes the weight lie between the given limits above.

There is an analogy between the force due to water running out through a hole, and the
resistance experienced by a body travelling at a constant rate through a medium. The
resistance Newton has in mind here is of the dynamic kind, due to the particles of the
medium rebounding from the moving surface, rather than due to the adhering nature of
the medium. If u is the velocity at the surface, v that at the orifice, A the area of the cross-
section of the base, B and C that of the orifice and the little circle PQ, and h the height of
the cylinder. Then ( )
2 2
2 and v u gh v B C uA = + = ; the former we may now think of as
an energy conservation equation, while the latter is a continuity equation. Now if A is
rd
Ed.

much greater than B, then
2
2 v gh = and the weight acting on the small circle is
1
2
P Ch g = , where 1 when 0
C
B
, in any manner.
2
4
Cv
P = .
Now let the opening of the pipe EFST be closed, and let the small circle ascend with such
a velocity that the relative motion of the circle and fluid compelled to flow past it is the
same as before; hence the weight or force acting on the small circle will be the same as
before; now the velocity of the fluid will be
Cv
B C
and that of the plane moving through it
Bv
B C
. If we imagine that B is infinitely greater than C, then the resistance of a plane
moving in still water with a velocity v will be
2
4
Cv
P = . The resistance depends only
on the area of the great circle, and according to this, a sphere. a spheroid, and a cylinder
will offer the same resistance. As many commentators have already indicated, there are
many flaws in these arguments; the principal one being that water does not flow out of a
hole in a vessel as Newton had envisaged! Nevertheless, the arguments are intriguing, and
there may be situations where a fluid obeys these rules. In any case, Newton went about
this analysis in order that he could examine the resistance to the motions of projectiles,
falling bodies, and pendulums, in resisting mediums, that follow.]

LEMMA IV.
The resistance of a cylinder, which is progressing along its own length uniformly, does
not change if the length of this may be increased or diminished ; and thus it is the same as
the resistance of a circle described with the same diameter, and with the same velocity of
progression along a right line perpendicular to its plane.

For the sides of the cylinder by the motion of this are minimally opposed : and the
cylinder, with the length of this diminished indefinitely, is turned into a circle.

[Thus Newton solves the simpler problem where the resistance is purely dynamic, and
ignores viscous effects in mediums, where the length would be important.]

PROPOSITION XXXVII. THEOREM XXIX.
The resistance of a cylinder which arises from the magnitude of the transverse section,
which is progressing uniformly along its length in a fluid compressed infinitely and non-
elastic, is to the force by which the whole motion of this, while meanwhile it describes
four times its length may be either removed or generated, as the density of the medium to
the density of the cylinder approximately.

For if the vessel ABDC may touch the surface of the still water with its base CD, and
water may flow from this vessel by the cylindrical pipe EFTS perpendicular to the
horizontal into still water, and moreover the small circle PQ may be located parallel to the
horizontal somewhere in the middle of the pipe, and CA may be produced to K, so that AK
shall be to CK in the squared ratio that the excess of the opening of the pipe EF over the
circle PQ has to the circle AB: it is evident (by Cases 5 and 6, & Cor. 1. Prop XXXVI)
that the velocity of the water passing through the annular space between the small circle
rd
Ed.

and the side of the vessel, that will be as that velocity the water can acquire by falling, and
in that case by describing the height KC or IG.
And (by Corol. X, Prop. XXXVI.) if the width of the vessel is infinite, so that the small
line HI may become vanishing and the altitudes IG and HG are equal: the force of the
water flowing down on the circle will be to the weight of the
cylinder whose base is that small circle and the height is
1
2
IG, as
EF
2
to
1
2
2 2
EF PQ approximately. For the force of the water,
by flowing with a uniform velocity through the whole pipe, will
be the same at the location of the circle PQ as in any part of the
pipe.
Now the openings of the pipe EF and ST may be closed, and
the small circle may ascend in the fluid compressed on all sides
and by itself ascending it may force the water above to fall
through the annular space between the small circle and the side
of the pipe : and the velocity of the ascending small circle will be to the velocity of the
water descending as the difference of the circles EF and PQ to the circle PQ, and the
velocity of the ascending little circle to the sum of the velocities, that is, to the relative
velocity of the water descending which flows past the ascending circle, as the difference
of the circles EF and PQ to the circle EF, or as
2 2 2
to EF PQ EF .
[For :
( )
2 2 2
asc. desc.
v PQ v EF PQ = and
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
, and
asc. desc. asc. rel . desc. asc. asc.
desc. desc. desc. rel . desc. rel .
v v v v v v v EF PQ EF PQ PQ EF PQ
EF
v v v v v v
PQ PQ PQ EF EF
+
= = = = = = ]

Let that relative velocity be equal to the velocity, which has been shown above to pass
through the same annular space while the small circle meanwhile may remain at rest, that
is, to the velocity that the water can acquire by falling and in that case by describing the
altitude 1G : and the force of the water in the ascending small circle will be the same as
before (by the rule of Corol. V.) that is, the resistance of the ascending circle will be to the
weight of the cylinder of water whose base is that small circle and the height is
1
2
IG, as
2
EF to
1
2
2 2
EF PQ approximately. But the velocity of the small circle will be to the
velocity that the water acquires by falling and in that case be describing the altitude IG,
as
2 2 2
to EF PQ EF .
The size of the pipe may be increased indefinitely : and these ratios between
2 2 2
and EF PQ EF , and between
1
2
2 2 2
and EF EF PQ finally will approach to ratios
of equality [, as EF >>PQ]. And therefore the velocity of the small circle will now be that
as can be acquired by the water descending in that case from the altitude described IG,
and truly the resistance of this will emerge equal to the weight of the cylinder whose base
is that small circle and the altitude is half of the altitude IG, from which the cylinder must
fall as the velocity of the ascending small circle may acquire ; and the cylinder with this
velocity, in the time of falling, will describe four times its own length. [As the force is
proportional to the velocity squared, then the cylinder must fall a distance
rd
Ed.

( )
1
2
2 4 IG IG = .] But the resistance of the cylinder progressing along its length with
this velocity, is the same as the resistance of the small circle (by Lemma IV.) and thus is
equal to the force by which the motion of this, as long as the quadruple of its length shall
be described, is able to be generated approximately.
If the length of the cylinder may be increased or diminished : so that the motion of this
and the time in which it will describe four times its length, will
be increased or diminished in the same ratio; and thus that force
will not be changed, by which the increased or diminished
motion, equally increased or decreased in the time, may be able
to be generated or taken away, and thus even now is equal to the
resistance of the cylinder, and since that too remains unchanged
by Lemma IV.
If the density of the cylinder may be increased or diminished :
so that the motion of this, and the force by which the motion can
be generated or removed in the same time, will be increased or
diminished in the same ratio. And thus the resistance of the
cylinder of any kind will be to the force by which the whole of its motion, as the fourfold
of its length meanwhile will be described, may be generated or removed, as the density of
the medium to the density of the cylinder approximately. Q.E.D.
But a fluid must be pressed together so that it shall be continuous, truly it must be
continuous and not elastic so that all the pressure, which arises from the compression of
this, may be propagated in an instant, and in the motion all the parts of the body acted on
equally may not change the resistance. Certainly the pressure, which arises from the
motion of the body, is impeded in the motion of the parts of the fluid being generated and
may create the resistance. But the pressure which arises from the compression of the fluid,
however strong it may be, if it may be propagated instantaneously, shall generate no
motion in the parts of the fluid, and in general it will lead to no change of the motion ; and
thus the resistance shall neither be increased or diminished. Certainly the reaction of the
fluid, which arises from the compression of this, cannot be stronger in the rear parts of the
of the moving body than in the front parts, and thus the resistance described in this
proposition cannot be diminished : and cannot be stronger in the front parts than in the
latter parts, but only if the propagation of this may be infinitely faster than the motion of
the compressed body. But it will only be infinitely faster and propagate instantaneously if
the fluid shall be continuous and not elastic.
Corol. 1. The resistances of cylinders, which are progressing uniformly along their
lengths in infinitely continuous mediums, are in a ratio composed from the square of the
ratio of the velocities and in the square ratio of the diameters and in the ratio of the
densities of the mediums.
Corol. 2. If the width of the pipe may not be increased indefinitely, but the cylinder
may be progressing along its length in an enclosed medium at rest, and meanwhile its axis
may coincide with the axis of the pipe : the resistance of this will be to the force by which
the whole motion of this, in the time it will describe the quadruple of its length, either
generated or removed, in a ratio which is composed from
1
2
2 2 2
to EF EF PQ once
[this factor as explained above, see Cor. 10, expressed the force on the small circle
rd
Ed.

compared to the force on the cylinder with the same small circular base and height
1
2
IG
as equal to the ratio
1
2
2 2 2
to EF EF PQ , and to the ratio
2 2 2
and EF EF PQ squared
[i.e. the velocity squared], and in the ratio of density of the medium to the density of the
cylinder.]
Corol. 3. With the same in place, and since the length L shall be to the quadruple of
the length of the cylinder in a ratio which is composed from the ratio
1
2
2 2
EF PQ to EF
2

once, and in the ratio
2 2
EF PQ to EF
2
squared : the resistance of the cylinder will be
to the force, either to be taken away or generated, by which the whole motion of this,
while the length L meanwhile will be described, as the density of the medium to the
density of the cylinder.

Scholium.
In this proposition we have investigated the resistance which arises from the magnitude
of the transverse section of the cylinder only, with the part of the resistance ignored which
may arise from the obliquity of the motions. For just as in the first case of Proposition
XXXVI, the obliquity of the motions by which the parts of the water in the vessel
certainly converged on the hole EF, impeding the efflux of this water through the hole :
thus in this proposition, obliquity of the motion, in which the parts of the water
compressed by the front part of the cylinder concede to the compression and diverge on
every side, retards the transition of these from the places at its anterior end by circulating
to the posterior parts of the cylinder, and effects that the fluid will be moved together at a
greater distance and will increase the resistance, and that almost in the ratio by which the
efflux of the water from the vessel may be diminished, that is, in around the ratio 25 to 21.
squared. And in the same manner, as in the first
case of that proposition, we effected that the parts
of the water be transferred perpendicularly and
with maximum abundance through the hole EF, by
putting all that water in a vessel in which the
circulation of the stream was frozen, and the
oblique motion of this was not used and remained in place without motion : thus in this
proposition, so that the obliquity of the motion may be removed, and the parts of the
water may allow the passage proceeding most easily by the cylinder in the shortest time
with the motion directed mainly forwards, and only the resistance may remain, which
arises from the magnitude of the transverse section, and which cannot be diminished
except by diminishing the diameter of the cylinder. It is considered that the parts of the
fluid, the motions of which are both useless and create resistance, may remain at rest
among themselves at each end of the cylinder, and may stick together and be joined to the
cylinder. Let ABCD be a rectangle, and both AE and BE shall be two parabolic arcs
described with the axis AB, moreover with the latus rectum which shall be to the distance
HG, with a cylinder being described by falling while it acquired its velocity, as HG to
1
2
AB. Also CF and DF shall be two other parabolic arcs, with the axis CD and with the
latus rectum which shall be four times the first latus rectum described ; and by the rotation
of the figure around the axes EF a solid may be generated the middle part of which shall
rd
Ed.

be the cylinder ABDC on which we are acting, and the end parts ABE and CDF may
contain parts of the fluid at rest amongst themselves and acting on the body as two rigid
solid parts, which adhere to the cylinder at each ends as head and tail. And the resistance
of the solid EACFDB, following the length of its axis FE progressing in the direction of
E, will be as nearly as we have described in this proposition, that is, which has that ratio
to the force which the whole motion of the cylinder, while the whole length 4AC
meanwhile may be described by that motion continued uniformly, that may be taken away
or generated, that the density of the fluid has to the density of the cylinder approximately.
And the resistance of this force cannot be less than in the ratio 2 to 3, by Corol. 7, Prop.
XXXVI.

LEMMA V.
If a cylinder, a sphere, and a spheroid, the widths of which are equal, thus may be
placed successively in the middle of a cylindrical pipe so that their axes may coincide
with the axis of the pipe: these bodies may equally impede the flow of the water through
the pipe.

For the spaces through which the water passes between the pipe and the cylinder, the
sphere, and the spheroid are equal: and the water passes through equal spaces equally.
Thus these themselves are had by hypothesis, because all the water above the cylinder,
sphere, or spheroid may be frozen, of which the fluidity is not required for the swiftest
passage of the water, as I have explained in Corol. VII, Prop. XXXVl.

LEMMA VI.
With the same in place, the aforementioned bodies may be acted on equally by the
water flowing in the pipe.

It is apparent by Lemma V and the third law of motion. Certainly the water and the
bodies act on each equally and mutually.

LEMMA VII.
If the water may be at rest in the pipe, and these bodies may be carried in opposite
directions with equal velocities, then the resistances of these are equal to each other.

This is agreed upon from the above lemma, for the relative motions remain between
each other.

Scholium.
The ratio is the same of all convex and rounded bodies, the axes of which coincide
with the axis of the pipe. Any differences can arise from the greater or lesser resistance,
but in these lemmas we suppose the bodies to be very smooth, and the stickiness and
friction of the medium to be zero, and because the parts of the fluid, which by their
oblique motions and superfluous flow of water through the pipe, are able to disturb,
impede, and to retard, are at rest among themselves as if they were restricted by ice, and
may be attached to the front and rear parts of bodies, just as I have shown in the scholium
rd
Ed.

of the preceding proposition. For in the following the smallest resistance of all that round
bodies can have is acting, with the greatest transverse cross section described.
Bodies swimming on fluids, where they may be moving in a straight direction, effect
that the fluid may ascend at the front parts and subside at the back parts, especially if the
figures shall be obtuse , and therefore they may feel the resistance a little greater than if
they were with sharp heads and tails. And bodies moving in elastic fluids, if they shall be
obtuse before and aft, they may compress the fluid a little more at the front part and be a
more relaxed at the rear part ; and therefore they experience a little more resistance than if
they were sharp at the head and tail. But we do not work with elastic fluids in these
lemmas and propositions, but with non elastic ones ; not with sitting on the fluid, but with
deeply immersed in it. And when the resistance of bodies in non elastic fluids becomes
known, this resistance will be increased by a small amount in elastic fluids, such as air, as
on the surfaces of fluids at rest, such as seas and marshes.

PROPOSITION XXXVIII. THEOREM XXX.
The resistance of a sphere progressing in an infinitely compressed and non elastic fluid
is approximately to the force by which the whole motion, in which time a three eights part
of its diameter will be described, either taken away or generated, as the density of the
fluid to the density of the sphere.

For the sphere is to the circumscribed cylinder as two is to three ; and therefore that
force, which may be able to remove all the motion, while the cylinder meanwhile may
describe a length of four diameters, all the motion of the sphere meanwhile may be taken
away while the sphere describes two third parts of this length, that is, eight third parts of
its own diameter. But the resistance of the cylinder is to this force approximately as the
density of the fluid to the density of the cylinder or sphere by Prop. XXXVII, and the
resistance of the sphere is equal to the resistance of the cylinder by Lem. V, VI, VII.
Q.E.D.
Corol. I. The resistances of spheres, in infinitely compressed mediums, are in a ratio that
is composed from the square ratio of the velocities, and in the square ratios of the
diameters, and in the ratio of the densities of the mediums.
Corol. 2. The maximum velocity by which a sphere, by a force to be compared with its
own weight, is able to descend in a resisting fluid, is that which the sphere likewise can
acquire, by the same weight, by falling without resistance and in that case by describing a
distance which shall be to four thirds parts of its diameter as the density of the sphere to
the density of the fluid. For the sphere in the time of its own case, with the velocity of
falling acquired, describes a distance which will be as eight thirds of its diameter, as the
density of the sphere to the density of the fluid ; and the force of this weight generating
this motion, will be to the force which may generate the same motion, in that time the
sphere will describe eight thirds of its diameter with the same velocity, as the density of
the fluid to the density of the sphere : and thus by this proposition, the force of the weight
will be equal to the force of the resistance, and therefore the sphere cannot accelerate.
Corol. 3. With both the density of the sphere and its velocity at the beginning of the
motion given, and as with the density of the compressed fluid at rest in which the sphere
rd
Ed.

is moving; both the velocity of the sphere and the resistance of this sphere may be given
at any time, as well as the distance described by that, by Corol. VII. Prop. XXXV.
Corol. 4. A sphere in a compressed fluid at rest with the same density by moving, the half
part of its motion will be lost as it describes a length of two of its diameters, by the same
Corol. VII.

PROPOSITION XXXIX. THEOREM XXXI.
The resistance of a sphere, progressing uniformly through the compressed fluid in a
closed pipe, is to the force, by which the whole of this motion, while it will describe
meanwhile the eight third parts of its diameter, either may be generated or removed, in a
ratio which is composed from the ratio of the openings of the pipe to the excess of the
opening over half the great circle of the sphere, and in the ratio doubled of the opening to
the excess of this ratio over the great circle of the sphere, and with the density of the fluid
to the density of the sphere approximately.

This is apparent by Corol. 2. Prop. XXXVII, and indeed the demonstration proceeds as
in the preceding proposition.

Scholium.
In the two most recent demonstrations (in the same manner as in Lem. V.) I suppose
that all the water which precedes the sphere may be turned to ice, and its fluidity increases
the resistance of the sphere. If all that water may become liquid, the resistance will be
increased a small amount. But that increase will be small in these propositions and can be
ignored, provided that the whole convex surface of the sphere almost serves to be made of
ice.

PROPOSITION XL. PROBLEM IX.
To find the resistance by phenomena, of a sphere progressing in a most compressed fluid
medium.

Let A be the weight of the sphere in a vacuum, B its weight in a resisting medium, D
the diameter of the sphere, F the distance which shall be to
4
3
D as the density of the
sphere to the density of the medium, that is, as A to A B , G the time by which the
sphere with the weight B by falling without resistance will describe the distance F, and H
the velocity that the sphere acquires in this case itself. And H will be the maximum
velocity by which the sphere, by its weight B, can fall in the resisting medium, by Corol.
2. Prop. XXXVIII, and the resistance that the sphere is allowed falling with that velocity,
will be equal to the weight B of this: truly the resistance that is experienced with any
velocity, will be to the weight B in the square ratio of the velocity of this to that maximum
velocity H, by Corol, I. Prop. XXXVIII.
This is the resistance that arose from the inertia of the matter of the fluid. Indeed that
which arises from the elasticity, the tenacity, and from the friction of the parts of this, thus
will be investigated.
A sphere may be sent off so that it may descend in the fluid by its own weight B ; and
P shall be the descent time, and that may be had in seconds, if the time G may be given in
rd
Ed.

seconds. The absolute number N may be found which agrees with the logarithm
2
04342944819
P
G
, , and let L be the logarithm of the number
1 N
N
+
; and the velocity
acquired by falling will be
1
1
N
N
H
+
, but the height described will be
2
13862943611 4605170186
PF
G
, F , LF + . If the fluid may be of sufficient depth, the term
4605170186 , LF can be ignored; and
2
13862943611
PF
G
, F will describe the height
approximately. These are shown by ninth proposition of the second book and its corollary,
from the hypothesis that the sphere experiences no other resistance except for that which
arises from the inertia of the matter. For if another resistance may be experienced above,
the descent will be slower, and from the retardation the amount of this resistance may
become known.
In order that the velocities of a body falling in a medium may become known more
easily, I have composed the following table, the first column of which may denote the
times of the descent, the second shows the velocities acquired by falling with the
maximum velocity present 100000000, the third shows the distances described by falling
in these times, with the distance 2F that the body will describe in the time G with the
maximum velocity, and the fourth shows the distances in the same times described with
the maximum velocity. The numbers in the fourth column are
2P
G
, and by subtracting the
number 13862944 46051702 , , L , the numbers in the third column are found, and these
numbers are multiplied by the distance F so that the distances described by falling may be
obtained. To these above a fifth column is added, which contains the distances described
in the same times by a body falling in a vacuum, to be compared with the force of its own
weight B.
.
Times
P.
Velocities
falling in fluid.
Distances
described falling in
fluid.
Distances
described at the
maximum velocity.
Distances
described falling
in a vacuum.
0,001G
29
30
99999 0000001 , F 0,002F 0,000001F
0,01G 999967 0,0001F 0,02F 0,0001F
0,1G 9966799 0,0099834F 0,2F 0,01F
0,2G 19737532 0,0397361F 0,4F 0,04F
0,3G 29131261 0,0886815F 0,6F 0,09F
0,4G 37994896 0,1559070F 0,8F 0,16F
0,5G 46211716 0,2402290F 1,0F 0,25F
0,6G 53704957 0,3402706F 1,2F 0,36F
0,7G 60436778 0,4545405F 1,4F 0,49F
0,8G 66403677 0,5815071F 1,6F 0,64 F
0,9G 71629787 0,7196609F 1,8F 0,81F
1G 7615 9416 0,8675617F 2F 1F
2G 96402758 2,65 00055F 4F 4F
3G 99505475 4,6186570F 6F 9F
4G 99932930 6,6143765F 8F 16F
5G 99990920 8,6137964F 10F 25F
rd
Ed.

6G 99998771 10,6137179F 12F 36F
7G 99999834 12,6137073F 14F 49F
8G 99999980 14,6137059F 16F 64F
9G 99999997 16,6137057F 18F 81F
10G 99999999
3
5
18,6137056F 20F 100F

[Note 284. L. & J . p. 699.
So that the demonstration of these things which Newton has presented may be understood
easily, some of the matters which he demonstrated in
Propositions VIII & IX in Section 2 are to be recalled.
Let CH and AB be perpendicular right lines to a given
right line AC, indeed with CH infinite, and with
1
4
BA AC = . With centre C and with the asymptotes
CH, CA, a hyperbola BNS may be described through
the point B taking AC, AP, AK in continued proportion,
and the right line KN is drawn parallel to AB. And if a
heavy body may fall from rest in a medium that resists
in the square ratio of the velocity, the area ABNK may
represent the distance described by the body in falling;
and the velocity of the body acquired in this case will
be able to be represented by the line AP, and its maximum velocity by the given line AC
(by Cor.1 & 2 Prop. VIII). Now BA may be produced to D so that AD AC = , DC may be
joined, and with centre D, with the asymptote DC, and with the the principal vertex A,
another hyperbola ATZ may be described, which the line DP produced may cut in T, and
the line DQ becomes infinitely near to the line DP itself at V; and the vanishing sector
PDQ AC
CK
DTV

= , and the sector ATD represents the time in which the falling body
describes the distance ABNK, and by which it acquires the velocity AP (by Case 2, Prop.
IX). Truly the distance that the body will describe falling in some time ATD, will be to the
distance that the body can describe by progressing uniformly in the same time with the
maximum velocity AC, as the area ABNK to the area ATD (by Cor.1. Prop. IX), and the
time in which the body by falling in the resisting medium acquires the velocity AP, will
be to the time in which the maximum velocity AC in non-resisting medium by the force of
its weight by falling in comparison may acquire, as the sector ATD to the triangle ADC
(by Cor.5. Prop. IX).
Note 285. L. & J . With these presumed, there may be called
1
4
AC AD a, AB a, AP x,PQ dx. = = = = = The hyperbola SNB with the origin at A, is given
by
1
4
a
x a
y .
+
=
; while the hyperbola ZTA, with the origin at D, is given by
2 2 2
y x a = .
Because
AC AP
AP AK
= ,
2 2 2
x a x
a a
AK ,CK

= = , the triangle
1
2
PDQ adx = , and the sector
3 2 2
1 1 1
2 4 4
2 2
a dx a dx a dx
PDQ AC
CK a x a x
a x
DTV

+
= = = + ;
rd
Ed.

[Thus, in modern terms, from the equation
( )
2 2
0
dv
dt
k v v = , where
0
v represents the
terminal velocity from
2
0
g kv = , on separating the terms and integrating, we have using
different variables,
( )
0
2 2
0 0 0
0
0
0
; 2
v
v v
dv dv dv
v v v v v v
v v
kdt kv t ln
+
+
= = + =
.] ; hence, on taking the

integral, the sector ATD representing the time is obtained
1 1 1
4 4 4
2 2 2
a x
a x
ATD a L.a x a L.a x a L.
+
= + = , to which quantity nothing is required to be

added or subtracted, because there shall be 0 and 0 ATD , x = = , vanishing as required.
LO may be drawn parallel to KN and infinitely close to it; and since there shall be
2
x
a
AK = , and (by Theorem IV by hypothesis)
3
1
2
2 2
2
and
a
CA AB xdx
CK a
a x
KL
= = , the
differential of the area ABNK will be
2
1
2
2 2
a xdx
a x
= , and with the integrations made, the area
corresponding to the distance
1
4
2 2 2
ABNK Q a L.a x = ; indeed because the area ABNK
vanishes when 0 x = , the constant Q will become
1
4
2 2
a L.a , and the final area
2
1 1 1
4 4 4 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
a
a x
ABNK a L.a a L.a x a L.
= = .
[In this case, from the equation
( )
2 2
0
dv
ds
v k v v = on taking the downwards direction as
positive, this gives
2
0 1
2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
2
2 and
k
v
vdv dv dv
v v v v v v v v
k ds; s ln
+
= = =

, with an obvious
change of variables, recalling that
2
0
kv g = , where the terminal velocity is v
0
, so that k has
the dimensions of time. Back to L. & J .]
Again the time P in which the body, by falling in the resisting medium, acquires the
velocity of the line AP, or the proportional x is to the time G in which the maximum
velocity H can be acquired by the force of its weight, by the weight B falling in
comparison without resistance, as the sector ATD to the triangle ADC, that is,
2
1
4 1
2 2
1
2
a x
a x
a L.
a x P
G a x
a
L.
+
+
= = .
[For without resistance, the weight B falls under gravity g alone, and in time T it will
reach the terminal velocity v
0
, so that
0
2
0 0
and
v
T
v gT kv g = = = ; hence
( )
( )
0
0 0
2
1 1 1
2 2
or ;
v v
a a v
G ka kv v v ka a v
ka g G t ln P ln
+
+

= = = = = ; hence
2 a v a x P
G a v a x
L. L.
+ +

= = . ]
2 a x P
G a x
L.
+
= , with this logarithm taken with the logistic of which

the subtangent is one. On account of which if the logarithm of the numbers
a x
a x
+
may be
taken from tables, it is done by multiplying by the number 2,302585093 [ 10 ln = ], as in
Cor. 7 Prop. XXXV, and there will be had
2
2302585093
a x P
G a x
, L.
+
= , and thus on dividing

1. by 2,3025..... the number
2
04342944819
P
G
, is the logarithm of the number
a x
a x
+
[to
base 10]. And thus if the absolute number N is sought from tables which agree with the
rd
Ed.

logarithm
2
04342944819
P
G
, , there will be
a x
a x
N
+
= , and thus
( ) 1
1
a N
N
x .
+
= But AC to AP
or a to x, shall be as the maximum velocity H to the velocity acquired by falling.
Whereby this velocity will be
1
1
xH N
a N
H
+
= , just as Newton found. The distance the
sphere will describe in the time P, progressing uniformly with the maximum velocity H,
is to the distance 2F that it can traverse with the same velocity H in the time G, as the
time P to the time G (5. Lib. I), and therefore that distance is
2PF
G
. The height S that the
sphere will describe in the time P by falling in a resisting medium, is to the distance
2PF
G
,
as the area ABNK to the sector ATD, that is, as
2 2 2
1 1
4 4 2 2 2
2 2
to or to
a a x a x a x
a x a x
a x a
a L. a L. L. L.
+ +

, but from above,

a x
a x
N
+
= , and
( ) 1
1
a N
N
x

+
= , and hence
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2 2
1 1
4
4
N N N
a
N
a x N
+ +
= = , and if logarithms are taken in the

logistic of which the subtangent is one (i.e. natural logs)
1 2
2 4
a x N P
G a x N
L. L.N L. L.
+ +
= = + ; and hence
2
2 2
1
1
2 4
1 2
2
: 2 4:
1 :1 1 4:1 :
N
N
a a x N
a x N
a x
L. L.
G N G PF
L.N P N P G
L. L. L.N L. L. L.N
L. L. S .
+
+ +
+
= +
= + = + =

Whereby the altitude
1 2
4 2
N PF
G N
S FL. FL.
+
= +
But if we wish to use log. tables, these are multiplied by the number 2,302585092994 or
2,302585093. Here the number may be called M, the logarithm of the number 4 taken
from the tables Q, and the logarithm of the number
1 N
N
+
shall be L; and there will be
2
2
PF
G
S MQF MLF = + . But there is 2 4605170186 M , , = and Q in common tables of
logarithms is 0,60206; or more accurately 0,602059991333, and thus
13862943611 MQ , = approximately. Whereby the height S, that the sphere describes in
the time P by falling in the resisting medium, is
2
13862943911 4605170186
PF
G
, F , LF + ,
as Newton defined.
If the distance S that the sphere may fall were so great, that the term
4605170186 , LF could be ignored; then L shall be the logarithm of the number
1 N
N
+
,
where N shall be a number so large, or where the number
1 N
N
+
may be almost equal to
one, the logarithm L vanishes approximately. But, if the maximum velocity may be called
H, and the velocity V of the sphere is acquired in that time P , there is
and thus
a H V a x H
V x H V a x
N
+ +

= = = , and when the distance S is large enough, there becomes
V H = approximately, and hence or
H V
H V
N
+
a number large enough, as is evident from the

above table; hence the proposition is shown. ]

Scholium.
rd
Ed.

In order that I might investigate the resistance of fluids by experiments, I prepared a
square wooden vessel, with length and width of nine inches inside of English feet, with a
depth of nine and a half feet, the same I filled with rainwater; and with spheres formed
from wax with lead enclosed, I noted the times of descent of the spheres, with the descent
in the height being 112 inches. A volume of an English cubic foot contains 76 pounds
Avoirdupois of rainwater, and of this a cubic inch contains
19
36
ounces of weight or
1
3
253
grains ; and a sphere of water of diameter one inch contains 132,645 grains in the medium
of air, or 132,8 grains Avoirdupois in a vacuum ; and any other sphere is as the excess of
this weight in a vacuum over its weight in water.
Expt. 1. A sphere, the weight of which was
1
4
156 grains in air and 77 grains in water,
described the whole height of 112 digits in a time of 4 seconds. And with the experiment
repeated, the sphere again fell in the same time of 4 seconds.
The weight of the sphere in a vacuum is
13
38
156 grains and the excess of this over the
weight of the sphere in water is
13
38
79 grains. From which the diameter of the sphere
produced is 0,84224 parts of an inch. But as that excess is to the weight of the sphere in a
vacuum, hence the density of the water to the density of the sphere, and thus 8/3 parts of
the diameter of the sphere (viz. 2,24597 inches) to the distance 2F, that hence will be
4,4156 inches. The sphere by falling in a vacuum in the time of one second with its whole
weight of
13
38
156 grains, will describe
1
3
193 inches; and with a weight of 77 grains, in the
same time, by falling without resistance in water will describe 95,219 inches; and in the
time G, which shall be to one second in the square root ratio of the distance F, or 2,2128
inches to 95,219 inches, it will describe 2,2128 inches, and it will be able to acquire that
maximum velocity H to descend in water. Therefore the time G is 0,15244 seconds. And
in this time G, with that maximum velocity H, the sphere will describe a distance 2F of
4,4256 inches; and thus in the time of four seconds it will describe a distance of 1l6,1245
inches. The distance 1,3862944F or 3,0676 inches may be taken away, and there will
remain a distanceof 113,0569 inches that the sphere by falling in water, in the widest
vessel, will describe in a time of four seconds. This distance, on account of the
aforementioned narrow wooden vessel, ought to be lessened in a ratio that is composed
from the square root ratio of the opening of the vessel to the excess of this opening over
the greatest semicircle of the sphere, and from the simple of the same opening to the
excess of this over the great circle of the sphere, that is, in the ratio 1 to 0,9914. With
which done, it will give a distance of 112,08 inches, which the sphere by falling in water
in this wooden vessel in a time of four seconds must describe approximately. Indeed by
experiment it has described 112 inches.
Expt. 2. Three equal spheres, of which the weights themselves were
1
3
76 grains in air
and
1
16
5 grains in water, were released successively ; and each one fell in a time of 15
seconds, in each case by describing a height of 112 inches.
By entering into the computation they produced a weight of the sphere in a vacuum of
5
12
76 grains, the excess of the weight of
17
48
71 grains over the weight in water, of a sphere
of diameter 0,81296 inches,
8
3
parts of this diameter 2,16789 inches; the distance 2F
2,3217 inches; the distance that the sphere with a weight of
1
16
5 grains in a time of 1
second may describe by falling 11,808 inches without resistance, and the time G 0,301056
rd
Ed.

seconds. Therefore the sphere, with that maximum velocity it can describe in water by the
weight of the force
1
16
5 grains, in the time 0,301056 seconds will describe the distance
2,3217 inches and in the time 15 a distance of 115,678 inches. The distance 1,3862944F
or 1,609 inches may be subtracted and the distance114,069 inches will remain which the
sphere must be able to describe by falling in the same time in the widest vessel. Therefore
the narrowness of our vessel must take away a distance of around 0,895 inches. And thus
there will remain a distance of 113,174 inches which the sphere by falling in this vessel,
ought to describe in 15 seconds by the theorem approximately. Truly it describes 112
inches by experiment. The difference is insignificant.
Expt. 3. Three equal spheres, whose weights were separately 121 grains in air and 1
grain in water, were successively dropped ; and they were falling in water describing
heights of 112 inches in the times 46, 47, and 50 seconds.
By the theorem these spheres should fall in a time around 40 seconds. Because
they have fallen slower, whether for a smaller part of the resistance arising from the force
of inertia in slowing the motions, or it is required to attribute a resistance that arises to
other causes ; perhaps to some bubbles adhering to the sphere, or to the evaporation of
the wax either by the heat or warmth of the season or by dropping the sphere by hand, or
even by unknown errors in weighing the spheres in water, I am unsure. And thus the
weight of the sphere in water must be of several grains, so that the experiment may be
rendered certain and trustworthy.
Expt. 4. The experiments described so far I had began so that I could investigate the
resistance of fluids, before the theory in the nearby preceding propositions set out by me
was known. Afterwards, so that I could examine the theory found, I prepares a wooden
vessel with an internal width of
2
3
8 inches, with a depth of
1
3
15 feet. Then I made four
spheres from wax with lead inside, the individual ones weighing
1
4
139 grains in air and
1
8
7 grains in water. And these I released so that I could measure the falling times in water
by a pendulum, oscillating in half seconds. The spheres, when they were being weighed
and afterwards were cold, and they remained cold for some time ; because heat
evaporated the wax, and by the evaporation diminished the weight of the sphere in water,
and the evaporated wax is not at once restored to the former density by cold. Before they
fell, they were thoroughly immersed in water; lest with the weight from some parts
standing clear from the water might accelerate the descent from the start. And when
immersed they become completely still, they were being dropped most cautiously, lest
they might accept some impulse from the hand on being dropped. Moreover they fell in
the successive times of oscillation
1 1
2 2
47 48 , , 50 and 51, describing a height of 15 feet
and 2 inches. But the weather was now a little colder than when the spheres were
weighed, and thus I repeated the experiment on another day, and the spheres were falling
in the times of 49,
1
2
49 , 50 and 53 oscillations, and on a third attempt with the times of
1
2
49 , 50, 51 and 53 oscillations. And with the experiment taken more often, the spheres
fell mainly from the times of the oscillations
1
2
49 and 50. When falling slower, I suspect
to be retarded by striking with the sides of the vessel.
Now the computation by the theorem being entered into, they produce the weight of
the sphere in a vacuum of
2
5
139 grains. An excess of this weight over the weight of the
rd
Ed.

sphere in water of
11
40
132 grains. The diameter of the sphere is 0,99868 inches. The
8
3

parts of the diameter 2,66315 inches. The interval 2F becomes 2,8066 inches. The
distance which a sphere with a weight of
1
8
7 grains describes in a time of one second by
falling without resistance 9,88164 inches. And the time G 0, 376843 seconds. Therefore
the sphere, with the maximum velocity by which it can descent in water by a force of a
weight of
1
8
7 , in a time 0,376843 seconds will describe a distance 2,8066 inches, and in a
time of 1 second, a distance of 7,44766 inches, and in the time of 25 seconds or of 50
oscillations a distance of 186,1915 inches [in these days an oscillation was the motion of a
pendulum from one side to the other, or half the modern period]. The distance
1,386294F, or 1,9454 inches may be taken away, and there will remain 184,2461 inches
which the sphere in the same time in the widest vessel. On account of the narrowness of
our vessel, this distance may be diminished in a ratio which is composed from the square
root ratio of the opening of the vessel and the excess of this opening over the great
semicircle of the sphere, and to the simple ratio of this same orifice to its excess over a
great circle of the sphere ; and the distance 181,86 inches will be had, which the sphere
ought to describe in this vessel in the time of 50 approximately by the theorem. In truth it
may describe a distance of 182 inches in a time of
1
2
49 or 50 oscillations by experiment.
Expt. 5. Four spheres with a weight of
1
8
1
2
21 grains in water are
dropped often, falling in a time of
1 1
2 2
28 29 29 , , and 30 oscillations, and occasionally of
31, 32 and 33 oscillations, describing heights of 15 feet and 2 inches.
By the theorem they ought to fall in a time of 29 approximately.
Expt. 6. Five spheres with a weight of
3
8
1
2
79 grains in water were
dropped a number of times, they were falling in the times of
1
2
15 , 16, 17 and 18
oscillations, describing heights of 15 feet and 2 inches.
By the theorem they ought to fall in a time of approximately15 oscillations.
Expt.7. Four spheres weigh
3
8
7
8
35 grains in water were dropped a
number of times, they were falling in the times
1 1
2 2
29 30 30 , , , 31, 32 and 33 oscillations,
describing heights of 15 feet and 2 inches.
By the theorem they ought to fall in a time of approximately 28 oscillations.
The cause requiring to be investigated why of spheres of the same weight and
magnitude, some may fall faster or slower, I fell upon this ; because the spheres, when
they were being first released and they were beginning to fall, were turning about the
centres, with the side that was perhaps the heavier to be the first to descend, and by
generating a motion of oscillation. For by its oscillations the sphere could communicate
more motion to the water, than if it were descending without oscillations ; and by
communicating, it lost a part of its proper motion by which it ought to descend: and by a
greater or smaller oscillation, it may be retarded more or less. Truly indeed the sphere
always departed from its side that descended by the oscillation, and by receding
approached the sides of vessel and occasionally struck the sides. And this oscillation was
stronger in heavier spheres, and with the larger disturbed more water. On which account,
so that the oscillation of the spheres could be made less, I constructed nine spheres from
wax and lead, I put in place the lead on some side of the sphere close to the surface of this
; and the sphere thus dropped, so that the heavier side, as long as that could be done,
rd
Ed.

should be the lowest from the beginning of the descent. Thus the oscillations were made
much less than at first, and the spheres fell in less unequal times, as in the following
experiments.
Expt. 8. Four spheres, with a weight of 139 grains in air and
1
2
6 in water, were dropped
a number of times, they fell in times of not more than 52 oscillations, not many less than
50, and the most from a time of around 51 oscillations, describing a height of 182 inches.
By the theorem they ought to fall in a time of approximately 52 oscillations.
Expt. 9. Four spheres, with a weight of
1
4
273 in air and
1
4
140 in water, were dropped a
number of times, they fell in times of not fewer than 12 oscillations, not of much more
than 13, describing a height of 182 inches.
By the theorem they ought to fall in a time of approximately
1
3
11 oscillations.
Expt. 10. Four spheres, with a weight of 384 in air and
1
2
119 in water, were dropped a
number of times, they fell in the times of
3 1
4 2
17 , 18 18 and 19 , , , oscillations, describing a
height of
1
2
181 inches. And when they fell in the time of 19 oscillations, I heard only a few
strike the side of the vessel before they arrived at the bottom.
5
8
15 oscillations.
Expt. 11. Three equal spheres, with weights of 48 grains in air and
29
30
3 grains in water,
were dropped often, and they fell in times of
1 1
2 2
43 4444 , , , 45 and 46 oscillations, and for
the greater part, from 44 and 45 , describing a height of
1
2
182 approximately.
5
9
46 oscillations.
Expt. 12. Three equal spheres, with weights of 141 grains in air and
3
8
4 grains in water,
were dropped a number of times, they dropped in times of 61, 62, 63, 64 and 65
oscillations, describing a height of 182 inches.
3
4
64 oscillations.
By these experiments it is clear that, when the spheres fell slowly, as in the second,
fourth, fifth, eighth, eleventh and twelfth experiments, the falling times were correctly
shown by theory; but when the spheres fell faster, as in the sixth, ninth, and tenth
experiments, the resistance stood out a little more than in the square of the velocity. For
the spheres during falling oscillate a little, and this oscillation in the lighter and slower
falling spheres quickly ceases, on account of the lightness of the motion ; but in the
heavier and greater, on account of the strength the motion the oscillations may endure a
long time, and cannot be confined until after several oscillations in the surrounding water.
Truly the swifter spheres, there may be pressed on less by the fluid on their rear parts ;
and if the velocity may be constantly increased, they will leave finally a vacuum in the
space behind, unless likewise the compression of the fluid may be increased. But the
compression of the fluid must be increased in the square ratio of the velocity (by Prop.
XXXII. & XXXIII.), so that the resistance shall be in the same square ratio. Because this
may not be, the faster spheres are pressed a little less from behind, and from the
deficiency of this pressure, the resistance of these shall be a little greater than in the
square ratio of the velocities.
Therefore the theory agrees with the phenomena of bodies falling in water, it remains
that we examine the phenomena of bodies falling in air.
rd
Ed.

Expt.13. From the top of St. Paul's Church, in the town of London, in the month of
J une, 1710, two glass spheres were dropped simultaneously, the one full of mercury, and
the other air ; and falling they described a height of 220 English feet. A wooden table was
suspended at one end by an iron rod, at the other it rested on a wooden peg, and the two
spheres set on this table were dropped at the same time, by removing the peg with the
help of an iron wire sent as far as the ground so that the table supported only by the iron
rod could rotate about the same, and at the same instant by pulling on that wire a
pendulum could start oscillating in seconds. The diameters and weights of the spheres and
the times of falling are shown in the following table.

The spheres full of mercury. The spheres full of air.

Weights in
grains.
Diameters in
inches
Times of
falling in
seconds
Weights in
grains.
Diameters
in
inches.
Times of falling
in seconds
908 0,8. 4 510 5,1 8
1
2

983 0,8 4 642 5,2 8
866 0,8 4 599 5,1 8
747 0,75 4+ 5I5 5,0 8
1
4

808 0,75 4 483 5,0 8
1
2

784 0,75 4+ 641 5,2 8

Besides the observed times must be corrected. For the mercury spheres (from Galilio's
theory) describe 257 English feet in four seconds, and 220 feet in only 3" 41'" . [We will
use Newton's notation henceforth; thus
41
60
3 41 means 3 seconds " '" ]. Certainly the
wooden table, with the peg removed, was turning slower than suitable, and by its
slowness in rotation impeded the descent of the spheres from the start. For the spheres
were resting on the table near its middle, and indeed they were a little nearer to the axis of
this than to the peg. And hence the falling times were prolonged around 18'" ,
and now must be corrected by taking that small amount, especially with the larger spheres
which were resting a little longer on the rotating table on account of the size of the
diameters. With which done the times, in which the 6 larger spheres fell, became 8" 12'" ,
7" 42'" , 7" 42'", 7" 57'", 8" 12'" , and 7" 42'".
Therefore the fifth of the spheres full of air, constructed with a diameter of five inches
and with a weight of 483 grains, fell in a time of 8" 12'" , in describing a height of 220
feet. The weight of water equal to this sphere is 16600 grains; and the weight of air equal
to the same [volume] is
16600
800
grains or
3
10
19 grains and thus the weight of the sphere in a
vacuum is
3
10
502 grains and this weight is to the weight of the air in the sphere, as
3 3
10 10
502 to 19 , and thus there shall be 2F to
8
3
parts of the diameter of the sphere, that is,
to
1
3
13 inches. From which 2F produces 28 feet 11 inches. The sphere by falling in a
vacuum, with its whole weight
3
10
502 grains, will describe in a time of one second
1
3
193
inches as above, and with a weight of 483 grains it will describe 185,905 inches, and with
rd
Ed.

the same weight of 483 grains also in a vacuum it will describe a distance F or 14 feet
1
2
5
inches in a time of 57" 58"" , and with that maximum velocity it can acquire by falling in
air. With this velocity the sphere, in the time 8" 12'", describes the distance 245feet and
1
3
5 inches. Take away 1,3863F or 20 feet
1
2
0 inches and 225 feet 5 inches shall remain.
Therefore the sphere, in the time 8" 12'" must describe this distance by falling according
to the theory. Truly the distance described will be 220 feet by experiment. The difference
is negligible.
By similar computations applied also to the remaining spheres filled with air, I have
put together the following table.

Weights of the
spheres (grains).
Diameters
(inches).
Time to fall
220 feet.
(sec.)
Distance
describe by
theory.
Excess.
510 5,1 8" 12'" 226 ft. 11 in. 6 ft. 11 in.
642 5,2 7 42 230 9 7 10
599 5,1 7 42 227 10 7 10
515 5 7 57 224 5 4 5
483 5 8 12 225 5 5 5
641 5,2 7 42 230 7 10 7

Expt. 14. In the year 1719. in the month of J uly, Dr. Desaguliers took in hand
experiments of this kind again, by forming pigs bladders into spherical shapes with the aid
of a concave wooden sphere, which wetted were forced to be filled with air ; and these
were then dried and removed. By dropping from a higher place in the same holy place
from the arch of the copula, namely from a height of 272 feet; and at the same moment of
time by dropping also a leaden sphere, whose weight was around two pounds
avoirdupois. And meanwhile someone standing in the upper part of the dome, when the
spheres were dropped, was noting the whole time of falling, and others standing on the
ground were noting the difference of the times between the case of the leaden sphere and
of the bladder. Moreover the times were measured by pendulums oscillating at the half
second. And of these who were standing on the ground one had a clock which vibrated
with a sound in a individual quarter seconds, another had a different machine skillfully
constructed also with a pendulum that vibrated four times per second. And one of those
present who were at the top of the church had a similar machine. And these instruments
thus were formed, so that the motion of these could either be started or stopped as it
pleased. Moreover the leaden sphere fell in a time of around
1
4
4 seconds. And by adding
this time to the aforementioned difference of the times, the total time could be deduced in
which the bladder fell. The times, in which the five bladders fell after the case of the first
leaden sphere, were
3 3 5 3 3
4 4 8 4 4
14 12 14 17 and 16 ", ", ", ", " , and the following in turn
3 1 1
2 4 4
14 12 14 19 and 16 ", ", ", ", " . There may be added
1
4
4 " , certainly the time in which the
leaden sphere fell, and the total time, in which the five bladders fell, were in the first place
7 1
8 8
19 17 18 22 and 21 ", ", ", ", " ; and in the second place,
3 1 1 1
4 2 4 4
18 18 18 23 and 21 ", ", ", ", " .
Moreover the times noted from the top of the church , were in the first turn
3 3 5 1 1
4 4 4 8 8
19 17 18 22 and 21 ", ", ", ", " ; and in the second turn
5 3 1
8 8 4
19 18 18 24 and 21 ", ", ", ", " .
rd
Ed.

The rest of the bladders did not always fall straight down, but sometimes were flying
about, and hence thus they were moving to and fro while falling. And from these motions
the times of falling were extended and sometimes increased by as much as half a second,
sometimes by a whole second. But the second and fourth fell more straight in the first
turn; and the first and third in the second turn. The fifth bladder was more wrinkled and
by it wrinkles somewhat retarded. The diameters of the bladders I deduced from their
circumferences measured twice by a fine thread passed around. And I have brought
together the theory with the experiments in the following table, by assuming the density
of air to be to the density of water as 1 to 860, and by computing the distances which the
spheres must describe by falling by theory.

The weights
of the
bladders
(grains).
Diameters
(inches).
Times required to
fall from a height of
272 feet.
Distance described in
the same times by
theory.
Difference
between theory
& expt.
128 5, 28 19" 271ft. 11 in. 0ft. 1in.
156 5, 19 17 272
1
2
0 +0
1
2
0
1
2
137 5, 3
1
2
18 272 7 +0 7
1
2
97 5 26 22 277 4 +5 4
1
8
99 5
1
8
21 282 0 +10 0

Therefore the resistances of nearly all the spheres moving both in air and in water are
shown correctly from our theory, and is proportional to the densities of the fluids, with
equal velocities and magnitudes of the spheres.
In the scholium, which has been added to the sixth section, we have shown by
experiments with pendulums that the resistances of the motions of equal and equal
moving spheres in air, water, and in quicksilver are as the densities of the fluids. Here we
have shown the same more accurately from experiments with bodies falling in air and in
water. For the individual oscillations of pendulums always move the fluid in a direction
opposite to the direction of the returning swing, and the resistance that arises from that
motion, and as the resistance of the thread by which it was being suspended, the total
resistance of the pendulum were rendered greater than the resistance produced by a body
falling. And also by the experiments with pendulums set out there in the scholium, a
sphere of the same density as water, by describing a length of half its diameter in air,
ought to lose the
1
3342
th
part of its motion. But by the theory I have set out in this seventh
section and I have confirmed from the experiments with falling bodies, the same sphere
by describing the same length, ought to lose only the
1
4586

th
part, supposing the density of
water shall be put to the density of air as 860 to 1. Therefore greater resistances were
produced by the experiments with pendulums (on account of the reasons now described)
than by the experiments with falling spheres, and that approximately in the ratio of 4 to 3.
Yet since the resistance of pendulums in air, water, and in quicksilver may be likewise
increased by like causes, the proportion of the resistance in these mediums, both by the
experiments with pendulums, as well as by the experiments with falling spheres,
rd
Ed.

may be demonstrated well enough. And thence it can be concluded that the resistances of
the motions of bodies in any of the most free of fluids, with all else being equal, are as
the densities of the fluids.
Thus with these established, now it is permitted [to find] what part of its motion will be
lost by any sphere, projected in some fluid, in some given time approximately. D shall be
the diameter of the sphere, and V its initial velocity, and T the time, in which the sphere
with the velocity V in a vacuum may describe a distance, which shall be to the distance
8
3
Das the density of the sphere to the density of the fluid : and the sphere projected into
the fluid, at some other time t, will lose the
tV
T t +
part of its velocity, with the part
TV
T t +

remaining, and a distance described, which shall be to the distance described with the
uniform speed V in the same time, as the logarithm of the number
T t
T
+
multiplies by the
number 2,302585093 is to the number
t
T
by Corol. VII, Prop. XXXV. In the slower
motions the resistance can be a little less, because that figure of the sphere shall be a little
more suited to the motion than the figure of a cylinder described of the same diameter. In
motions with greater velocities the resistance can be a little greater, because since the
elasticity and the compression of the fluid may not be increased in the square ratio of the
velocity. But I will not dwell on trifling details of this kind here.
And although air, water, quicksilver and like fluids, by the indefinite division of parts,
may become more subtle and be made infinitely fluid mediums ; yet they may offer no
less resistance to projected spheres. For the resistance, by which it was acted on in the
preceding propositions, arises from the inertia of the matter, and the essential inertia of
matter in bodies is always in proportion to the quantity of matter. By the division of the
parts of the fluid, the resistance which arises from the tenacity and the friction of the parts
can indeed be diminished : but the quantity of matter through the divisions of the parts of
this is not diminished; and with the quantity of matter remaining, the inertial force of this
remains, to which the resistance, by which this is acted on, is always proportional. In
order that this resistance may be diminished, the quantity of matter must be diminished in
the interval through which the body is moving. And because the celestial spaces, through
which the spheres of the planets and comets to all parts freely and without any diminution
of the motion may be considered to be moving perpetually, they are free of all corporal
fluid, if perhaps rare vapours and the trajectories of light ray be excepted.
Certainly projectiles excite motions in fluids by passing through them, and this motion
arises from the excess of the pressure of the fluid on the anterior parts of the projectile
over the pressure on the posterior parts of this, and cannot be less in infinite fluid
mediums than in air, water, and quicksilver for the density of the matter in each. But this
excess pressure, from its amount, not only may excite motion in the fluid, but also act on
the projectile and to retard its motion : and therefore the resistance in any fluid is to the
motion excited in the fluid by a projectile, cannot be less in the most subtle aether than to
the density of that aether, as it is in air, water, and quicksilver to the densities of these
fluids.

rd
Ed.

Book II Section VIII.
SECTION VIII.

Concerning motion propagated by fluids.

PROPOSITION XLI. THEOREM XXXII.

A pressure is not propagated by a fluid along straight lines, except when the particles of
the fluid lie in a straight line.

If the particles a, b, c, d, e may lie on a right line, some pressure can be propagated
directly from a to e ; but the particle e will act on the sideways placed particles f and g
in an oblique manner, and these particles f and g will not
sustain the inflected pressure, unless they are supported by the
more distant particles h and k ; but provided they are
supported, they press on supporting particles, and these cannot
support the pressure unless they are supported by the further
particles t and m, and they press on these; and thus henceforth
indefinitely. Therefore the pressure, that in the first place is
propagated to the particles which do not lie along the
direction, will begin to branch out, and to be propagated
indefinitely obliquely; and after the pressure begins to be propagated obliquely, if it
should be incident on more distant particles, which do not lie along the same direction, it
will branch out again ; and just as often as it is incident on particles that are not accurately
in line, so this will happen. Q.E.D.

Corol. If some part of the pressure, propagated from some part of the fluid, may be
intercepted by some obstacle, the remaining part, by which it is not intercepted, will
branch out in the space behind the obstacle, as that can also be demonstrated thus. From
the point A the pressure can be propagated in every direction, and thus if it were able to
made along right lines, and all that pressure may be intercepted by the obstacle NBCK
perforated in BC, except the conical part APQ, which passes through the circular opening
rd
Ed.

BC. The cone APQ may be separated into frustums by the transverse planes de, fg, hi ;
and while being propagated within the cone ABC, the pressure may act on the further
conical frustum degf at the surface de, and this frustum may act on the nearby frustum
fgih at the surface fg, and that frustum acts on the third frustum, and thus henceforth
indefinitely; it is evident (by the third law of motion) that the first frustum defg by the
reaction with the second frustum fghi, will be acting and by pressing with as great a
pressure on the surface fg, as may act and press on that second surface. Therefore the
frustum degf is compressed on both sides between the cone Ade and the frustum fhig, and
therefore (by Corol. VI. Prop. XIX.) is unable to maintain its shape, unless it shall be
compressed by the same force on both sides. Therefore by the same impulse by which it is
pressed on the surfaces de and fg, it will try to go to the sides df and eg; and there (since
it shall not be rigid, but always a fluid) it will run and expand out, unless surrounding
fluid may be near. Therefore by trying to depart, it presses with the same impulse both on
the surrounding fluid on the sides df and eg, as well as on the frustum fghi : and on that
account none the less the pressure will be propagated from the sides df and eg into the
spaces NO and KL and thus hence, so that it may be propagated from the surface fg
towards PQ. Q.E.D.

PROPOSITION XLII. THEOREM XXXIII.

All motion propagated by a fluid diverges from rectilinear motion in an immoveable
space.

Case1. The motion may be propagated from the point A through the hole BC, and it
may go, if it can happen, into the conical space BCQP, along right lines diverging from
the point A. And in the first place we may suppose that this motion shall itself be of waves
on the surface of water at rest. And let de, fg, hi, kl, &c. be the highest parts of individual
waves [crests], with just as many distinct intermediate valleys [troughs] in turn. Therefore
because the water in the crests of the waves is higher than in the fluid in the stationary
parts LK, NO, the same may flow away from the crest terms e, g, i, l, etc. d, f, b, k, etc.
rd
Ed.

hence from there towards KL and NO: and since it is lower in the troughs of the waves
than in the motionless parts of the waves KL, NO; the same may flow from the motionless
parts into the troughs of the waves. By flowing from the first crest of the waves, hence it
will be expanding out into the troughs behind that and may propagate towards KL and
NO. And because the motion of the waves from A towards PQ shall be by a continued
flowing away of the crests into the nearest troughs, and thus the speed of crests shall not
be faster than the speed of the troughs ; and hence the descent of the water from there
towards KL and NO must be going with the same velocity; hence the expansion of the
waves from there towards KL and NO will be propagated with the same velocity by which
these waves are progressing from A towards PQ . And hence the total space from there
towards KL and NO is occupied by an abundance of spreading crests rfgr, shis, tklt, vmnv,
&c.. Q.E.D. Thus these can be tested by anyone for themselves in any still water.
Case 2. We may now suppose that de, fg, hi, kl, mn may designate pulses propagating
successively from the point A through an elastic medium. The pulses may be considered
to be propagated by successive condensations and rarefactions of the medium, thus so that
the most dense part of each pulse may occupy a spherical surface described about the
centre A, and equal successive intervals may fall between the pulses. Moreover the lines
de, fg, hi, kl, etc. may designate the densest parts of the pulses, propagating through the
hole BC. And because the medium here is more dense than in any quarter towards the
spaces KL and NO, thus it will expand itself both towards these spaces KL and NO
situated on each side, as well as towards the intervals of more rare pulses; and with that
understood they will share in the same motion, the rarer always emerge from the region of
the [quiet] intervals and the denser from the region of the [denser] pulses. And because
the progressive motion of the pulses arises from the continual relaxation of the more
dense parts towards the antecedent rarer intervals ; and the pulses with almost the same
speed must relax in the quiet parts of the medium from the different quarters KL and NO ;
these pulses expand themselves out on each side with almost the same speed into the
unmoved spaces KL, NO, by which they may be propagated directly from the centre A ;
and thus they occupy the whole space KLON. Q.E.D. We experience this with sounds,
which are heard either with a mountain in between, or they expand on themselves being
admitted into a room by the window, to be heard in all the corners, not only as reflected
rd
Ed.

from the opposite walls, but propagated directly from the window as well, as much as can
be judged from the senses.

Case 3. Finally we may suppose that a motion of any kind may be propagated from A
through the opening BC : and because the propagation itself does not happen, unless in so
far as the parts of the medium closer to the centre A may urge the more distant parts into
some excitation, and the parts which are acted on by the fluid, and thus which recede in
every direction where they act with a lesser pressure: all the same recede towards the
resting parts of the medium, both to the sides KL and NO, as well as to the anterior parts
PQ, and with that agreed upon the motion of all, that first has passed through the opening
BC, will begin to expand, and thence at last from a beginning at the centre, is propagated
directly in every direction. Q. E. D.

PROPOSITION XLIII. THEOREM XXXIV.
Any body vibrating in an elastic medium will propagate the motion of pulses in every
direction; truly in a non-elastic medium it will excite a circular motion.

Case 1. For the parts of a vibrating body by alternately coming and going in turn, in its
going will act on and propel the nearby parts of the medium themselves, and on being
acted on the same will be compressed and condensed; then by its return the compressed
parts themselves recede and expand. Therefore the parts of the medium by the vibrations
of the body will in turn go and return, in the image of the vibrating parts of the body : and
by that account the parts of this body will disturb these parts of the medium, these by
similar agitated vibrations will disturb parts nearby to themselves, and these similarly
agitated will disturb the further parts, and thus henceforth indefinitely. And in whatever
manner the first parts of the medium by going may be condensed and are relaxed on
return, thus the remaining parts as often as they shall go will be condensed, and just as
often as they return they expand themselves. And therefore not all will go and return at
the same time (for since in turn by maintaining determined distances, they would not be
rarefied and condensed in turn) but in turn by approaching where they are condensed, and
by receding where they are rarefied, some of these will be going while others will be
returning ; and that alternately in turn indefinitely. Moreover the parts going and by so
going being condensed, are the pulses on account of their progressive motion, by which
they strike obstacles, and therefore the pulses will be propagated successively from any
vibrating body along a line ; and thus at around equal distances in turn, on account of the
equal intervals of time, in which the body by vibrating excites the individual pulses. And
whenever the vibrations of the body may go and return along a certain determined
direction, and the pulses thence propagated by the medium still themselves expand
laterally, by the preceding proposition; and they will be propagated in both directions
from that vibrating body as from a common centre, along almost spherical and concentric
surfaces. We have some sort of example of this from waves, which if they are excited by a
waving finger, not only do they go to and fro in the direction of the motion of the finger,
but, in the manner of concentric circles, they will surround the finger at once and be
rd
Ed.

propagated in all directions. For the weight of the waves takes the place of the elastic
force.

Case 2. For if the medium shall not be elastic : because the parts of this are unable to
be compressed to condense from the vibrations of the shaking parts of the body, the
motion will be propagated at once to the parts where the medium can go most easily, that
is, to the parts that the shaking body otherwise may leave empty behind it. It is likewise
the case with a body projected in some medium. A medium by making way for
projectiles, does not recede indefinitely, but by going in a circle, it will go to the space
which the body has left behind. Therefore as often as a vibrating body will go into some
part, the medium by giving way goes by a circle into the parts that the body has
abandoned ; and as often as the body is returned to the first place, the medium will be
repelled from there and will return to its first place. And in whatever manner the vibrating
body may not be rigid, but flexible in some manner; if yet it may have a given magnitude
that remains, because the medium is unable to become disturbed by the vibrations, in
what other way can it affect the medium, so that the medium, by receding from the parts
where it is pressed, will always go round to the parts which may yield to the same.
Q. E. D.

Corol. Therefore people must be wandering in their minds who believe that the
disturbance of the parts of a flame be conducive to a pressure propagating along right
lines, through the surrounding medium. A pressure of this kind cannot be derived from
the agitation of the flame alone, but from the expansion of the whole medium.

PROPOSITION 44. THEOREM 35.

If water alternately rises and falls in turn in [uniform] pipes with upright legs KL and MN
; and moreover, if a pendulum is made of which the length between the point of
suspension V and the centre of oscillation P is equal to half the length of the water in the
pipe : then I say that the water rises and falls in time with the oscillations of the
pendulum.
I measure the length of the water along the axes of the pipe and legs, with the same
equal height of these ; and I ignore the resistance of the water which arises from the
friction with the pipes. AB and CD designate the mean height of the water in both legs ;
and when the water in leg KL has risen to the height EF, the water in leg MN has fallen to
the height GH. Also, let P be the body of the pendulum, VP the thread, V the point of
suspension, RPQS is the cycloid that the pendulum describes, of which P is the lowest
point, and the arc PQ is equal to the height AE. The force, by which the motion of the
water is either accelerated or decelerated in turn, is the excess of the weight of water in
the one leg above the weight in the other; thus, when the water in KL has risen to EF, and
in the other leg fallen to GH, that force is twice the weight of water EABF, and therefore
is to the total weight of water as AE is to VP or PQ or PR. Also, the force by which the
weight P at some place Q is accelerated or decelerated in the cycloid (from the corol. to
prop 51.) is to the total force as this distance PQ from the lowest place P, is to the length
rd
Ed.

P
Q
V
s
4a
of the cycloid PR. Whereby the equal intervals of the water and the pendulum AE and PQ
describing the motive forces are as the weights to be moved; and thus, if the water and the
pendulum are initially at rest, these forces will move the same equally in the same time,
and are effective in order that the reciprocal motions can go and return at the same time.
Q. E. D.
Corollary 1. Therefore all the oscillations for the rise and fall of the water in turn are
isochronous, whether they are made stronger or weaker [i. e. the period of oscillation is
independent of the amplitude.]
Corollary 2. If the whole length of the water in the pipes is
9
1
6 Parisian feet, then the
water descends in a time of one second, and rises in the time of one second, and thus
henceforth in alternate turns indefinitely. Likewise, the pendulum of length
18
1
3 is
oscillating with a time of one second.
Corollary 3. Moreover with the length of the water increased or diminished, the time
of reciprocation is increased or diminished in the ratio of the square root of the length.

[The Manometer as a S. H. M. Oscillator : In modern terms, if A is the cross-sectional
area of the pipe, l the length of water in the pipe, and the density of the water, then if x
is the extension AE of one arm of the manometer from the equilibrium level AB, and - x
or DH is the depression of the other level, or vice versa, then the mass of water
accelerated is Al, while the unbalanced force is 2Agx; hence, from Newton's Second
Law of motion,
x x g/l - x or Agx x Al
2
) 2 ( , 2 = = = . Hence, the period of the oscillation is given by
. 2
2 /
g
l
T = In the case where the period of the whole oscillation is 2 seconds, note that
Newton has a habit of referring to half periods - in his example 1 second - then the length
of water is approximately 2 m.
The Inverted Cycloidal Pendulum as a S. H. M. Oscillator :
We will save some time by merely quoting the formula for the length of arc s of an
inverted cycloid, which is of course a
rectifiable curve - and hence was part of its
fascination for early workers - in terms of
the tangent angle at some point Q:
, sin 4 a s = where 4a is the length of the
thread of the equivalent simple pendulum
VP ( the cycloid can be considered as
generated by a point on a circle of radius a
rolling along a horizontal line at a vertical
distance 2a above the x- axis.) An
equivalent S. H. M. is a small bead of mass m to slide on a wire in the shape of the
inverted cycloid without friction. Thus, the unbalanced force on the bead due to gravity
acting down the slope at Q is , sin mg and we can set . sin mg v m = That is,
. sin
4
2
2
s g
a
g
dt
s d
= = Hence, setting 4a = l/2 insures equality of the periods, and both
motions are independent of the amplitude, though Newton has set these or the half periods
rd
Ed.

equal in his experiment as this was presumably more expedient : , 1
4
2 /
= =
a
l
T
T
pendulum
manometer
on
setting 4a = l/2. Note that one does not have to contend with the factors 2 and g, on
taking a ratio in this way, and the whole or half periods can be used with impunity.

PROPOSITION XLIV. THEOREMA XXXVI.

The velocity of waves varies as the square root of the wavelength.

This theorem follows from the construction of the following proposition.

PROPOSITION XLVI. PROBLEM X.

To find the speed of waves.
A pendulum is set up, the length of which between the point of suspension and the
centre of oscillation, is equal to the length of the waves : and during the time the
pendulum performs single oscillations, by advancing the same amount, the waves
progress to almost their own width.
The transverse width of the waves measured I call the length of the waves, which lies
between either the deepest valleys or the highest peaks. ABCDEF designates the surface
of the still water, with successive waves rising and falling; A, C, E, &c. are the peaks of
the waves, & B, D, F, &c. are the intervening valleys. And since the motion of the waves
is by the water successively ascending and descending, thus the parts A, C, E, &c. of this
surface which now are the highest, soon will become the lowest; & the driving force of
the motion, by which the highest parts will descend & the lowest parts ascend, is the
weight of the elevated water ; this alternate rising and falling is analogous to the
reciprocal motion of the water in the pipes, and the same laws governing the time will be
observed : & therefore (by prop. XLIV) if the distances between the peaks of the waves
A, C, E & and the troughs B, D, F are equal to twice the length of the pendulum, then the
highest parts A, C, E, in the time of one oscillation avoid the troughs, & in the time of
another oscillation have ascended again. [Recall that the manometer always has a peak
and a trough for the maximum displacements, and therefore corresponds to half a
wavelength.] Therefore between the passage of individual waves there will be the time of
two oscillations; that is, the wave describes its own width in the time that pendulum
oscillates twice ; but the pendulum that oscillates in time with the wave is four times as
long, and thus oscillates once, equal in time with the length of the waves. Q.E.I.
Corol. 1. Therefore waves which are
18
1
3 feet long, progress a distance equal to their
own width in a time of one second (around 1 m/s); and thus in a time of one minute from
A
B
C
D
E
F

rd
Ed.

the start run through a distance of
3
1
183 feet, & in the space of an hour 11000 ft
approximately.
Corol. 2. And the speed of the long waves is increased or diminished in the ratio of the
square root of the width.
From the hypothesis, thus waves are considered to have part or the water either
ascending straight up or descending straight down (as in the manometer) ; but the up and
down motion of the water shall more truly be described in a circle, and likewise I
emphasize that the time derived from this proposition can only be defined approximately.

[ Notes : There may be some confusion as to what Newton means by the time of an
oscillation - the word itself just means a swing, of course. However, in the experiment the
pendulum bob is released as a peak of the wave train passes, and reaches the position of
the peak of the passing wave again at the end of its forward swing, which occupies at this
instant the position of the preceding peak at the start of the pendulum's motion. Newton
asserts that the pendulum which achieves this synchronous behavior has the same length
as the distance between the peaks. The previous experiment with the manometer tube,
which is a sort of standing wave generator of water waves with a 'free end', has a wave or
pulse that travels a distance set to some half wavelength by the length l (for small
amplitudes) in the time the pendulum completes its forward motion, as the water in the
legs interchange peaks and troughs. Now, by analyzing the s. h. m. of the pendulum and
the manometer, we find the periods are equal when 4a = l/2, or a half-wavelength l
corresponds to a pendulum twice as long as that used at present, and the period needed for
a whole wavelength is thus four times as long as the original pendulum. The original
pendulum is l/2 or /4, so that the reasoning is correct : a pendulum of length is required
to be synchronous with the waves. However, the period of such a simple pendulum is 2
seconds, and hence we conclude that Newton is talking about single swings when he
considers oscillations of 1 second.
As mentioned in Cor. 2, there is augmentation or diminution of the waves as they
proceed, as they do not all travel with the same speed, and dispersion is taking place.
Hence, it is more appropriate to consider the group velocity of the pulses of waves, rather
than the phase velocity - which cannot be measured in any case - and the group velocity is
responsible for the transfer of energy down the channel. Thus, from his experimental
measurements, Newton had observed that the length of the pendulum executed its
forward swing in a time T given by
g
, for which s m g T v / 1 ~ /
1

= = as ~ 1m and
g ~10m/s
2
. This quantity we would identify as the group velocity . We cannot read much
more into Newton's experiments, as he has not furnished details of the physical
dimensions of the channel and pipes apart from the total length of the axis, factors upon
which the rate of transmission depends. Nevertheless, the main ideas are essentially
correct, and at the time, he was a man in a hurry, and he had sown the seeds for further
development.]

rd
Ed.

H
I
K
O
S
P
N
M
L n
m
l
h
i
k

PROP. XLVII. THEOR. XXXVII.

For pulses propagating through the fluid, the individual particles of the fluid are
oscillating in the shortest reciprocal motion, always accelerating and decelerating
according to the law of the pendulum.

Let AB, BC, and CD, &c. designate the positions of
equally spaced successive pulses [i. e. such as progressive
sound waves of a given wavelength of AB.] ; the motion
of the pulses is propagated from A towards B along a line
ABC in the region ; E, F, G are three physical points of the
quiescent medium on the line AC, situated at equal
distances from each other; Ee, Ff, Gg are equal lengths in
turn [of the maximum amplitudes] through which in short
time intervals, by the individual reciprocal motions, these
points E, F, and G move to and fro ; , , are some
intermediate locations of the same points in the medium;
EF and FG are small physical sections or incremental parts
of the medium placed between these points, & which in
succession are translated into the positions and , &
then ef and fg. The line PS is drawn equal to the line Ee [in
the lower diagram]. PS is bisected in O, and with centre O
& length OP, a small circle SIPi is described. In this circle,
the whole circumference represents the time of one
complete vibration, together with its proportional
intermediate parts. Thus, in order that some time such as
PH or PHSh can be compared with the time of the complete
oscillation, if a perpendicular HL or hl is dropped on PS,
then E is taken to be equal PL or Pl, at this instant the
physical point E is to be found at in the moving fluid.
According to the law of the pendulum, any point E in the
fluid moves from the equilibrium value E to the maximum
displacement e through , & returns to E again through ,
where each vibration
has the same degrees of
acceleration and
retardation [at
intermediate points], so that the oscillation is
completed in step with the oscillation of a pendulum
[i.e. any particle such as E executes s. h. m. from its
equilibrium point in the fluid; the actual words in
Newton's explanation have been augmented
occasionally to reinforce the reader's understanding, as
Latin is a little skimpy at times]. This must be the case
since the individual physical points of the medium are
C
D
B
F
E
G
f
e
g

rd
Ed.

disturbed in this way by such a motion [as in the analogous case of the water waves].
Hence we establish a medium in which such a motion is produced in some manner, and
we observe what may then follow. On the circumference PHSh, the equal arcs HI and IK
or hi and ik [of a traveling wave or pulse] are taken in the same ratio to the total
circumference as the equal lines EF and FG have to the total length of the pulse interval
BC, and the perpendiculars IM and KN or im and kn can be dropped, as the points E, F
and G are disturbed in turn by the same motion, & their whole vibrations meanwhile are
carried out from the sum of the oscillations as the pulse is transferred from B to C. Thus,
if PH or PHSh is the time of the motion starting from the initial point E, then similarly PI
or PHSi is the time of the motion starting from the initial point F, and again PK or PHSk
is the time of the motion starting from the initial point G [An extended pulse passed
through the increments E, F, and G in turn, then the angles are in proportion to the times
as the are length s = OP = OP t , where is the angular frequency]. Hence, E,
F and G will be respectively equal to the lengths PL, PM and PN themselves in the
movement away from equilibrium position , or to Pl, Pm and Pn themselves in the return.
From which or EG + G - E leads to EG - LN being equal to the incremental pulse
width in the movement away from equilibrium. But is the width or the expansion
[contraction really] of the part of the medium EG when it is transferred to the location ;
& therefore the expansion of that part in the outward motion is to the mean expansion as
EG - LN is to EG ; and moreover in the return journey, the ratio is as EG + ln to EG.
[EG - LN is the contracted length ; and thus (EG - LN)/EG is 1 - V/V, as Newton
goes on to demonstrate. Again, this is needed to make the outgoing contraction into an in
going expansion on the return leg of the journey, taken to be (EG + ln)/EG or 1 + V/V]
Whereby the ratio LN to KH shall be as IM to the radius OP [This involves
differentiation : see following note.], & KH to EG as the circumference PHShP to BC, i.
e., if V is put in place for the radius of another circle with the circumference set equal to
the pulse interval BC, then the ratio becomes as [the amplitude] OP to [the wavelength
or] V ; & from the equality LN to EG as IM to V : the expansion of the part EG or of the
physical point F at the location to the mean or quiescent expansion, as that part has in
its first position EG, as V - IM to V in going, and as V + im to V on returning. From which
the elastic force of the point F at the position is to the mean elastic force of this at the
position EG, as
IM V
1
to
V
1
in going, and on returning truly as
im V+
1
ad
V
1
. And by the
same argument the elastic forces of the physical points E and G on going, are in the ratios
V
1 1 1
to and
KN V HL V
; and the difference of the forces to the mean or quiescent elastic force
of the medium, as
V
1
to
KN HL KN V HL V VV
KN HL
+

. That is, as
V
1
to
VV
KN HL
, or as HL - KN to V, if
(on account of the narrow limits of the vibrations) we may suppose HL and KN to be
indefinitely smaller quantities than V. Whereby when the quantity V is given, the
difference of the forces is as HL - KN, that is as OM (on account of the proportionals HL
- KN to HK, & OM to OI or OP, with HK & OP given) ; i.e. if Ff is bisected in , as .
And by the same argument the difference of the elastic forces of the physical points & ,
in the return of the small physical line is as . But that difference (i.e, the excess of
the elastic force at the point over the elastic force at point ) is the force of the medium
which is introduced for the small physical line to be accelerated in returning and
rd
Ed.

H
I
K
O
S
P and S are the positions where the amplitude and pressure gradient are at maximum
values, and the condensation is zero; as the phase angle increases, the condensation
grows to a maximum at 90
0
, while the amplitude and pressure gradient go to zero,
and subsequently these quantities revert again at S to their P conditions. The return
stroke sees the dilatation go through the same sequence.
The left-hand sketches show positive density or pressure changes for the outgoing
air, while the right-hand ones show negative changes for the returning air. The
projection of HIK on to the PS axis shows the passage of the condensation along PS,
and the returning dilatation, which are a maximum along the diameter at I and i.
N
M
L n
m
l
h
i
maximum +ve
condensation.
increasing +ve
condensation.
condensation.
maximum -ve
P and S are the maximum
displacements in the positive/
negative senses. The pulse drawn
shows the degree of condensation
transverse to the direction of
transmission, which is really
longitudinal.
()
()
()
h
i
k
P
k
K
I
H
zero condensation.
zero condensation.
decreasing -ve
condensation.
retarded in going; & therefore the acceleration force on the small physical line , is as its
distance from the mean position of the vibrations . Hence the time for the straight line
motion PI is explained (by prop. XXXVIII. Book. I) ; & the part of the medium is
moved according to the prescribed law, that is, by the law for the oscillations of a
pendulum : and the reasoning is the same for all the line increments from which the whole
medium is composed. Q. E.D.
Corol. Hence it is apparent that the number of pulses propagating is the same as the
number of vibrations of the trembling body, without change in their number in
progressing. For the incremental line in the medium , when first to its original situation
returns remains at rest, and henceforth will not move, except either by the impulse of a
trembling or oscillating body, or from the impulse of a pulse which is propagating from
such a body, when it sets off a new movement. The medium will therefore be quiescent
when the starting pulses from the vibrating body cease to be propagated.

Notes on Prop. 48 :

We enlarge on
Newton's ideas a
little from a modern
perspective, but
relate to his
derivation as much
as possible. First, we
need to explain his
diagram
accompanying the
trajectory diagram
for a ray of sound in
one dimension,
based on his ideas.
According to the
diagram opposite,
the points P and S
represent the
positions of the maximum amplitude of the s.h.m. associated with the point F. In
Newton's words, the time for the motion is spread around the circumference of the circle;
in the course of the motion, the matter in the incremental length EFG is physically moved
as a whole to some intermediate distance F relative to the reference frame of still air, and
a wave of compression passes through the element to give the incremental length ,
finally to come to rest again momentarily at f with no compression. The pulse is
considered to move from the positive displacement of the s. h. m. to the negative
displacement in the diagram. Thus, R = OP = rotates clockwise. The times of arrival at
e, f, and g can also be recorded, as are the times of the return of the air to its instantaneous
rd
Ed.

position of maximum displacement : the matter that left first returns first, so H h, etc,
in the intermediate section. The actual rest position of the air in the absence of waves is at
, while P and S are the points of instantaneous rest for a continuous wave. Newton
considers the projection of the maximum compression HIK on to the line PS as the
contraction or expansion of the element at the same point of its motion to and fro : thus,
there is no compression or condensation at P and S, while the maximum
compression/expansion occurs at O, and a wave of compression/ expansion of some lesser
amount but in the same ratio passes along the element PS at other times. In addition, by
taking ratios at the same out and in positions on the cycle, he is able to proceed without
using the bulk modulus, that we now consider as part of the modern theory.
Modern ideas: Initially, we consider the boundary conditions placed on the elemental
oscillators. Each incremental length acts as an s.h.m. oscillator, each driven by or coupled
to the one before, and driving the next one in a chain of oscillators, which we assume to
be in one dimension. Each oscillator has the same amplitude , and all vibrate with the
same angular frequency as the wave, which we assume to be continuous and of a single
frequency; also, each increment has an in-built constant phase factor (x) depending on its
location: when t = 0, these phases construct a harmonic wave between the crests of the
wavelength . Thus, the increment associated with the point E has two components of
phase that add/subtract to give the total phase : There is the time related phase of the
form (2/T).t = t, and for a given quiescent position, there is the constant distance
related phase angle for the oscillator, that we can call e. g. (E) = (2/).BE = k.BE. The
other equally separated quiescent oscillator points F and G have similar distance phases
(F) = (2/).BF and (G) = (2/).BG associated with them. The passage of the wave is
the transmission of regions of constant phase from oscillator to oscillator. This region of
constant phase is driven forwards in the mathematical model by an argument of the form
kx - t = constant, or t = kx, resulting in a phase velocity v = x/t = /k. There are
some details of Newton's model that are inconsistent with the modern theory, even at this
kinematic level. We have noted already that he describes the air as being at rest at P and
S; although this is true, it is not in its quiescent condition as there is a maximum pressure
difference across the element here in accordance with s. h. m. principles, and the air
element is actually at its true length (i. e. in the absence of the sound wave)when it passes
the origin of the oscillation at its maximum speed at the half-way point , when there is
no pressure difference across the ends of the element. Recall that for s. h. m. the
acceleration is proportional to the negative displacement : hence, there is a maximum
acceleration and force at the maximum displacement, and zero acceleration and force at
zero displacement. The model succeeds in producing the s. h. m. equation with the correct
and wave speed /k.
Before leaving this narrative, we shall briefly give a modern derivation of the wave
equation [following Pain, The Physics of Vibrations and Waves, Ch. 5 (Wiley)]. The
motion of an undisturbed infinitesimal element of air of original thickness x and unit
area under the influence of a sound wave in one dimension is considered. The element as
a whole is displaced a distance , and expanded by an amount (/x)dx, as shown in the
diagram :
rd
Ed.

+ d
)dx ( dx
x
+
P
x
dx
x
P
x
x
P
+
dx
The increase in the volume is dx
x
, while the
change in the volume per unit volume is
x
or
the dilatation dv/v. The quantity d/ inverse to
the dilitation is known as the condensation.
Meanwhile, the net force exerted on the element
to the right in the compression or expansion due
to the pressure gradient is dx .
x
P
x
; hence, by
Newton's Second Law,
2
2
0
dx. dx .
t
x
P
x
=

. There
is now a need to relate the pressure gradient to the changes in the volume : this is usually
done by means of the bulk B modulus for the substance. The change in the volume per
unit volume is proportional to the impressed pressure,
or dp = - B. dv/v, where B is the constant of proportionality, and the negative sign is
necessary as an increase in pressure results in a decrease in the dilatation, or change in
volume per unit volume. In the present case, dv/v =
x
, and hence
2
2
.
x
x
P
B
x
=

. From
which it follows that
2
2
0
2
2
t x
B
=

and
2
2
2
2

2
t x
c
=

, where c
2
= B/
0
. This is the
conventional wave equation for sound waves in a gas: Newton does not derive this
equaton; instead, he derives the equation for the s. h. m. of an elemental section of air,
resulting in
2
2

2 2 2
t
c k
= =

for a sinusoidal motion. Now, compression or expansion
of a gas results in heating or cooling; Newton was unaware of the adiabatic nature of
sound waves, and used essentially the isothemal form of B or P/
0
, rather than the correst
adiabatic form P/
0
; thus his value for c was out by , where is the ratio of the
specific heats of the gas at constant pressure to constant volume, and depends on the
nature of the gas - internal degrees of freedom, etc. It would take us too far away from
Newton's work to consider this matter further, though of course it is developed in books
on thermodynamics.

There are inevitably problems associated with understanding what the words actually
mean when comparing Newton's model with the actual model for sound waves that we
have briefly outlined above; thus, the word 'expansion' can mean either the volume or the
change in volume - the various translations suffer from this ambiguity, and one must
proceed with caution. We are not in the business of correcting Newton's model, which
would be a great travesty as well as a meaningless exercise, but are merely trying to
understand what his thoughts might have been as he developed his ideas.
So we return to Newton's argument:
Subsequently, to make further progress with the Proposition, use has to be made of
calculus. Initially, two useful ratios are evaluated. Pressure - modified volumes
represented by the lengths OL, OM, ON are related to V/V, the dilatation; and the
angular phase of the rotating radius OP of the s. h. m. is related to the linear phase of the
wave.
rd
Ed.

Thus, OL, OM, and ON are given by : cos(t +t), cost , and cos(t - t), leading
to

LN/KH = [cos(t +t) -cos(t - t)]/2t -sint, the limiting value of the ratio;
or equivalently, ; 0) as , sin (
2 .
) cos( ) cos(

IM
KH
NL or LN
=
+
=

[This first differentiation gives the rate of change of LN or V, the decrease in the
volume, and LN/EG = V/V, the fractional change in the volume.]

and
) 2 / ( .
. .

= = = =
V
OP
BC circum with circle
PHSbP circum
BC
PHSbP circum
EG
KH
relates the phases.

[Thus, In the time the line OP turns through a certain small angle, the pulse advances a
certain amount along PS. The original circle with radius OP describes the time variation
or the phase of the oscillation at some fixed point, while the second circle with radius V
r
= /2, rather than V that we use for the volume for a little while EG describes the
displacement variation of the phase of the oscillation at some fixed time. Hence,

2
. 2
2 .
2
or
2 .
= = = =
EG
V
OP
EG
KH
r
: thus, a path difference of EG corresponds to a
phase difference of 2. as required by the coupled oscillators discussed above.
Or, v = /k = (2/t)/(2/) = (2/t).V
r
; hence EG = v.t = 2. . V
r
= arc
HK.V
r
/OP]

Since , . .
r r
V
IM
V
OP
OP
IM
EG
LN
EG
KH
KH
LN
= = = or ]
/2
t sin -
[
F at volume quiescent
at n compressio

= = = =
r
V
IM
EG
LN
V
V
, it
follows that the excursion compression of EG at to the quiescent volume at F is in the
ratio
r
r
V
IM V
EG
LN
EG
LN EG
EG V
V V
= =
= =
1

, while the return expansion ratio is :
r
r
V
im V
EG EG
EG
V
V V +
= + =
+
=
+ ln
1
ln
.
[The common reader may wish to refer to the work by S. Chandrasekhar at this point
(Newton's Principia for the Common Reader (1995); Oxford. p. 586) : this author has not
attempted, as we have attempted, to actually link up Newton's derivation with modern
theory, but has presented this theory from a Newton - friendly point of view. The other
authors of interest, Cohen & Whitman: Newton The Principia. (California), and Cajori :
Newton's Principia (U. Cal.) have not given any explanation of Newton's theory of sound,
and have only presented an English version of the Latin text, with all its vagaries. Cajori
in his translation, even goes to the extent of re-arranging the labels on the phase diagram,
thus changing something which is correct into something which is incorrect !]
Newton now sets out to construct what is essentially the second order differential
equation describing the s. h. m. of an elemental volume of air in the presence of a sound
wave of constant frequency.
rd
Ed.

Now, if the elastic force varies inversely as the expansion or volume, then
IM V
V
F at force el quiescent
at force el
=
.
.
, essentially Boyle's Law, where we revert to Newton's V =
/2 rather than V
r
. On the return,
im V
V
F at force el
at force el
+
=
.
.
. A similar argument applies for
the ratio of the elastic forces (or pressures) acting on the volume increments E and G :
HL V
V
E at force el
at force el
=
.
.
and
KN V
V
G at force el
at force el
=
.
.
respectively. It follows that the difference
of these elastic forces to the mean elastic force, which is the same at E, F, and G, is given
by :

V
KN HL
V
KN HL V
KN V HL V
KN HL V
KN V
V
HL V
V
at force el at force el
=
2
) (
~
) )( (
) (
.
. .
.
Note that second order quantities are ignored, as they vanish in the limit.
Now,
( ) ( ( ) ( ))
, or , as 0 .
2
HL KN R sin sin OM OM
cos i. e.
HK R OI OP

+
=
Hence:

. . .
) 2 / .(
.
. . 2
. .
, or
;
.
. cos
.
. .

const
F at force el quiescent at force el at force el
V OP
OM HK
V
HK
V
KN HL
=
= =

Now,
2
. ~
2
. 2 or
2
2
x
= = . Hence,
. . .
) 2 / (
.
.
) . (
x.
2 2
2

const
x x
dx
force el d
dt
x d
=
= =
Hence, calling P the pressure or the quiescent elastic force at F, and canceling the x
which is synonymous with , while setting = x, we find that
s.h.m. for required as , .
) / 2 .(
2
2
2
2 2
2
x x
k
v
x
P
dt
x d

= = = In which case, .
P
v = Newton did
not pursue his differential equation to this logical conclusion for some reason, and was
content to note that the equation defined the same kind of motion as the cycloidal
pendulum, although he immediately proceeds to use the above formula for the speed. His
final proposition is to present an extreme case involving the s. h. m. of a cycloidal
pendulum to corroborate his formula ; one gets the impression he was over-impressed
with this particular kind of s. h. m., rather than seeing it rather as just another example of
this kind of motion, and that he was not entirely convinced with his derivation of this
proposition.

rd
Ed.

PROPOSITION XLVIII. THEOREM XXXVIII.

The speeds of pulses propagating in an elastic fluid are in the ratio composed from the
direct proportion of the square root of the elastic force or pressure and the inverse
proportion of the square root of the density ; but only if the same elastic force is
supposed for the same proportional condensation [ i.e. the gases obey Boyle's Law].

Case. 1. [ Newton's explanation of why pulses or waves of differing intensities travel at
the same speed in a medium.]
If the media are homogeneous, & the distances between the pulses in these media are
equal amongst themselves, but the motion [i. e. the sound] is more intense in one medium
than in the other, then the contractions and expansions of the analogous parts are as the
same motions [i.e. one has a larger amplitude than the other]. The proportion of these
intensities cannot be measured with accuracy. However, unless the contractions and
dilatations are of greatly differing intensities, there will be no sensible error, and thus
these can be used [for the measurement of physical quantities] with accuracy. But the
elastic motive forces are in the ratio of the contractions & dilations ; & the velocities of
the equal parts likewise generated are in the ratio of the forces [as the forces act for the
same lengths of time]. Hence equal & corresponding parts of corresponding pulses are
coming and going by contracting and dilating in their proportional intervals, with
velocities which are in the ratio as the intervals, likewise are carried out : & therefore
pulses, which in the time of one oscillation are made to progress a distance of one width,
& always follow into the place of the nearest proceeding pulse, on account of the equality
of the distances, with equal velocity can proceed in either medium.
[We note that the amplitude cancels in the derivation presented in the previous theorem,
but see notes below.]

Case 2. [Newton's explanation of why all wavelengths travel at the same speed in the
same medium.]
But if the distances between the pulses or the widths are greater in one medium than
the other, then we can put corresponding parts in place , and the proportional widths of
the individual pulses that come and go can be described [i.e. we can compare the ratio of
the wavelengths or pulse widths]: and the contractions and dilations of [each of] these are
equal. Thus if the media are homogeneous, then these elastic motive forces by which the
reciprocating motion is driven are also equal [i.e. the amplitudes of the pressure
fluctuations are the same]. But the masses to be moved by these forces are in the same
ratio as the widths of the pulses; & the corresponding wavelengths of the pulses as they
come and go are in the same ratio. But the time of one complete reciprocal motion is
composed from the ratio of the square root of the mass & the square root of the interval,
and thus as the interval. [Thus, the oscillation time T is proportional to the width of the
pulses of wavelength , or T or 1/f] . But pulses perform their reciprocal motion or
s.h.m in a time equal to the passing of one width, that is, the space and the time intervals
are proportionals that advance in step, and hence the velocities are equal. [See notes
below.]

rd
Ed.


Case 3. [The ratio of the speeds in differing media.]
Therefore all the pulses travel at the same speed in media with the same density and
elastic forces. But if either the density or the elastic force of the medium is increased,
since the motive force is increased in the ratio of the elastic force, & the matter to be
moved is increased in the ratio of the density ; the time, by which the same motions are
driven from the previous situation, will be augmented in the ratio of the square root of the
density, and diminished in the square root ratio of the elastic force. And therefore the
velocity of the pulses will be in the ratio composed from the ratio of the inverse of the
square root of the density & directly in the ratio of the square root of the elastic force.
Q.E.D.
This proposition is more apparent from the following construction.

Notes on Prop. 48 :
Case 1. We are to imagine two media with the same pressure and density, and waves of
some wavelength travel at the same speed in each medium. However, pulses with
different intensities in the two media are considered. We try to understand why the
speeds of the pulses are equal in the two media and independent of the amplitude of the
oscillations, using s.h.m. Using the pendulum analogy of s.h.m, the ratio of the elastic
motive forces on corresponding elements is the same as the ratio of the amplitudes, and
since these forces act for the same lengths of time on the corresponding elements, during
which time the pulses move forwards a distance equal to the inter-pulse displacement,
then the velocity of propagation is the same. [However, the ratio of the maximum
velocities of the elements is proportional to the ratio of the maximum displacements, as
there is a greater pressure associated with the more intense pulses. There is hence a
distinction to be drawn between the phase velocity and the maximum speed associated
with the s.h.m.]
Case 2. We are to imagine two media with the same pressure and density, and thus at least
waves of one wavelength travel at the same speed in each medium. However, pulses with
different widths or wavelengths in the two media are considered, each wavelength of
constant width in its medium. We try to understand why the speeds of the pulses are
nevertheless equal in the two media using s.h.m ideas. The s.h.m motion of the small
incremental widths have the same amplitude in each case, otherwise the waves will have
differing amplitudes and intensities. However, the longer wavelength requires more of the
elementary oscillators, and the pressure differences across each of the incremental widths
is thus less for the longer wavelength, as the total pressure fluctuation is the same for both
wavelengths, which supplies the motive force on the element. Newton, however, does not
consider the individual elements as such at this stage, but focuses his attention on the ratio
of the whole condensed or rarefied pulses at some point, and returns to his pendulum idea
of s.h.m. In this case, he considers the period T of an s.h.m to depend on the mass m to be
moved, and the force constant k to effect the motion, for which
k
m
T 2 = . By simply
adding the number of elementary incremental oscillators, the masses to be moved for the
long and short wavelengths
L
and
S
are in the ratio
L
S
L
S
m
m
= . Now, regarding the force

constant k, or the spring constant of the air, it can be taken as proportional to the excess
rd
Ed.

pressure p, and inversely as the wavelength ; or,
p
k = . Hence, the periods for the short
and the long waves are as : .
L
S
L
S
L
S
L
S
L
s
L
L
s
s
k
k
m
m
k
m
k
m
L
S
T
T
= = = = Or, the frequencies vary

inversely as the ratio of the wavelengths, as required.

Case 3. The speed of propagation v of a pulse in a medium with elastic force or pressure
p and density is given by
p
v = , to be finally proved in the next Proposition. Thus, if
the density is increased from
1
to
2
, for the same pressure, then the associated speeds
are in the ratio
1
2
2
1
=
v
v
; while if the pressure is increased from p
1
to p
2
, for the same
density, then
2
1
2
1
p
p
v
v
= . If both pressure and density increase in the same ratio, then there
is no change in the speed of the pulses. In general, if both pressure and density are
allowed to change, but in different ratios, (as for example, for media such as ideal gases at
different temperatures), then
1 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 1
v p / p
v p / p
. ,

= = which is Newton's comment.]

PROPOSITION XLIX. PROBLEM XI.

To find the velocity of pulses for a given density and elastic force of medium.

We can imagine the medium to be compressed by the incumbent weight of the air in
the manner of our air ; and let A be the height of the homogeneous medium which is equal
to the incumbent weight [from the quiescent point], and the density of which is the same
as that of the compressed medium, in which the pulses are propagated. Moreover, a
pendulum is considered to be set up, the length of which is A between the point of
suspension and the centre of oscillation [thus, the radius of the generating circle of the
cycloid is A/2, and the whole arc length is 2A.] : and in the time that the pendulum
executes a complete to and fro oscillation, a pulse will travel a distance equal to the
circumference of the circle described by the radius A. [Referring back to Prop. 47, and to
the phase diagram; note that PS = /2.]
For in agreement with what has been stated in proposition XLVII, if some physically
narrow region EF is pushed to the limits of the oscillatory motion which are located at P
and S, with the vibrations within the space PS to be described by the single element, [thus,
the motion of the single increment occupies the whole amplitude or is responsible for the
entire s. h. m.] then the elastic force [or pressure] is itself equal to the weight of the air,
and it will perform these individual vibrations in the same time that the oscillations can
be performed on the cycloid, the whole perimeter of which is equal to the length PS [ =
2A]: since equal forces can push small bodies [of equal mass] through equal distance in
the same time. Whereby as the times of oscillations are in the square root ratio of the
lengths of pendulums, and the length of the pendulum is equal to half of the whole arc of
rd
Ed.

E
G
P
O
S
A/2
A
A/2
P
S
O
the cycloid ; the time of one vibration in the air to the time of the oscillation of the
pendulum, the length of which is A, is in the ratio of the square root of the length
2
1
PS (or
PO) to the length A.
But the elastic force, by which the incremental length EG is forced, present in its
extreme places P and S, is (as in the demonstration of proposition XLVII) to the total
force of this as HL - KN to V,
that is (as the point K thus falls in P) as HK to V: and that total force, that is the
incumbent weight by which the incremental line EG is compressed, is to the weight of the
elemental line as the altitude A for the weight of the incumbent air to the incremental line
of length EG; and thus from the equality, the force by which the incremental line EG is
pushed in its locations P and S, is to the weight of the incremental line as HK A to V
EG, or as PO A to VV, for HK is to EG as PO to V. Whereby with the times, for which
equal bodies are pushed through equal distances, are reciprocally in the square root ratio
of the forces [Essentially at
2
is constant, or Ft
2
/m is constant, giving t 1/F.], the time of
one vibration will be, from the force exerted by the pressure, to the time of the vibration,
for the force due to the weight [in the pendulum case], in the square root ratio VV to PO
A, and thus to the time of the oscillation of the pendulum of which the length is A in the
square root ratio VV to PO A and the square root ratio PO to A jointly; that is, in the
ratio all together as V to A. [The starting point P or S of the motion is chosen; there is no
difference for other points in the motion as the displacement cancels; see the note.] But in
the time of one vibration composed from the to and fro motion, the pulse by proceeding
makes its own length BC [for = 2 PS. Therefore the time, in which the pulse travels
through the distance BC, is to the time of one oscillation composed from the to and fro
motion of the pendulum, as V to A, that is, as BC to the circumference of the circle of
which the radius is A. Moreover the time, in which the pulse travels through the distance
BC, is to the time by which it travels the length of this equal circumference, in the same
ratio; and thus for the time of such an oscillation the pulse travels a distance equal to the
circumference of this circle. Q.E.D.
Notes on Proposition 49 :
Newton initially
considers the height
of an atmosphere of
uniform density that
results in the pressure
observed at ground
level. We note in
passing that this
height h is related to
the height k of
mercury in a
barometer according
to the elementary rule k h
Hg air
= , or k h
air Hg
) / ( = , or the ratio of the specific gravity
of mercury to air times by the length of the mercury column, as you would expect if you
is not too concerned about finer details. Newton calls this height A.
rd
Ed.

Let us set up the oscillating atmosphere envisaged :
The height of the homogeneous atmosphere is A, and O is taken as the half-way point. A
relatively small segment of air of quiescent length EG is part of the oscillating air mass of
amplitude OS = OP. The situation at some intermediate stage ascending is shown at on
the left-hand side of the diagram L. The explanation relies on Prop. 47 :

V
KN HL
pressure quiescent
EG element on force unbalanced
= =
.
. .
. In the present case, the
element is at an extreme position, in which case KN is zero, and the length HL is
approximately equal to the arc length HK; hence,
V
HK
pressure quiescent
EG element on force Unbalanced
.
Also, the ratio
.
EG
A
=
=
EG g
gA
EG line of weight
P at EG on pressure or force incumbent

Hence,
EG
A
V
HK
EG of weight
pressure quiescent
pressure quiescent
EG element on force Unbalanced
= . Again, from Prop.47 :
, . .
) 2 / (
.
.
) . (
- x.
2 2
2

const
x x
dx
force el d
dt
x d
=
= =
we have the ratio of the unbalanced force to the mass of the element :
.. . pendulum, for the while mass; air for the . . : hence ;
. . . / . . /
) (
- . / .
2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
x
A
g
dt
x d
x
V
Ag
dt
x d
EG V
Ag HK
OP
V
gA
OP
V
gA
x const x
V
gA
dx
P d
EG
dt
x d
EG
=
= =

Thus, the period of oscillation of the air
g A
V
T
air
.
2
2
= , while the period of the cycloidal
pendulum is given by :
g
A
T
pen
2
.
= . Hence. .
2
/
2
2
.
A A
V
A
V
T T
pen air
= = = Note that
Newton always uses ratios, so there is no need to worry about constant factors such as g
and 2 that have to be inserted in absolute measurements and calculations; indeed the use
of as a ratio had not been introduced at this time.
Corollary 1. The velocity of the pulses is the same as that which weighty bodies
acquire by falling under the acceleration of gravity, and in their case through half the
height A. For the time in this case, for the velocity to be acquired by falling, the pulse
travels through the space equal to the whole interval A; and thus the time of the oscillation
composed from one coming and going the space traveled through is equal to the
circumference of the circle A described. Indeed the ratio of the time to fall to the time of
the oscillation is as the radius of the circle to the circumference of the same.
Note on Cor. 1 : For the time for a body to fall a vertical distance A/2 is given by
g
A
T
body
= , while the time for the pulse to perform half an oscillation and travel from P to
rd
Ed.

S is given by
g A
V
T
air
.
2 /
2
= ; hence, . 1
2 / .
: 2 / :
2
= = = =

A
V
A
g A
V
g
A
T T
air body
Also, the
pendulum bob in these times traverses a space in the ratio
.
1
.
2
2
2
/
2
2
.
nce circumfere
diameter
A
A
A A
V
A
V
T T
pen air
= = = = = =

Corollary 2 : Hence since that height A shall be directly proportional to the elastic force
and in inverse proportion to the density of the fluid; the velocity of the pulse will be in the
ratio composed from the square root of the inverse of the density and in direct proportion
to the square root of the elastic force.

Note on Cor. 2 : If the periodic time T for a complete oscillation is inversely proportional
to A, and
P = gA , then the velocity is proportional to 1/T or (P/). As Chandrasekhar points out,
this theorem was probably added by Newton as he was not entirely satisfied with Prop.
47, which he did not work through to its conclusion. However, this author makes claims
for what Newton has done which bear little resemblance to reality - there is a distinct lack
of sophisticated mathematical machinery in Newton's work, although the intuitive ideas
are there. The mathematical structure describing phase velocity was not in place at the
time, and Newton's work presumably set this theory in motion. We may note in passing its
use of an extreme amplitude of around 8000m for the height of the isotropic atmosphere
to give a known pressure, as Newton sought known numbers to use in his equation as a
check, with which one could associate a wave with a period of some 25 seconds, more in
the realms of internal gravitational waves in the atmosphere than sound waves.

PROPOSITION L. PROBLEM XII.

To find the lengths of the pulses.
The number of vibrations in a given time need to be found for the body which is
exciting the pulses. The distance which the pulses are able to traverse in this time is
divided by this number, and the fraction of the length found is the width of one pulse. Q.
E. I.
Note : Thus the well-known result for the phase velocity v = f comes into being.

Scholium.

The most recent propositions consider the motion of light and of sound. Indeed light is
propagated in straight lines, without interaction (by prop. XL & XLII.). Hence, since sounds
arise from the vibrations of bodies, they are nothing other than pulses propagated in the
air, by prop. XLIII. This is confirmed from the vibrations which they cause in bodies
presented to them, but only if they are strong and deep, such as the sounds of small
drums. For quicker and shorter vibrations are more difficult to be excited. But it is well
known also that any sounds can interact with the strings of musical instruments and
excite vibrations. This is also confirmed from the velocity of sound. For since the specific
rd
Ed.

gravity of rainwater and quicksilver are in turn as 1 to
3
2
13 roughly, and where the height
of mercury in a Barometer reaches a height of 30 English inches, the specific gravity of
air and of rainwater are in the ratio 1 to 870 roughly; the specific gravity of air and
quicksilver are as 1 to11890. Then since the height of quicksilver is 30 inches, the height
of the air in a uniform atmosphere, which our air is subject to in compression, is 356700
inches, or 29725 English feet. This is the height that we have called A in the construction
of the above problems. The circumference of the circle described by a radius of 29725
feet is 186768 feet. And since it is well-known that a pendulum
5
1
39 inches long results in
a complete oscillation in a time of two seconds, then a pendulum 29725 feet long or
356700 inches ought to complete a similar oscillation in a time of
4
3
190 seconds. Therefore
in that time the sound should progress a distance of 186768, and thus in a time of one
second sound should travel 979 feet.
In the computation presented here, no account is made for other effects, such as the
density of solid particles in the air, through which the sound certainly is propagated.
Since the weight of air is to the weight of water as 1 to 870, and salts are nearly twice as
dense as water ; if the particles of air are put to be roughly the same density as the
particles of water or salt, and the rareness of air arises from the intervals between the
particles: then the diameter of the air particles will be as the interval between the centres
of the particles, as 1 to 9 or 10 roughly, and to the interval between the particles as 1 to 8
or 9. Hence to the 979 feet in the above calculation, one may add
9
979
or 109 feet roughly,
to the distance that sound travels in a time of one second, on account of the density of
particles in the air : & thus the distance that sound travels in a time of one second is made
to be roughly 1088 feet.
To these you may add the effect of vapours hidden in the air, since they are of a
different tone and elastic nature they may or may not participate in the motion of sound
that is propagated through the air. But from these quiet sources, the motion is propagated
more quickly than by the air alone, and that in the ratio of the square root of the lesser
matter. For if the atmosphere is made up from ten parts air and one part of vapor, the
speed of sound is faster in the ratio of the square root of 11 to 10, or altogether around the
ratio 21 ad 20, than if the sound is propagated by eleven parts of pure air : and thus the
motion of the air found above is increased in this ratio. From which the speed of sound is
agreed upon to be 1142 feet in one second.
Thus these ought to have an effect in springtime and autumn, when the air is rarefied
by the temperate heat and the pressure is increased. In wintertime, when the air is
condensed by the cold, and its pressure is lowered, the speed of sound should be less in
the square root ratio of the densities, while in summertime in turn, the speed should be
increased.
Moreover, it is agreed upon by experiment that the distance gone in a time of one
second is more or less London feet 1142, and truly 1070 Parisian feet.
With the speed of sound recognised, the intervals between the pulses can also become
known. Certainly Sauveur has found from measurements made in his experiments, that an
open pipe, the length of which is more or less five Parisian feet, send forth a sound of the
same tone as the sound of strings which are vibrating at a rate of a hundred times in one
second. Thus, there are more or less one hundred pulses in a space of 1070 Parisian feet,
rd
Ed.

which sound travels through in a time of one second ; hence a single pulse takes up a
space of
10
7
10 Parisian feet, that is, around twice the length of the tube. Thus, it is the
same for pulses of all lengths from the sounds produced by tubes, for they are equal to
twice the lengths of the open ended tubes.
Again since sounds stop with the motion of the vibrating body when we stand nearby,
but not for a long time when we stand a long way from the source of the sound, which is
apparent from the corollary to proposition XLVII of this book. Moreover why sounds are
greatly increased in volume by deep sounding trumpets is apparent from these principles.
Indeed the reciprocal motion of all recurring individual pulses is usually increased by the
source of the vibration. Moreover, the motion of sound is impeded in trumpets, to be
emitted later and louder, and therefore a new individual motion is returned later more
loudly. And these are the main phenomena associated with sound.

[Thus, Newton remained unaware of the true source of the error in his analysis; this
was eventually corrected by Laplace when the effect of heat on a gas was much better
understood, and the adiabatic form of the gas law was applied, rather than Boyle's Law.]

rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
SECTION IX.

Concerning the circular motion of fluids.

HYPOTHESIS.
The resistance, which arises from the deficiency of lubricity of the parts, with all else
being equal, is proportional to the velocity, by which the parts of the fluid may be
separated from each other.

PROPOSITION LI. THEOREM XXXIX.
If an infinitely long solid cylinder may be rotating in an infinite uniform fluid with a
given uniform motion about an axis in place , and the fluid may be disturbed into an orbit
by the impulse of this alone, and each and every part of the fluid will persevere uniformly
in its motion, I say that the periodic times of the parts of the fluid shall be as their
distances from the axis of the cylinder.

Let AFL be the cylinder driven uniformly about
the axis S acting on the orbit, the fluid may be
separated by the concentric circles BGM, CHN,
DIO, EKP, etc. into innumerable concentric solid
orbits of this, with the same thickness. And because
the fluid is homogeneous, the impressed forces of
the contiguous orbits made between each other will
be (by the hypothesis) as the translations of these
between each other [i.e. their relative velocities],
and as the contiguous surfaces on which impressed
forces are made. If the impressed force on some
orbit is greater or less from the concave side rather
than from the convex side; the stronger impressed
force will prevail, and the motion will be
accelerated or decelerated, so that it is corrected
into the direction of the motion itself, or into the contrary. Hence so that each and every
orbit may persevere in its own regular motion, the impressed forces must be equal on each
part in turn, and must be made on each in opposing directions. From which since the
impressed forces are as the contiguous surfaces and the translations of these one to the
other,
[Thus, the constant tangential frictional force on an orbit is assumed to vary as the relative
velocity between neighbouring surfaces, and as the area of either surface; thus
2
or
d
dr
rel.vel. area const; r r r
= , as the area in this case is that of a cylindrical

surface of unit length, and the relative velocity is the limiting difference in the angular
speeds;]
the translations will be inversely as the surfaces, that is, inversely as the distance of the
surfaces from the axis [i.e., in this case, as the area in contact is proportional to the radius
of the orbit]. Moreover, the applied differences of the angular motions about the axis are
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
as these translations to the distances, or as the translations directly and the distances
inversely ; that is, as with the ratios taken together, inversely as the square of the
distances. [i.e. the y and x coordinates in the adjoining diagram.]

[Thus, according to B. & R., p. 296, we may consider the friction between two adjacent
solid cylinders. Suppose and + are the angular velocities of two consecutive
cylinders, and let r be the radius of their common surface, then the relative velocity of the
two cylinders is ( )
d
dr
r r r r
+ = ; the internal friction between the rotating fluid

cylinders is proportional both to the difference (or differential) of the velocities, and to the
common area in contact, which is proportional to the radius in this case, giving the
frictional force proportional to
2
d
dr
r r
. Now this quantity must remain constant, as we

have steady state conditions, and hence
2
d
dr
r

= , for some constant . This equation
may be integrated to give
r
= + , where and are constants depending on the

angular velocities of the inner and outer cylinders. Hence, from known values of and r ,
the constants and can be found. This is the integration performed next by Newton,
where the outer limit is infinite and so is zero. In which case
r
= , and Newton's
result follows.]

Whereby if, to the parts of the indefinite right line SABCDEQ, the perpendiculars Aa, Bb,
cC, Dd, Ee, &c. may be erected inversely proportional to the squares of the individual
parts SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, etc., and through the ends of the perpendiculars a hyperbolic
[like] curve may be considered to be drawn; the sum of these differences [of the angular
speeds] will be, that is, the whole angular motion, as the corresponding sum of the lines
Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, that is, if for the fluid medium being uniformly put in place, the
number of the orbits may be increased and the width may diminished indefinitely, as the
analogous hyperbolic areas for these sums AaQ, BbQ, CcQ, DdQ, EeQ, etc. And the times
are inversely proportional to the angular motions, also they will be inversely proportional
to these areas. Therefore the periodic time of any particular curve D varies inversely as
the area DdQ, that is (by the known quadratures of the curves), directly as the distance
SD. Q.E.D.

Corol. I. Hence the angular motions of the particles of the fluid are inversely as the
distances of these from the axis of the cylinder, and the absolute velocities are equal.

[That is, the whole mass rotates about the vertical axis with the same tangential velocity,
whatever the radius; Newton later acknowledges in a Scholium that this state of affairs is
unstable, unless some other condition applies. It is evident that Newton had constructed
such a device, but he has not given any details here.]

Corol. 2. If the fluid may be contained in a cylindrical vessel of infinite length, and
another cylinder may be contained within, but each cylinder may be revolving about their
common axis, and the times of the revolutions shall be as the radii of these, and each part
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
of the fluid may continue in its own motion : the period times of the individual parts will
be as the distances of these from the axis of the cylinders.
[Thus, from
r
= we have
1 1
2 2
T r
T r
= .]
Corol. 3. If some common angular motion may be added to this kind of motion by the
cylinder and the fluid, because by this new motion the friction of the mutual parts of the
fluid does not change, the motions of the parts among themselves will not be changed. For
the translations of the parts from one to the other depend on friction. Any part will
persevere in that motion which, with the frictional forces acting in opposite directions on
each side, may not be accelerated or retarded more.
Corol. 4. From which if all of the angular motion of the external cylinder may be
removed from the whole system of the cylinders and fluid, the motion of the fluid will be
had for a cylinder at rest.
Corol. 5. Therefore if with both the fluid and the exterior cylinder at rest, the interior
cylinder may be revolving uniformly; it will communicate a circular motion to the fluid,
and gradually it will be propagated through the whole fluid ; nor will the first kind of
motion cease to increase until the individual parts may acquire the motion defined by
corollary four.
Corol.6. And because the fluid tries to propagate its motion more widely at this stage,
it will carry the exterior cylinder around by its force around unless strongly retained ; and
its motion will be accelerated until the periodic times of both cylinders are equal to each
other. Because if the exterior cylinder may be strongly retained, it will try to retard the
motion of the fluid ; and unless the interior cylinder be pressed on by some extrinsic force
so that motion may be conserved, it will have the effect of gradually slowing that down.
All of which can be proven in deep water at rest.

PROPOSITION LII. THEOREM XL.
If a solid sphere, in an infinite uniform fluid, may be rotating with a uniform motion about
a given axis in place, and the orbiting fluid may be agitated by the impulse of this alone,
and moreover every part of the fluid may
continue uniformly in its motion : I say that the
periodic times of the parts of the fluid will be as
the squares of the distances from the centre of the
sphere.

Case 1. Let AFL be the sphere driven
uniformly in obit about the axis S, and the fluid
[in a plane normal to the axis] may be separated
into innumerable concentric spheres of equal
thickness by the concentric circles BGM, CHN,
DIO, EKP, &c. Moreover suppose these orbits to
be solid, and because the fluid is homogeneous,
forces of contact of the orbits made between each
other, will be (by hypothesis) as the translations
of these from one to the other
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
[i.e. the relative distance gone per unit time between the shells, or the velocity gradient, in
modern terms], and as the surfaces in contact on which the forces act. If the force
impressed on some orbit is either greater or less from the concave part as from the convex
part; the stronger impressed force will prevail, and the velocity of the orbit will either
accelerate or decelerate, as it is returned by its motion in the same or contrary direction.
Hence so that each one of the orbits will persevere uniformly in its orbit, the forces
impressed from each part must become equal between each other, and are made in
opposite directions. Hence since the impressions shall be as the contiguous surfaces and
as the translations of these relative to each other, that is, inversely as the square of the
distances of the surfaces from the centre. But the differences of the angular motions about
the axis are as these applied translations to the distances, or as the translations directly and
the distances inversely, that is, with the ratios taken jointly, as the cube of the distances
inversely. Whereby if the perpendiculars Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, &c. may be erected, the
perpendiculars of SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, &c. are themselves inversely proportional to the
cubes of the innumerable individual parts of the right line SABCDEQ; the sum of the
differences, that is, the whole angular motion will be as the corresponding sum of the
lines Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee : that is (if the number of orbits may be increased and the width
may be diminished indefinitely towards uniformly establishing a fluid medium) as the
hyperbolic [like] area from these analogous sums AaQ, BbQ, CcQ, DdQ, EeQ, &c. And
the periodic times inversely proportional to these angular motions also will be inversely
proportional to these areas. Therefore the periodic time of any orbit DIO will be inversely
as the area DdQ, that is, from the known quadratures of the curves, directly as the square
of the distance SD. That which was wished to show in the first place.

[As in the previous proposition, with the surface area now proportional to r
2
, we may
consider the frictional force to become as
3
d
dr
r r
, which is constant, and hence

3
d
dr
r

= . This may be integrated to give
2
r
= + , where we consider the angular

integration to be treated as in case 2 below ; as the fluid is infinite, this integration
becomes
2
r
= , as required. ]
Case 2. As many right lines as you wish may be drawn from the centre of the sphere,
which may contain a given angle with the axis, mutually greater than each other by a
given angle, and from these right lines rotated about the axis, the orbits are to be cut into
innumerable rings; and each and every ring will have four rings contiguous to itself, one
interior, another exterior, and two lateral ones. There cannot be friction from any inner
and outer rings in the motion, except by that acting in equal and opposite directions, just
as I have treated in the first case. This is apparent from the demonstration of the first case.
[Thus, any cross-section normal to the axis can be treated as in the first case.] And
therefore any series of rings going from the sphere along straight lines to infinity, will be
moved by the law of the first case, unless they may be impeded by friction from the sides.
But in the motion made, according to this law, the friction of the rings on the sides is zero
; and thus no motion may be impeded, so that it may become less by this law. If annuli
which are equally distant from the centre, either may be rotating swifter or slower around
the poles than around the ecliptic; the slower ones may be accelerated, and the velocities
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
may be retarded from the friction of the motion, and thus the periodic times always
approach towards equality, by the law of the first case. Therefore here the friction does
not impede that motion less than following the law of the first case, and therefore that law
will be obtained : that is, the times of the individual annuli will be as the squares of the
distances of these from the centre of the sphere. Which was the second case to be
demonstrated.
[Clearly there is a problem with a fluid behaving in this way: for the angular dependence
of the motion has not been resolved. This is of course a rather difficult problem, and
Newton proceeds to argue his way out of difficulties by considering reduced causes and
reduced effects .]
Case 3. Now each and every annulus may be divided by transverse sections into
innumerable particles, constituting the fluid substance absolutely and uniformly ; and
because these sections may not regard the law of circular motion, but only bring about the
circulation of the fluid, the circular motion will persevere as at first. All the annuli from
these sections as the smallest roughness and the friction force are changed minimally,
either will be changed equally, or not be changed equally. And with the proportion of the
causes remaining, the proportion of the effect will remain, that is, the proportion of the
motions and of the periodic times . Q. E. D.
Moreover, since the circular motion, and hence the centrifugal force arising, shall be
greater at the ecliptic than at the poles ; some cause will have to be present by which the
individual particles may be retained in their circles ; lest the matter, which is at the
ecliptic, may not always recede from the centre and from the exterior vortices may move
to the poles, and thence by the axis may be returned to the ecliptic by circulating
perpetually.
Corol. 1. Hence the angular motion of the parts of the fluid around the axis of the
sphere, are inversely as the squares of the distances from the centre of the sphere, and the
absolute velocities inversely as the same applied squares to the distances from the axis.
Corol. 2. If a sphere may be revolving with a given uniform motion around an axis in
position in a fluid to be similarly at rest, the motion will be communicated to the fluid in
the manner of a vortex, and this motion will be propagated little by little to infinity ; and
nor will the first motion cease in the individual parts of the fluid accelerated, as the
periodic times of the individual parts shall become as the squares of the distances from the
centre of the sphere.
Corol. 3. Because the interior parts of the vortices on account of their greater velocity
rub against and exert a force on the exterior parts, and perpetually they communicate the
motion to these by that action, and these exterior ones likewise transfer the quantity of
motion by that action at this stage to other more exterior ones, and by this action they
clearly maintain an invariant quantity of motion, it is apparent that the motion is
perpetually transferred from the centre to the circumference of the vortex, and may be
absorbed by the infinite circumference. The matter between any two concentric spherical
surfaces will never be accelerated by the vortex, because there all the motion taken from
the interior matter is always transferred to the outer matter.
Corol. 4. Hence towards the conservation of the vortex by moving constantly in the
same state, some principle of action is required, by which the sphere may always accept
the same quantity of motion, that will be impressed on the matter of the vortex. Without
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
such a kind of principle, it is necessary that the sphere and the interior parts of the vortex,
always propagating their motion into the exterior parts, and not receiving any new motion,
are slowed down little by little and forced to stop in the orbit.
Corol. 5. If another sphere might drift towards this vortex at a certain distance from the
centre of this, and meanwhile it may be rotating constantly at an inclination by some force
about a given axis ; by its motion it may snatch some fluid from the vortex : and at first
this new and very small vortex may be rotating together with the sphere around the centre
of the other, and meanwhile its motion will spread out wider, and little by little it will be
propagated to infinity, according to the manner of the first vortex. And by the same
reasoning, by which the sphere may be seized by the motion of the other sphere, also by
its motion it may seize the other sphere, thus so that the two spheres may be revolving
about some point between the two, and on account of that mutual circular motion they
may fly away from each other, unless they may be restrained by some force. Afterwards if
the constantly impressed forces may be stopped, by which the spheres may persevere in
their motions, and all may be permitted by the laws of mechanics, the motion of the
spheres will become less (on account of the reason I have assigned in Corol. 3. and 4.)
and the vortices at last will come to rest.
Corol. 6. If several spheres may be revolving constantly in given locations with certain
velocities about given axes in position, just as many vortices may be made going off th
infinity. For the individual spheres by the same reason, by which some one may propagate
its motion to infinity, also they will propagate their motions to infinity, thus so that any
part of the infinite fluid will be disturbed by that motion which may result from the
actions of all the spheres. From which the vortices will not be defined within certain
boundaries, but will extend out a little mutually between themselves, and the spheres by
the actions of the vortices will always be moving mutually from their positions, as has
been explained in the above corollary ; and nor may it be clear how they may keep their
positions among each other, unless retained by some force. Moreover with these forces
ceasing, which constantly impressed on the spheres preserve these motions, the matter on
account of the reason assigned in the third and fourth corollaries, will relax little by little
in the vortices and cease to act.
Corol. 7. If the fluid similarly may be enclosed in a spherical vessel, and may be
disturbed into a vortex by a sphere present at the centre rotating uniformly, moreover the
sphere and the vessel may be revolving around in the same direction, and the periodic
times of these shall be as the squares of the radii : the parts of the fluid later will continue
in their motions without acceleration or retardation, so that the periodic times of these
shall be as the squares of the distances from the centre of the vortex. No other constitution
of vortices shall be able to remain.
Corol. 8. If the vessel, inclosing the fluid, and the sphere may maintain this motion and
in addition may be rotating with a common angular motion about some given axis ;
because in this new motion the friction of the parts of the fluid shall not be changed from
one to the other, nor will the motion of the parts among themselves be changed. For the
translations of the parts amongst themselves depends on the friction. Any part will
persevere in that motion, by which it shall not be retarded more by the friction of one side
than accelerated more by the friction from the other.
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
Corol. 9. From which if the vessel may be at rest and the motion of the sphere may be
given, the motion of the fluid will be given. For take a plane crossed by the axis of the
sphere and to be revolving in a contrary motion ; and suppose the sum of the times of the
revolution of this and of the revolutions of the sphere to be to the time of revolution of the
sphere, as the square of the radius of the vessel to the square of the radius of the sphere :
and the periodic times of the parts of the fluid with respect to its plane will be as the
squares of their distances from the centre of the sphere.
Corol. 10. Thus if the vessel either may be moving around the same axis with the
sphere, or around some different axis with some given velocity, the motion of the fluid
will be given. For if the angular motion of the vessel may be taken away from the whole
system, all the same motions will remain between themselves which were given at first by
Corol. VIII. And this motion will be given by Corol. IX.
Corol. 11. If the vessel and the fluid are at rest and the sphere may be revolving with a
uniform velocity, the motion will be propagated little by little through the whole fluid in
the vessel, and the vessel may be driven around unless strongly detained, nor will the fluid
and the vessel cease to accelerate as at first, until the periodic times of these shall be equal
to the periodic times of the sphere. Because if the vessel may be detained a little by some
force or may be revolving at some constant and uniform motion, the medium may arrive
little by little at the state of the motion defined in Corollaries VIII, IX, and X, nor will it
persevere in any other state. Then truly if, with these forces ceasing by which the vessel
and the sphere will be rotating with a certain motion, the whole motion of the system may
be allowed by the laws of mechanics; the vessel and the sphere will act in turn on each
other by the fluid medium, nor will their first motion cease to propagate through the fluid
between each other, so that the periodic times of these are equal to each other, and the
whole system becomes the image of a single solid body revolving at the same time.

Scholium.
In all these I suppose the fluid consists of matter of uniform density and fluidity. For
such a fluid it is in which the sphere likewise shall be able to propagate by the same
motion, in the same time interval, similar and equal motions, always at equal distances to
each other, wherever it may be placed in the fluid. Indeed the matter by its own circular
motion may try to recede from the axis of the vortex, and therefore presses on all the
further matter. From this compression there shall be stronger friction of the further parts
and the separation from each other shall be more difficult ; and as a consequence the
fluidity of the matter may be diminished. Again if the parts of the fluid are somewhere
coarser or larger, the fluidity will be less there, on account of the fewer surfaces into
which the parts may be separated from each other in turn. In cases of this kind the
deficiency in fluidity either the lubricity or viscosity of the parts I suppose to be restored
in some other way or by some other condition. Unless this may be done, the matter where
it is less fluid will cohere more and will be slower, and thus the motion is undertaken
more slowly and will propagate further than by the account given above. If the shape of
the vessel may not be spherical, the particles will be moving along non-circular lines, but
by conforming to the same shape as the vessel, and the periodic times will be as the
squares of the average distances from the centre approximately. In the parts between the
centre and the circumference, where the spaces are wider, the motions will be slower, and
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
where faster where more restricted, nor yet will the faster particles wish reach the
circumference. For the arcs describe smaller curves, and trying to recede from the centre
will not be diminished by the decrease of its curvature, as it will be increased by the
increase of the velocity. By going from the narrower spaces into the wider they will
recede a little more from the centre, but they will be slowed down by this recession, and
by approaching later from the wider to the narrower spaces they will be accelerated, and
thus the individual particles will be retarded and accelerated in turn for ever. Thus these
will be held in a rigid vessel. For the constitution of vortices in an infinite fluid is known
by corollary six of this proposition.
Moreover I have tried to investigate the properties of vortices in this proposition, so
that I might investigate if by some account or other celestial phenomena might be able to
be explained by vortices. For the phenomenon is, that the periodic times of revolution of
the planets around J upiter are in the three on two ratio of their distances from the centre of
J upiter, and the same rule prevails with the planets which are revolving around the sun.
Moreover these rules prevail as the most accurate on each of the planets, to the extent that
astronomical observations can provide at this time. And thus if these planets may be
carried by revolving around J upiter and the sun in vortices, these vortices also will have to
be revolving by the same law. Indeed the periodic times of the parts of the vortices will be
emerging in the square ratio of the distances from the centre of motion : nor can that ratio
be diminished and reduced to the three on two, unless either the matter of the vortex there
shall be more fluid that is at a greater distance from the centre, or the resistance, which
arises from the deficiency of the lubricity of the parts of the fluid, from the increase in the
velocity by which the parts of the fluid may be separated in turn, may be increased in a
greater ratio than that by which the velocity may be increased. Of which still neither the
one nor the other can be considered to be in agreement. The thicker and less fluid parts
will be trying to reach the circumference, except the heavy parts at the centre ; and it is
very likely that, even if for the sake of demonstrating such a hypothesis I might propose at
the beginning of this section, that the resistance should be proportional to the velocity, yet
the resistance shall be in a smaller ratio than that is of the velocity. With which conceded,
the periodic times of the parts of the vortex will be in a ratio greater than in the duplicate
ratio of the distances from its centre. So that if the vortices (as it is the opinion of some)
may be moving faster near the centre, then slower as far as to a certain boundary, then
anew faster near the circumference ; certainly neither the three on two ratio [sesquiplicate]
nor some other ratio can be obtained and determined with certainty. And thus
philosophers will have to consider by what agreement that phenomenon of the three on
two ratio may be explained by vortices.

PROPOSITION LIlI. THEOREM XLI.

Bodies, which carried by a vortex return in orbit, are of the same density as the vortex,
and are moved by the same law with its parts as far as the velocity and the course
determined.

For if some very small part of the vortex may be supposed to be congealed, the
particles of which or physical points maintain a given situation among themselves : this,
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
since neither as far as its density, nor as far the insitu force or its figure may be changed,
will move by the same law as before: and on the contrary, if a frozen and solid part of the
vortex shall be of the same density with the rest of the vortex, and it may be dissolved into
the fluid ; this will be moving by the same law as before, unless perhaps particles of this
now made fluid may move amongst themselves. Therefore the motion of particles
amongst themselves may be ignored, being considered as nothing to the whole
progressive motion, and the whole motion will be as before. But the motion likewise will
be as the motion of other parts of the vortex equally distant from the centre, therefore so
that a solid dissolved in the fluid shall be a part of the vortex just the same as the other
parts. Hence a solid, if it shall be of the same density as the matter of the vortex, will be
moving with the same motion as the parts themselves, in matter nearby being relatively at
rest. If it shall be denser, now it will try more than at first to recede from the centre of the
vortex ; and thus that force of the vortex, by which at first it was being held in place in
equilibrium in its orbit, now being overcome, it will recede from the centre and describe a
spiral on revolving, no more returning in the same orbit. And by the same argument if it
shall be rarer, it will approach towards the centre. Therefore it will not return in the same
orbit unless it shall be of the same density as the fluid. But in that case it has been shown,
that it would be revolving by the same law with the parts of the fluid equally distant from
the centre of the vortex. Q.E.D.
Corol. 1. Hence a solid which is revolving in a vortex and always returns in the same
orbit, is relatively at rest in the fluid in which it floats around.
Corol. 2. And if as long as the vortex shall be of a uniform density, the same body can
be revolving at any distance from the centre of the vortex.

Scholium.
Hence it is clear that the planets cannot be carried by vortex bodies. For the planets
following the Copernican [Newton means Kepler here] hypothesis are carried around the
sun, revolving in ellipses with the sun at a focus, and with the radii drawn to the sun
describing areas proportional to the times. But
the parts of a vortex are unable to revolve in
such a motion. AD, BE, and CF may designate
three orbits described around the sun S, of
which the outermost circle CF shall be
concentric with the sun, and the aphelions of
the two interior shall be A, B and the
periheliums D, E. Therefore a body that is
revolving in the orbit CF, with the radius
drawn to the sun by describing areas
proportional to the times, will be moving with
a uniform motion. But a body, which is
revolving in the orbit BE, will be moving
slower at the B and faster at the perihelion E,
following the astronomical laws ; yet since following the laws of mechanics the matter of
the vortex in the narrower space between A and C ought to be moving faster than in the
wider space between D and F; that is, faster at the aphelions than at the perihelion. Which
rd
Ed.

Book II Section IX.
two disagree amongt themselves. Thus at the start of sign of Virgo, where the aphelion of
Mars now turns, the distances between the orbits of Mars and of Venus is to the distance
of the same orbits at the beginning of the sign Pisces as three to two approximately, and
therefore the matter of the vortex between these orbits at the beginning of Virgo must be
in the ratio of three to two. For as the space is narrower through which the same quantity
of matter pases in one revolution of the time, it must cross with a greater velocity there.
Therefore if the Earth may be carried relatively at rest by that in this celestial matter, and
may be revolving in one circle around the sun with it, its velocity at the beginning of
Pisces shall be to the velocity of the same at the beginning of Virgo in the ratio of three on
two. From which the apparent diurnal motion of the sun at the beginning of Virgo should
be as seventy minutes, and at the beginning of Pisces less than forty eight minutes : yet
since (shown by experiment) this apparent motion of the motion of the sun shall be
greater at the start of Pisces than at the start of Virgo, and therefore the Earth moves faster
at the start of Virgo than at the start of Pisces. And thus the hypothesis of vortices
disagrees generally with astronomical phenomina, and not only regarding explanations
but also regarding the perturbations of the heavenly motions it brings about. On account
of which, truly how these motions may be completed in free spaces without vortices, can
be understood from book one, and in the system of the world now will be discussed more
fully.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
CONCERNING
THE SYSTEM OF THE
WORLD.

BOOK III.

In the preceding books I have treated the principles of [natural] philosophy, yet not in a
philosophical manner, but only mathematically, from which clearly it may be possible to
argue over philosophical matters. These principles are the laws and conditions of forces
and motions, which are considered especially according to philosophy. Yet the same, lest
they may appear barren, I have illustrated by certain philosophical scholias, treating those
which are general, and in which philosophy especially is considered to lay the
foundations, such as the density and resistance of bodies, spaces devoid of bodies, and the
motion of light and sound. It remains that we may give some instruction about the
constitution of the systems of the world from the same principles. With this in mind I had
composed a third book so that it might be read by many. But in which the principles put in
place were not understood well enough, they [the readers] barely understood the strength
of the consequences, nor were the prejudices cast aside to which they had become
accustomed over many years: and therefore lest the matter be drawn into disputes, I have
transferred the bulk of this book into propositions, in the mathematical manner, so that
from these alone the principles may be read by those who have worked through the earlier
principles. Nevertheless since there many propositions occur, which may add excessive
delays even for readers versed in mathematics, I do not wish to be the authority that the
reader should pursue all of these ; it would suffice for whoever that the definitions, laws
of motion and the first three sections of Book I be read with care, then he may transfer to
this book on the systems of the world, and he may consult the remaining propositions of
the first book here put in place as it pleases.

[Introductory Note : The English title of the work being : The Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy ; it took a considerable time for Newton's assertion about the
predominance of mathematics in describing natural phenomena to be accepted generally,
rather than the hand-waving exercises of philosophers, which were then the order of the
day. In Newton's view, ideas analogous to those of ancient Greek geometry could be
applied to natural phenomena, so that from a carefully chosen set of axioms and laws,
successive propositions could be established as in the ancient geometric texts, governing
the natural world from simple collisions to the workings of the solar system, which he
called ' The World'. Planetary astronomy provided an almost ideal platform on which to
establish a coherent theory of dynamics from simple principles, applied to the motions of
the planets, where the complications of unwelcome factors such as friction due to air
resistance, etc., were absent. The main thrust of such a work must include derivations of
Kepler's empirical Laws from the Law of Universal Gravitation. This then was Newton's
ambitious project, and the use of geometry was central to the work and given dominance,
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
though the new and revolutionary calculus not without its detractors, played a strong
supporting role, and actually underpinned the whole edifice that Newton had erected:
indeed many of the propositions could not have been established without the use of
calculus. Thus, in Newton's scheme, a geometrical point became a particle with a mass or
reluctance to move initially or change its state of motion if already moving, its inertia ;
interactions of particles that changed the states of rest or of uniform motion of these were
ascribed to forces, that acted on the masses either at a distance or by direct contact,
obeying the three laws of motion, and the trajectories followed by the particles were
represented by lines familiar from geometry ; as were the velocities, accelerations, and the
forces themselves, that might be added as the sides of parallelograms; Newton's world
was thus one of motion, for which these new ideas of fluxions and fluents were admirably
suited for the detailed analysis. A consequence of this time dependent dynamical
approach was a disregard for quantities such as energy, that remained conserved with
time; and perhaps more surprising, a disregard for the angular form of the laws governing
motion, and the extension to bodies of differing shapes, rather than points, though some
progress is made in this final book in that regard. Thus Newton's particle mechanics was
correct, but incomplete in a number of fundamentals. Leibniz tried to introduce such a
time-independent principle via his vis viva notion, which was a close relative of kinetic
energy, without the half ; a source of much confusion to workers in the 18
th
century; in
this regard it may be said, and perhaps it is an undue criticism, that Leibnitz was trying to
jump onto someone else's bandwagon, so to speak ; supreme logician that he was,
Leibnitz was no match for Newton as a natural philosopher.
In addition, one needs to bear in mind the cause and effect nature of Newton's
arguments, thus, in geometry, the converse of a proposition may be as important and
useful as the original proposition; this is not the case in physics : the converse of a
proposition may not be physically significant, or the situation may arise from a different
cause. In general, the irreversible increase in entropy, the arrow of time as it were,
indicates that processes in the macroscopic world generally go in one direction rather than
to be reversible, which in turn is the exception rather than the rule. Thus Newton does not
necessarily dwell on the converses of his propositions, as one might do in geometry.
Finally, in this introductory note, it should be made clear that this work is not an
'elementary' treatment of astronomical calculations, but a rather sophisticated one, in
which unfortunately for us, most of the detailed calculations have been omitted by
Newton, such as his method of finding the shape of the earth ; instead he plays with the
reader at times, telling him at length about relatively trivial matters, such as adventurers
sailing to remote places to measure the force of gravity there, which could be briefly
encapsulated in a table. Thus, it is advisable to have an understandable text on classical
celestial mechanics available to check results, such as that by W. M. Smart (Longmans;
1953) ; occasionally, results derived by Leseur & J anquier are inserted, and references
made to the latter part of the book by Chandrasekhar are of interest.]

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.

Required Rules of
PHILOSOPHY.

Rule I.
No more causes of natural phenomena must be admitted, than which are both true and
needed for the explanation of the phenomena.

Certainly philosophers say : Nature does nothing in vain, and more will be in vain from
several things in excess than arises from a few. For nature is simple and does not indulge
in superfluous causes.

Rule II.
Therefore the same causes are to be assigned to natural effects of the same kind, as far as
it can come about.

Such as breathing in man and beast; the descent of stones in Europe and America; light
in a cooking fire and in the sun; reflection of light on the earth and on the planets.

Rule III.
The qualities of bodies cannot be extended or remitted, and it is allowed that they be put
in place for all bodies, agreed upon by experiment, for they are the universal qualities of
bodies requiring to be present.

For the qualities of bodies become known only through experiments, and thus such
qualities are required to be in general agreement whenever they square up generally with
experiments ; and because the qualities cannot be diminished, they cannot be removed.
Certainly qualities are not to be rashly fashioned out of dreams contrary to the steady
course of experiments, nor is it required to depart from the analogy of nature, since that is
simple and always accustomed to be in harmony within itself.
The extension of bodies can only become known from the senses, nor can the
extension of all bodies be perceived: but because it is agreed upon by all the senses, from
that the property of extension can be agreed upon for all bodies. We find out too that
many bodies are hard. But the hardness arises from the hardness of the parts, and thence
not only of these bodies which are perceived, but we may conclude also of all the others
that we cannot perceive, that the indivisible particles are deservedly hard. Again, we
gather that all bodies are impenetrable, not from reason but from the senses. The bodies
we treat are found to be impenetrable, and thence we conclude that impenetrability is a
universal property of bodies. All bodies are moveable, and by certain forces (we call
which the forces of inertia) persevere in their motion or rest, and from these we may
deduce the properties of observed bodies. The whole extension, hardness, impenetrability,
mobility, and the force of inertia arise from the extension, hardness, impenetrability,
mobility, and forces of inertia of the parts: and thence we conclude that the smallest parts
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
of all bodies are to be extended, and to be hard and impenetrable, and to have mobility
provided by the forces of inertia. And this is the foundation of all philosophy. Again the
divided parts of bodies mutually touching each other can be separated in turn from each
other, by phenomena that we know, and it is evident that the indivisible parts may be
separated into smaller parts in a ratio from mathematics. Truly it is uncertain whether
these distinct parts not yet divided are able to be divided and separated in turn by natural
forces. But if in turn it may be agreed by a single experiment that some particles somehow
undivided, with a hard and solid body being broken, that a division may be apparent: we
would conclude on the strength of this rule, that not only may the separate parts be
divided, but also that they may be continued to be divided indefinitely.
Finally, if all bodies revolving around with the earth are to exert a weight on the earth,
[occasionally we will use the term attract by gravity for Newton's expression] and that for
every individual quantity of matter, and the moon by its quantity of matter to attract the
earth, and in turn our sea to have an attraction on the moon, and all the planets to
mutually attract each other, and in a like manner the attraction of comets to the sun by
gravity may be agreed upon generally from astronomical observations : it will be required
to be said that by this rule all bodies mutually attract each other by gravitation. For there
will be an even stronger argument for the phenomena of universal gravitation, than that
for the impenetrability of bodies : concerning which certainly we have no experimental
evidence, nor any observations. Yet I am not at all confirming that the force of gravity is
essential for bodies. By the force insita I understand only the force of inertia. This is
unchangeable; but the force of gravity is diminished on receding from the earth.

Rule IV.
In experimental philosophy, propositions are deduced from phenomena by induction, not
from contrary hypothesis, for they must be considered as true hypotheses, either
accurately or approximately true, from which either more accurate hypotheses may be
made available, or the hypothesis be made free from exceptions.

This must come about lest the argument of induction be removed by [contrary]
hypothesis.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.

PHENOMENA.

PHENOMENON I.

[Note : In Latin & Greek, the word phaenomena related to an appearance in the sky.]

The circumjovial planets, with radii drawn from the centre of Jupiter, describe areas
proportional to the times, and the periodic times of these, with respect to the fixed stars at
rest, are in the three halves power of their distances from its centre.

This is agreed from astronomic observations. The orbits of these planets are not
different sensibly from concentric circles around J upiter, and the motions of these may be
taken from uniform circles. Truly astronomers agree that the periods are in the three
halves ratio of the radii of their orbits ; and the same is evident from the following table.

The periodic time of the Jovian satellites.

d h d h d h d h
1 18 27 34 ; 3 13 13 42 ; 7 3 42 36 ;16 16 32 9 . . ' . " . . ' . " . . ' . " . . ' . " .

The distances of the satellites from the centre of Jupiter.

From observations 1 2 3 4
Borelli .
2
3
5
2
3
8 14
2
3
24
Townley by micrometer 5,52 8,78 13,47 24,72
Cassini by telescope 5 8 13 23
Cassini by satellite eclipse.
2
3
5 9
23
66
14
3
16
25
From the periodic times. 5,667 9,017 14,384 25,299

J ovian
radii.

With the best micrometers Master Pound has determined the elongations of the J ovian
satellites and the diameter of J upiter as follows. The maximum elongation of the fourth
J ovian satellite from the centre of the sun was taken by a micrometer in a telescope tube
15 feet long, and produced around 8'.16" from the mean distance of J upiter from the earth.
That of the third satellite was taken in a telescope 23 feet long, and produced4'. 42" at the
same earth to J upiter distance. The maximum elongations of the remaining satellites at the
same distance of the earth from J upiter 2'. 56".47"', & 1'. 51".6"' arising from the periodic
times.
The diameter of J upiter was often taken from the micrometer in the 123 feet telescope,
and reduced according to the mean distance of J upiter from the sun or the earth, always
produced an image less than 40'', at no time less than 38", more often 39". In shorter
telescopes this diameter is 40' or 41'. For the light of J upiter by unequal refraction is
dilated to some extent, and this dilation has a smaller ratio to the diameter of J upiter in the
longer and more perfect telescopes than in the shorter and less perfect ones.
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
The times in which two satellites, the first and the third, will pass across the body of
J upiter, from the beginning of the ingression to the start of the exit, and from the complete
ingression to the complete exit, have been observed with the aid of the same longer
telescopes. And the diameter of J upiter at its mean distance from the earth produced
1
8
37 "
by the transition of the first satellite and
3
8
37 " from the transition of the third. Also the
time in which the shadow of the first satellite passed through the body of J upiter was
observed, and thence the diameter of J upiter at its mean distance from the earth produced
around 37". We may assume the diameter of this to be approximately
1
4
37 "; and the
maximum elongations of the first, second, third and fourth satellites were respectively
5,965, 9,494, 15,141, & 26,63 radii of J upiter.

PHENOMENON II.

The planets around Saturn, with radii drawn to Saturn, describe areas proportional to the
times, and the periodic times of these, with the fixed stars, are in the three on two ratio of
the distances from the centre of Saturn.

Certainly Cassini from his observations has established the distance of these from the
centre of Saturn and the periodic times to be of this kind.

The periodic times of the satellites of Saturn.

d h d h d h d h
d h
1 21 18 27 ; 2 17 41 22 ; 4 12 25 12 ;15 22 41 14 ;
79 7 48 00
. . ' . " . . ' . " . . ' . " . . ' . "
. . ' . " .

The distances of the satellites from the centre of Saturn in radii of the ring.

From observations.
19
20
1 .
1
3
2 .
1
2
3 . 8. 24.
From the periodic times. 1,93. 2,47. 3,45 8. 23,35.

The maximum elongation of the fourth satellite from the centre of Saturn gathered from
observations is accustomed to be approximately eight radii. But the maximum elongation
of this satellite from the centre of Saturn, taken from the best micrometer in the Huygens
telescope 123 feet long, has produced a radius of
7
10
8 radii. And from this observation and
from the periodic times, the distances of the satellite from the centre of Saturn in radii of
the ring are 2,1. 2,69. 3,75. 8,7. and 25,35. The diameter of Saturn in the same telescope
to the diameter of the ring was as 3 to 7, and the diameter of the ring produced on the 28
th

and 29
th
days of May of the year 1719 was 43". And thence the diameter of the ring at the
mean position of Saturn from the earth is 42", and the diameter of Saturn 18". Thus these
are in the longest and best telescopes, because hence the apparent magnitudes of celestial
bodies in longer telescopes may have a greater proportion to the dilation of the [rays of]
light at the ends of these bodies than in shorter telescopes. If all the stray light may be
removed, the diameter of Saturn will remain not greater than 16".

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.

PHENOMENON III.

The first five planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, surround the sun with
their orbits.
Mercury and Venus may be shown to revolve around the sun from their lunar phases.
With the full shape shining when they are situated beyond the sun ; half when away from
the direction of the sun; sickle shaped when this side of the sun, and by its disc in the
manner of a spot occasionally passing in front of the sun. From Mars also made full near
to the sun in conjunction, & gibbous at right angles, it is evident that it goes around the
sun. Concerning J upiter and Saturn the same also may be demonstrated from their full
phases : indeed it is evident that these shine with light borrowed from the sun from the
shadows of the satellites projected onto themselves.

PHENOMENON IV.

The periodic times of the five primary planets, and either of the sun around the earth or
the earth around the sun, with the fixed stars at rest, are in the three on two ratio of the
mean distances from the sun.
That this ratio was found by Kepler has been acknowledged by everyone. Certainly the
periodic times are the same, the same dimensions of the orbits, whether the sun goes
around the earth, or the earth may be revolving around the sun. And indeed it is agreed
from measurements of the periodic times amongst astronomers. Moreover the
magnitudes of all the orbits have been determined most carefully by Kepler and Boulliau
from observations: and the mean distances, which correspond to the periodic times, are
not sensibly different from the distances which they found, and these among themselves
are intermediate mainly, as can be seen from the following table.

The periodic times of the planets and of the earth about the sun, with respect to the fixed
stars, in days and decimal parts of days.

10759,275. 4332, 514 686,9785. 365,2565. 224,6176. 87,9692.

The mean distances of the planets and of the earth from the sun.

Following Kepler 951000. 519650. 152350. 100000. 72400. 38806.
Following Boulliau 954198. 522520. 152350. 100000. 72398. 38585.
Following the periodic times 954006. 520096. 152369. 100000. 72333 38710.

There is no dispute concerning the distances of Mercury and Venus from the sun, since
these may be determined from their elongations from the sun. Also concerning the
distances of the outer planets from the sun all the disputation is removed by the eclipses
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
of the satellites of J upiter. And indeed the position of the shadow that J upiter casts may be
determined by those eclipses, and with that nominated the heliocentric longitude may be
obtained. Moreover from the heliocentric and geocentric longitudes between these taken
together the distance of J upiter may be determined.

PHENOMENON V.
The primary planets, with radii drawn to the earth, describe areas not at all proportional
to the times; but with radii drawn to the sun, the areas traversed are proportional to the
times.

For with respect to the earth they are now progressing, now they are stationary, and
now also they are regressing : But with respect to the sun they are always progressing, and
that with just about a uniform motion, but yet a little faster at the perihelions and a little
slower at the aphelions, thus so that there shall be described equal areas. The proposition
is the most noteworthy of astronomy, and may be demonstrated to a high degree by the
satellites of J upiter, from which eclipses we have said that the heliocentric longitudes of
this planet and the distances from the sun are determined.

PHENOMENON VI.
With a radius drawn to the centre of the earth, the moon describes areas proportional to
the times.

It is evident from the apparent motion of the moon deduced from the apparent
diameter. Moreover the motion of the moon is perturbed a little by the force of the sun,
but I will ignore the insensible small errors in these phenomena.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.

PROPOSITIONS.

The forces, by which the circumjovial planets are drawn perpetually from rectilinear
motion and are retained in their orbits, with respect to the centre of Jupiter, are inversely
as the squares of their distances from the same centre.

The first part of the proposition is apparent from the first phenomenon, and the second
or third proposition of the first book : and the latter part by the first phenomenon, and the
sixth corollary of the fourth proposition of the same book.
You may understand the same concerning the planets which accompany the planet
Saturn, by the second phenomenon.

The forces, by which the primary planets are perpetually drawn from rectilinear motion,
and retained in their orbits, with respect to the sun, and to be inversely as the square of
the distances from its centre.
The first part of the preposition is apparent from the fifth proposition, and the second
proposition of the first book : and the latter part by the fourth phenomenon, and the fourth
proposition of the same book. Moreover this first part of the proposition may be shown
most accurately by the resting nature of the aphelions. For the smallest aberration from
the square ratio must bring about a noteworthy motion in the individual revolutions (by
Corol. I. Prop. XLV. Book. I.) and in more a large motion.

PROPOSITION III. THEOREM III.
The force, by which the moon is retained in its orbit, with respect of the earth, is inversely
as the square of the distances of the places from the centre of this.

The first part of the assertion is apparent from the sixth phenomenon, and the second or
third proposition of the first book : and the latter part by the slowest motion of the moon's
apogee. For that motion, which in the individual revolutions is only of three degrees and
three minutes, can be disregarded. For it is apparent (by Corol. I. Prop. XLV.
Book. I.) that if the distance of the moon from the centre of the earth shall be to the radius
of the earth as D to 1; the force by which such a motion may arise shall be reciprocally as
4
243
2
D , that is, reciprocally as that power of D of which the index is
4
243
2 , that is, in a ratio
of the distance a little greater than the inverse square, but which approaches by
3
4
59 times
closer to the square than to the cube. Truly it arises from the action of the sun (as will be
mentioned later) and therefore here can be ignored. In as much as the action of the sun
draws the moon from the earth, is as the distance of the moon from the earth
approximately ; and thus (by what were discussed in Corol. 2. Prop. XLV. Book. I.) the
action is to the centripetal force of the moon as around 2 to 357,45, or1 to
29
40
178 . And
with so small a force of the sun, the remaining force by which the moon is retained in its
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
orbit will be reciprocally as
2
D . That which also will be agreed upon more fully by
comparing this with the force of gravity, as shall be made in the following proposition.
Corol. If the mean centripetal force by which the moon may be retained in orbit may
be increased first in the ratio
29 29
40 40
177 to 178 , then also in the square ratio of the radius of
the earth to the mean distance of the moon from the centre of the earth : the centripetal
force will be found of the moon at the surface of the earth, because that force in place
descending to the surface of the earth always may be increased in the inverse ratio of the
square of the height.

PROPOSITION IV. THEOREM IV.
The moon it attracted towards the earth by gravity, and by the force of gravity is drawn
always from rectilinear motion, and retained in its orbit.

The mean distance of the moon from the earth at syzygies is 59 times the earth radius,
according to Ptolemy and most of the astronomers, 60 according to Vendelin and
Huygens,
1
3
60 according to Copernicus, following Street
2
5
60 and according to Tycho
1
2
56 . But Tycho, and all who follow his tables of refraction, by putting in place
refractions of the sun and moon (generally contrary to the nature of light) greater than of
the fixed stars, and that by as many as four or five minutes of arc, increased the parallax
of the moon by just as many minutes, that is, as if between a 12
th
or 15
th
part of the whole
parallax. This error may be corrected, and a distance around
1
2
60 of the earth's radius
emerges, almost as that which has be designated by the others. We may assume the mean
distance to be 60 of the earth's radius at sygyies ; and the lunar period with respect to the
fixed stars to be made up from 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes, as has been established
from astronomy ; and the circumference of the earth to be 123249600 Parisian feet, as
defined from French measurements : and if the moon may be supposed to be deprived of
all its motion and released, so that by being urged by all that force, by which (by the
Corol. of Prop. III.) it may be retained in its orbit, it may fall to the earth ; this distance of
1
12
15 Parisian feet it describes in a time of one minute. This is deduced by calculation
accomplished either by Prop. XXXVI of the First Book, or (that returns the same) by the
Corollary of the fourth proposition of the same book. For that arc which the moon in a
time of one minute, by its mean motion, may describe at a distance of 60 earth radii, is
around the versed sine of
1
12
15 Parisian feet, or more accurately 15 feet, 1 inch and
4
9
1 twelve parts of an inch. From which since that force by acceleration to the earth may
be increased in the inverse square ratio, and thus at the surface of the earth shall be
60 60 times greater than at the surface of the moon ; a body by falling with that force in
our region , must describe
1
12
60 60 15 i Parisian feet n an interval of one minute , and in
an interval of one second
1
12
15 feet, or more accurately 15 feet. 1 inch. and
4
9
1 twelfth
parts of an inch. And by the same force weights actually fall on the earth. For the length
of a pendulum, in the latitude of Paris for a single second of oscillation, is of three feet
and
1
2
8 lines [i.e. twelfth parts of an inch]; as Huygens observed. And the height, that a
weight describes by falling in a time of one second, is to the half length of this pendulum
in the square ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diameter (as Huygens also
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
indicated), [indeed, in modern terms,
1
2
2 2 2 2
2
and 4
l l
g
s gt t s = = = .] and thus is 15
Parisian feet, 1 inch,
7
9
1 . lines. And therefore the force by which the moon may be
retained in its orbit, if it were falling onto the surface of the earth, will emerge equal to
our force of gravity, and thus (by rules I and II.) is that force itself that we are accustomed
to call gravity. For if gravity were different from that, bodies with the two forces taken
jointly would be attracted towards the earth with twice the velocity, and would describe
by falling a distance of
1
6
30 Parisian feet: entirely contrary to experience.
Here the calculation is founded on the hypothesis that the earth is at rest. For if the
earth and the moon may be moving around the sun, and meanwhile also commonly
revolving about the common centre of gravity : with the law of gravity remaining, the
distance between the centres of the earth and moon in turn will be around
1
2
60 earth radii ;
as will be apparent from beginning the computation. Moreover the computation can be
entered into by Prop. LX. Book I.

Scholium.
The demonstration of the proposition can be explained more fully thus. If several
moons were revolving around the earth, in the same way as it shall be in the system of
J upiter or Saturn : the periodic times (by an inductive argument) obey the laws of the
planets found by Kepler, and therefore the centripetal forces of these shall be inversely as
the squares of the distances from the centre of the earth, by Prop. I. of this Book. And if
the smallest of these shall be infinitely small, and it may nearly touch the peaks of the
highest mountains: the centripetal force of this by which it may be held in orbit, will be
almost equal to the weights of bodies on the peaks of those mountains (by the preceding
computation), and it may be effected that the same small moon, if it may be deprived of
all the motion by which it goes on in orbit, with the deficiency of the centrifugal force by
which it may remain in orbit, may fall to the earth, and that with the same velocity by
which weights fall from the peaks of those mountains, on account of the equality of the
forces by which they fall. And if that force by which that smallest moonlet fell, were
different from gravity, and if that moonlet should have the customary force of gravity on
the earth of bodies on the peaks of mountains : the same moonlet from each taken
together would fall with twice the speed. Whereby since each of the forces, both these of
the weights of bodies, and these of the moonlets, with regard to the centre of the earth,
and between themselves shall be similar and equal, the same (by rules I. and II.) will have
the same cause. And therefore that force, by which the moon may be kept in its orbit, that
itself will be as we are accustomed to call the weight : and especially that the moonlet at
the peak of a mountain may neither be without weight, nor that it will fall with twice the
velocity that heavy bodies are accustomed to fall.

PROPOSITION V. THEOREM V.
The circumjovial planets gravitate towards Jupiter, the circumsaturn planets towards
Saturn, and the circumsolar planets towards the sun, and by the force of their gravity they
are always drawn from rectilinear motion, and held in curved orbits.
For the revolutions of the circumjovial planets around J upiter, the circumsaturnal
planets around Saturn, and of Mercury and Venus and of the remainder around the sun are
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
phenomena of the same kind as with the revolution of moon around the earth ; and
therefore (by rule II.) depend on causes of the same kind : especially since it may be
shown that the forces, on which these revolutions depend, may be with respect to the
centre of J upiter, Saturn and the sun, and by receding from J upiter, Saturn or the Sun they
may decrease in the same ratio and by the law, by which the force of gravity decreases in
receding from the earth.

Corol. 1. The force of gravity therefore is given towards all the planets. For no one can
doubt that Venus, Mercury and the others are bodies of the same kind as J upiter and
Saturn. And since the attraction of all shall be mutual by the third law of motion, J upiter
towards all its satellites, Saturn towards its satellites, and the earth towards the moon, and
the sun will gravitate towards all the primary planets.

Corol. 2. The gravity, with regard to any planet, is inversely as the square of the
distance of the places from its centre.

Corol. 3. All the planets have a weight between each other, by Corol.1. and 2. And
hence J upiter and Saturn by attracting each other near conjunction, noticeably perturb
each others motion, the sun disturbs lunar motions, the sun and the moon disturb our sea,
as will be explained in the following.
Scholium.
Until now we have called that force, by which celestial bodies may be retained in their
orbits, the centripetal force. Now the same is agreed to be the force of gravity, and
therefore we will now hereafter call this the force of gravity. For the cause of that
centripetal force, by which the moon may be held in orbit, must be extended to all the
planets by rules I, II. & IV.

PROPOSITION VI. THEOREM VI.
All bodies are attracted by gravity to the individual planets, and the weights of these
for whatever planet, for equal distances from the centre of the planet, are proportional to
the quantity of matter in the individual planets.
Others have observed for a long time now that [equal] descent of all weights on the
earth (at any rate with the very small unequal retardation removed which arises from the
air) happen in equal times ; and certainly one can note the most accurate equality of the
times in pendulums. I have tested the matter with gold, silver, lead, glass, common salt,
wood, water, and with wheat. I have prepared two equal small round wooden boxes. One I
filled with wood, and likewise I suspended a weight of gold at the other centre of
oscillation (as nearly as I could). The boxes constituted the pendulums, hanging from
equal eleven feet strings, in order that the weight, the shape and the air resistance
generally were equal; and with equal oscillations, placed next to each other, they were
going and coming together for a long time. Hence the amount of matter in the gold
(by Corol. I. and 6. Prop. XXIV. Book II.) was to the amount of matter in the wood, as the
action of the motive force in all the gold to the same action in all the wood ; that is, as the
weight to the weight. And thus for the others. From these experiments clearly in bodies of
the same weight the difference of the materials to be taken would have [an effect] to be
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
less than a thousandth part of the whole matter. Truly now there is no doubt that the
nature of gravity on the planets is the same as on the earth. For these terrestrial bodies
raised as far as the orbit of the moon, and released together with the moon deprived of all
motion, may fall likewise as on the earth; and now by what has been shown before it is
certain that they describe equal spaces with the moon, and thus so that they [i.e. the
quantities of matter in the bodies] shall be to the quantity of matter in the moon, as their
weights shall be to the weight of the moon itself [at the radius of the moon's orbit].
Again because the satellites of J upiter are revolving in times which are in the three on two
ratio of the distances from the centre of J upiter, the accelerative weights of these will be
towards J upiter inversely as the square of the distances from the centre of J upiter ; and
therefore at equal distances from J upiter, the accelerative weights of these become equal.
Hence by falling in equal times from the equal heights they describe equal distances ;
thence so that it shall be as with weights here on our earth. And the circumsolar planets by
the same argument, released from equal distances from the sun, describe equal distances
in their descent towards the sun in equal times. Moreover the forces, by which unequal
bodies may be equally accelerated, are as the bodies; that is, the weights are as the
quantities of matter in the bodies. Again is apparent from the especially regular motion of
the satellites that the proportional weights of J upiter and of its satellites towards the sun
are as the quantities of matter of these ; by Corol 3. Prop. LXV. Book I. For, if some of
these should be attracted more towards the sun than the rest, for their quantity of matter :
the motions of satellites (by Corol. 2. Prop. LXV. Book I.) would be perturbed from the
inequality of the attraction. If, with equal distances from the sun, some satellite should be
heavier towards the sun by its quantity of matter, than J upiter by its quantity of matter, in
some given ratio, for example d to e: the distances between the centre of the sun and the
centre of the orbit of the satellite, always should be greater than the distance of the centre
of the sun and the centre of J upiter approximately in the three on two ratio ; as found in a
certain initial calculation. And if a satellite should weigh less towards the sun in that ratio
d to e, the distance of the centre of the orbit of the satellite from the sun would be less
than the distance of the centre of J upiter from the sun in the square root ratio
approximately. And thus if in the distances from the sun equalities, the accelerative
gravity of some satellite towards the sun should be greater or less than the accelerative
weight of J upiter towards the sun, by only a one thousandth part of the whole force of
gravity ; the distance of the centre of the orbit of the satellite from the sun would become
greater or less than the distance from J upiter by a
1
2000
th
part of the whole distance, that is,
by a fifth part of the extreme distance of the satellite from the centre of J upiter : which
indeed would be quite detectable for an exocentric orbit. But the orbits of the satellites of
J upiter are concentric, and therefore the gravitating acceleration of J upiter and of the
satellites towards the sun are equal to each other. And by the same argument the weight of
Saturn and of its attendants towards the sun, at equal distances from the sun, are as the
quantities of matter within themselves : and the weights of the moon and of the earth
towards the sun are either zero, or accurately proportional to these masses. But they dos
have some masses by Corol. 1. and 3. Prop. V.
For indeed the weights of parts of each of the individual planets to some other planet
are between themselves as the matter in the individual parts. For if some parts should
exert a greater force of gravity, others less, than for the quantity of the matter; the whole
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
planet, for the kind of part with which it should abound the most, would gravitate more or
less than for the quantity of the whole matter. But it does not matter if the parts refer to
external or internal parts. If for example earthly bodies, which are now about us, were
supposed raised to the orbit of the moon, and brought together with the body of the moon
: if the weights of these were to the weights of the external parts of the moon as the
quantities of matter in the same, truly in a greater or smaller ratio to the weights of the
internal parts, the same would be in a greater or smaller ratio to the weight of the whole
moon: contrary than what has been shown above.

Corol.1. Hence the weights of bodies do not depend on the forms and textures of these.
For if they were able to be varied with the shape, they could be greater or less, according
to the kind of shape, in an equal amount of matter, completely contrary to experience.

Corol. 2. Generally bodies, which are near the earth, are heavy on the earth ; and all
weights, which are equally distant from the centre of the earth, are as the quantities of
matter in the same. This is a characteristic of all that it is possible to establish by
experiment, and therefore has been confirmed generally by rule III. If the ether or some
other either may be freed from gravity, or for a quantity of its matter that may experience
gravity less : because that (by the reasoning of Aristotle, de Cartes, and of others) may not
differ from other bodies except in the shape of the matter, likewise it may be possible by a
change of shape gradually to be transformed into a body of the same condition as these,
but which may gravitate as greatly as possible, and in turn especially heavy bodies, by
gradually adopting the form of these, gradually would be able to lose their weight. And
hence the weights depend on the shapes of bodies, and could be varied according to their
form, contrary to what has been proven in the above corollary.

Corol. 3. All spaces are not equally occupied. For if all spaces were to be equally
filled, the specific gravity of the fluid by which the region of the air would be filled up, on
account of the maximum density of matter, would concede nothing to the specific gravity
of mercury, gold, or to any other body of the greatest density ; and therefore neither
would it be possible for a body of gold nor of any other kind of body to descend in air.
For bodies do not descent in fluids, unless they shall be of greater specific gravity.
Because if the quantity of matter in a given space may be diminished by rarefaction, why
may it not be possible to diminish it indefinitely?
[This is an attempt to explain the differentiation of matter by density in a body held
together by gravity; the densest in the centre, and the least dense in the outer regions.]

Corol. 4. If all the particles of all solid bodies should be of the same density, nor able
to be rarefied without pores, a vacuum is given. I say that bodies are to be of the same
density, of which the forces of inertia are as their magnitudes [i.e. masses].

[In this case, if no differentiation is possible as the density is constant, then the body ends
abruptly on the outside in a vacuum.]

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
Corol. 5. The force of gravity is of a different kind from the magnetic force. For
magnetic attraction is not as matter attraction. Some bodies are attracted more, others less,
most are not attracted. And the magnetic force in one and the same body is able to be
retained and to be lost , and sometimes greater by far than the force of gravity,
and in receding from a magnet it does not decrease in the ratio of the inverse square, but
almost as the inverse, as far as can be ascertained from certain gross observations.

PROPOSITION VII. THEORM VII.
Gravitation happens in bodies universally, and that is to be proportional to the quantity of
matter in the individual bodies.

All planets attract each other mutually as we have approved previously, and so that the
gravity in each one separately can be considered to be reciprocally as the square of the
distance of the places from the centre of the planet. And hence it is a consequence (by
Prop. LXIX. Book 1. and its corollaries) that gravity be in the same proportion in all
materials.
Again since the gravitational forces of all the parts of some planet A shall be present on
some planet B, and the gravity of its parts shall be to the whole gravity, as the matter of its
parts to the whole, and for every action there shall be an equal reaction (by the third law
of motion); planet B in turn will attract planet A by gravity in all its parts, and by its
gravity acting on each and every part to its total gravity, as the matter of the parts to the
matter of the whole. Q. E. D.

Corol. 1. Therefore the whole gravity on a planet arises and is prepared from the
gravity of all its individual parts. We have an example of this affair from magnetic and
electric attractions. For the whole attraction arises from the attractions of the individual
parts. This matter is understood in gravitation, by considering many smaller planets to run
together into one sphere and to compose a larger planet. For the whole force must arise
from the forces of the composing parts. If this may be objected to because all bodies,
which are around us, must mutually attract each other by gravity, since yet gravity of this
kind may by no means be experienced : I respond that the gravity in these bodies, since it
shall be to the gravity of the whole earth as these bodies are to the whole earth [i.e. in
terms of mass], is by far smaller than that which it may be possible to experience.

Corol.2. Gravitation in the individual particles of bodies is reciprocally as the square of
the distance of the places between the particles. This is apparent from Corol 3. Prop.
LXXIV. Book I.

PROPOSITION VIII. THEOREM VIII.
If the matter of two spheres mutually attracting each other shall be homogeneous on all
sides in all directions, which are equally distant from the centres: the weight of the
spheres of the one to the other shall be reciprocally as the square of the distance between
the centres.
After I had found that the gravitation towards a whole planet arose from and was
composed from the gravitation of the parts ; and the gravitation between the parts to be
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
reciprocally proportional to the distances between the parts : I was doubting whether that
reciprocal square proportion was obtained accurately with the whole force composed from
the many forces, or whether indeed it was as an approximation. For it may come about
that the proportion, which may be obtained well enough at greater distances, might be
perceptibly in error near the surface of a planet on account of the unequal distances of the
particles and on account of dissimilar situations. Yet truly, by Prop. LXXV and Prop.
LXXVI. of Book I and their corollaries, I understood the truth of the proposition upon
which the proposition here is acting.

Corol. 1. Hence the weights of the bodies in different planets are able to be found and
to be compared. For the weights of equal bodies revolving in circles around planets are
(by Corol. 2. Prop. IV. Book I.) as the diameters of the circles directly and inversely as
the squares of the periodic times ; and the weights at the surfaces of the planets, or at any
other distances from the centre, are greater or less (by this proposition) inversely in the
square ratio of the distances. Thus from the periodic times of Venus around the sun of
224 and
3
4
16 hours, of the outermost circumjovial satellite around J upiter of 16 days and
8
25
16 hours, of the Huygens satellite around Saturn of 15 days and
2
3
22 hours, and of the
moon around the earth of 27 days, 7 hours and 43 min., by gathering together the mean
distance of Venus from the sun and with the maximum heliocentric elongation of the
outer circumjovial satellite from the centre of J upiter 8'. 16"; with the mean distance of
the Huygens satellite from the centre of Saturn 3'. 4"; and of the moon from the centre of
the earth 10'. 33'' ; by entering upon a calculation [see L & J note following below] I
found that of equal bodies and at equal distances from the centre of the sun, J upiter,
Saturn, and the earth , that their attractions towards the centre of the sun, J upiter, Saturn,
and the earth shall be as
1 1 1
1067 3021 169282
1 and , , , respectively [Cohen in his text unfortunately
includes a comma, or equivalent to a decimal point in Newton's work, in his translation at
this point, which is evidently incorrect.], and with the distances increased or diminished in
the square ratio: the weights of equal bodies towards the sun, J upiter, Saturn and the earth
at the distances 10000, 997, 791, and 109 from the centres of these, and thus at the
surfaces of these, will be as 10000, 943, 529, and 435 respectively. However great the
weights of bodies shall be on the surface of the moon will be talked about in the
following.

[Abridged note 68, L & J, p. 35, Book 3.
All these may be returned by algebraic proofs.
Let S be the centre of the sun, V the centre of Venus, P the centre of a primary planet, L
a satellite at its maximum heliocentric elongation that the angle LSP measures, for which
the angle SLP is right. The periodic time of Venus may be called t ; the periodic time of
the satellite L about the primary planet P may be called . The distance SP, however
great it may be, shall be called z; the ratio
SP
SV
which is given by the Phenomena IV may
be expressed by the ratio a to b, and hence there will be
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
( )
and
SP z
a bz
SV b a
SV
=
= = ; and with the radius present the sine of the maximum heliocentric
elongation of the satellite L, or the sine of the angle LSP may
be called e; Hence in the right-angled triangle SLP,
( )
2
z PL
sin sin LSP e
=
= ; hence the side PL ez = .
Because the force of the sun on Venus and the force of the
sun on the satellite are by Cor. 2 of Prop. IV, Book I, as the
distance of Venus and the distance of the satellite from the
centre of the sun and of the primary planet divided by the
squares of the periodic times, either as
2 2
to
bz ez
at
, or if the force
of the sun on Venus is taken as 1, the force of the primary
planet on the satellite will be as
2
2
aet
b
.
But the force of the primary planet on the satellite at the
distance PL, is to the force by which it may itself act if it were
at just as great a distance from the sun as Venus, inversely as
the square of the distances, therefore there becomes
( )
2 2 2 2 3 3 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
1
to , or 1 to as to
a a e aet a e t
e z b z b b b
; and again it will
be found that the force of the sun on Venus is to the force of the
primary P planet on the satellite, if it may be at just as great a
distance by that amount that Venus is distant from the sun
3 3 2
3 2
as 1 to
a e t
b
. This result
follows for any positions of the circular orbits of the bodies, and hence is true for all
positions; the quantities in the ratios are known from observation, and hence the force of
the sun will be to the force of the planet
3 3 2
3 2
as 1 to
a e t
b
. Thus, for example, let P be the
centre of the planet J upiter, and L the outer satellite, then b is to a as 72333 to 520096,
while ( ) 816 e sin ' " = , on inserting the ratio of the periodic times in seconds, and in those
days using logarithms, the force of the attraction towards the centre of J upiter is
1
1067
of
the attraction towards the sun.
Subsequent to Newton, astronomers have found more accurate values for the various
distances and angles. Cohen gives a table comparing the present accepted values and
Newton's values, in his Introduction. p.225.]

Corol. 2. Also the quantities of matter in the individual planets becomes known. For
the quantities of matter in the planets are as the forces of these at equal distances from
their centres; that is, on the sun, on J upiter, Saturn, and the earth, they are as
1 1 1
1067 3021 169282
1, , ,& respectively. If the parallax of the sun may be taken as greater than 10",
and less than 30"', the quantity of matter on the earth must be increased or diminished in
the cubed ratio.

Corol. 3. The densities of the planets become known also. For the weights of equal and
homogeneous bodies on homogeneous spheres are at the surfaces of the spheres as the
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
diameters of the spheres, by Prop. LXXII. Book I, and thus the densities of heterogeneous
spheres are as these weights applied to the diameters of the spheres. But indeed the
diameters of the sun, J upiter, Saturn and of the earth in turn will be as 10000, 997, 791,
and 109, and the weights at the surfaces of the same will be as 10000, 943, 529 and 435
respectively, and therefore the densities are as 100,
1
2
94 , 67 and 400. The density of the
earth which arises from this calculation does not depend on the parallax of the sun, but is
determined from the parallax of the moon, and this therefore is defined correctly.
Therefore the sun is a little denser than J upiter, and J upiter than Saturn, and the earth is
four times denser than the sun. For the sun is rarefied by its remarkable heat. Truly the
moon is denser than the earth, as will become apparent in the following.

Corol. 4. Therefore the smaller planets are denser, with all other things being equal.
Thus the force of gravity approaches more to equality on the surfaces of these. And also
the planets are denser, with all else being equal, which are closer to the sun ; as J upiter
with Saturn, and the earth with J upiter. Certainly planets were to be gathered together at
different distances from the sun so that as it were by a change in the density they might
enjoy the heat from the sun more or less. Our water, if the earth were located in the orbit
of Saturn, would be frozen, if in the orbit of Mercury it would depart at once into vapours.
For the light of the sun, to which the heat is proportional, is seven times denser in the
orbit of Mercury than with us : and with a thermometer I have found that with a seven-
fold increase in the heat of the summer sun, water boils off. Truly there is no doubt why
the matter of Mercury should not be accustomed to the heat, and therefore shall be denser
than ours ; since all denser matter requires greater heat to take part in natural processes.

PROPOSITION IX. THEOREM IX.
Gravity on going downwards from the surfaces of planets decreased approximately as the
distance from the centre.

If the matter of a planet were uniform as far as density is concerned, this proposition
would be obtained accurately: by Prop. LXXIII. Book I. Therefore there is as great an
error, as can arise from the inequality of the density.

PROPOSITION X. THEOREM X.
The motions of the planets in the heavens is able to be conserved for a very long time.

In the Scholium of Proposition XL, Book II, it has been shown that a sphere of frozen
water, by moving freely in our air and by describing the length of its radius, may lose a
1
4586
th
part of its motion by the resistance of the air. Moreover the same proportion will be
obtained approximately in spheres with any size and speed. Now truly I deduce thus that
sphere of our earth is denser than if the whole were made from water. If this sphere were
entirely aqueous, in which some parts were rarer than water, on account of the smaller
specific gravity these would rise and float on top. And by that reason the earthly sphere
would arise covered by water on all sides, if some parts were rarer than water, and thus all
the water flowing away might meet together in the opposite direction. And the account of
our earth surrounded by great seas is the same. This, if it were not denser, would emerge
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
from the seas, and by its part for the degree of lightness would stand out from the water,
with seas flowing together in the opposite region. By the same argument the sunspots are
lighter than the luminous matter of the sun on which they float. And in the formation of
some kinds of planets, in which time all the heavier matter would seek the centre from the
mass of water. From which, since with common ground uppermost, it shall be as if twice
as dense as water, and a little further down in mines it may be found to be as much as
three or four or even five times heavier: it is plausible that the abundance of all the matter
in the earth shall be as if five times or greater than six times greater than if the whole were
made from water; especially since it was shown before that the earth is to be as if four
times denser than J upiter. Whereby if J upiter shall be a little denser than water, here in an
interval of thirty days, in which it will describe a length of 459 of its radii, it may lose
almost a tenth part of its motion in a medium of the same density as the density of our air.
Truly since the resistance of the mediums may be reduced in the ratio of the weight and
density, thus as water, which is
3
5
13 lighter than quicksilver, resists less in the same ratio ;
and the air, which is in 860 parts lighter than water, resists less in the same ratio : if it [i.e.
a body of the constitution of J upiter] should ascend to the heavens where the weight of the
medium, in which the planets are moving, is diminished indefinitely, the resistance will
almost cease. At any rate we have shown in the scholium to Prop. XXII. Book II, that if it
were to ascend to a height of 200 miles above the earth, the air there would be rarer than
at the surface of the earth in the ratio 30 to 0,0000000000003998, or around
75000000000000 to 1. And hence the star of J ove by revolving in a medium of the same
density with that upper air, in a time of 1000000 years, would not lose a ten hundred
thousandth part of its motion to the resistance of the medium. Certainly in spaces closer to
the earth, nothing is found that creates resistance other than exhalations and vapours. With
these from a hollow glass cylinder with the air must diligently exhausted weight within
the glass fall freely and without any sensible resistance ; a weight of gold itself and the
finest feather dropped together fall with the same velocity, and in their case describing a
height of four, six or eight feet reach the bottom at the same time, as has been ascertained
by experiment. And therefore if it may ascend into the heavens devoid of air and
exhalations, the planets and comets will be moving without any sensible resistance
through that space for an exceedingly long time.

HYPOTHESIS I.
The centre of the system of the world is at rest.

This has been conceded by everyone, while some may contend that the earth, others
the sun to be the centre of the system at rest. We may see which thence may follow.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
PROPOSITION XI. THEOREM XI.
The common centre of gravity of the earth, the sun, and of all the planets is at rest.

For that centre (by Corol. IV of the laws) either may be at rest or may be progressing
uniformly in a straight direction. But with that centre always progressing, the centre of the
world also will be moving, contrary to the hypothesis.

PROPOSITION XII. THEOREM XII.
The sun is disturbed by the continual motion, but at no time does it recede far from the
common centre of gravity of all the planets.

For since (by Corol. 2. Prop. VIII.) the matter in the sun shall be to the matter in
J upiter as 1067 to 1, and the distance of J upiter from the sun shall be to the radius of the
sun in a little greater ratio ; the common centre of gravity of J upiter and the sun falls on a
point a little above the surface of the sun. By the same argument since the matter in the
sun shall be to the matter in Saturn as 3021 as 1, and the distance of Saturn from the sun
shall be as the radius of the sun in a slightly smaller ratio : the common centre of gravity
of Saturn and the sun lies a little below the surface of the sun. And by following in the
footsteps of the same calculation, if the earth and all the planets were put in place at one
side of the sun, the common centre of gravity of all scarcely would be different by the
diameter of the whole sun from the centre of the sun. In all the other cases the distance of
the centres is always less. And therefore since that centre of gravity will always be at rest,
the sun will constantly be moving by the variation of the position of the planets in all
directions, but at no time will it recede far from the centre.

[Thus, in this proposition, Newton gives us essentially a criterion for investigating the
possibility of planetary systems circulating around nearby stars ; and in the same manner,
gives a sign to other intelligent beings on planets elsewhere, if they exist, that the sun
itself has such a planetary system.]

Corol. Hence the common centre of gravity of the earth, the sun and of all the planets
is obtained for the centre of the world. For since the earth, the sun and the planets all
gravitate amongst themselves mutually, and therefore, by its force of gravity, following
the laws of motion will always be disturbed : it is evident that from the mobility of these,
for the centre of the world to be at rest, they are unable to be consider at rest. If that body
should be located in the centre in which all the bodies are attracted especially (as is the
common opinion) that must be conceded to be the privilege of the sun. But since the sun
may be moving, a point at rest must be selected, from which the centre of the sun departs
minimally, and from which likewise besides it will depart less, only if the sun were denser
and greater, so that it would be moving less.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
PROPOSITION XIII. THEOREM XIII.
The planets are moving in ellipses having the centre of the sun as one focus, and with
the radii drawn to that centre describing areas proportional to the times.

[See, e.g. Smart, Celestial Mechanics, the first few chapters, for a clear modern exposition
of Kepler's Laws in terms of the law of gravitation.]

Above we have argued about these motions from phenomenae. Now with the
principles of the motion known, we may deduced the motions from basic principles.
Because the weights of the planets towards the sun are inversely as the squares of the
distances from the centre of the sun ; if the sun were at rest and the remaining planets did
not act on each other mutually, the orbits of these would be ellipses, having the sun at a
common focal point, and the areas would be described in proportional times (by Prop. I.
and Xl. and Corol. I. Prop. XIII. Book I.) ; but the actions of the planets among
themselves are very small (so that they may be disregarded) and the motion of the planets
in ellipses around the moving sun is less perturbing (by Prop. LXVI. Book I.) than if the
motion were being undertaken as around the sun at rest.
Certainly the action of J upiter on Saturn cannot be dismissed entirely. For the gravity
towards J upiter is to the gravity towards the sun (with equal distances) as 1 to 1067;
[i.e.
1
1067
Sat Jup.
Sat sun
M . M
M . M
= ] and thus with J upiter and Saturn in conjunction, because the

distance of Saturn from J upiter is as the distance of Saturn from the sun almost as 4 to 9
the gravity of Saturn towards J upiter to the gravity of Saturn towards the sun will be as 81
to 16 1067 or as 1 to 211 approximately. [i.e.
( )
( )
81 1 1
1067 16 211
16
81
Sat Jup. SatJup
Satsun Sat sun
M . M / acc
acc M . M /
= = ]
And hence the perturbation of the orbit of Saturn arises from the individual conjunctions
of this planet with J upiter thus are perceptible so that astronomers are in difficulties with
the same. On account of the variation in position of the planets in these conjunctions, the
eccentricity of this now may be increased, now decreased, now the aphelion may be
moved forwards and then perhaps it is drawn backwards, and the mean motion may be
accelerated by the forces and then retarded. Yet the error in all the motion of this around
the sun arising from such a force (except in the mean motion) can be almost avoided by
putting in place the lower focus of its orbit at the common centre of gravity of J upiter and
the sun (by Prop. LXVII, Book I.) and therefore when it is a maximum, the error scarcely
exceeds two minutes. And the maximum error in the mean motion scarcely exceeds two
minutes per annum. But in the conjunction of J upiter & Saturn the accelerating gravity of
the sun towards Saturn, of J upiter towards Saturn, and of J upiter towards the sun are
almost as 16, 81 and
16 81 3021
25

or156069, and therefore the difference of the forces of
gravity of the sun towards Saturn and of J upiter towards Saturn is to the force of gravity
of J upiter towards the sun as 65 to 156609 or 1 to 2409.
[Because at the conjunction of J upiter and Saturn, the distance of Saturn from the sun,
Saturn from J upiter, and J upiter from the sun, are to each other as 9, 4, and 5,
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
approximately; we already have that
( )
( )
16
1 16 81
1067 81 1067 16 81
Sat Jup. Sat / Jup
Sat / sun Sat sun
M M / F
/
F / M M /

= = = ; while
( )
( )
25
3021 81
1067 25 81
sun Jup. Jup/ sun
Sat / sun Sat sun
M M / F
F M M /

= = , and
3021 81 1067 16 3021 16
1067 25 81 25
Jup/ sun Jup/ sun
Sat / sun
Sat / sun Sat / Jup Sat / Jup
F F
F
F F F

= = = .

Or,
1 1 1
3021 81 1067 3021 16 1067 25
1 1 1
81 3021 3021 16 25
: : :: : :
or
: : :: : :
Sat / sun Sat / Jup. Jup/ sun
sun/ Sat Jup/ Sat Jup/ sun
F F F
acc acc acc

i.e.
3021 1 1
81 16 25
and , , , by Cor. 1, Prop. VIII, that is, as 16, 81 and
16 81 3021
25
or 156609

.
Again, the difference of the accelerations of the sun on Saturn and of J upiter on Saturn to
the acceleration of J upiter on the sun is as
1 1
3021 81 3021 16
1 3021 81 16
25 25
1
2409
65
sun/ Sat Jup/ Sat
Jup/ sun
a a
a

= = = ; thus
the effect of Saturn on J upiter is much less than the effect of the sun on J upiter (from an L
& J. note). ]

But the difference of this proportionality has the maximum effectiveness of Saturn in
perturbing the motion of J upiter, and therefore the perturbation of the orbit of J upiter is
far less than that of Saturn. The perturbations of the rest of the orbits are besides a great
deal smaller except that the orbit of the earth is perceptibly disturbed by the moon. The
common centre of gravity of the earth and the moon, travels around the sun situated at
the focus, in an ellipse, and a radius drawn to the sun will describe areas proportional to
the time, truly the earth is revolving around this common centre in its monthly motion.

PROPOSITION XIV. THEOREM XIV.
The aphelions and nodes of orbits are at rest.

The aphelions are at rest by Prop. XI. Book I, and so that both the planes of the orbits,
by Prop. I of the same book, and the nodes are at rest in the planes at rest. But yet from
the revolution of the planets and from the actions of comets between themselves other
inequalities may arise, but which here they are to be ignored on account of their
insignificance.

Corol. 1. Also the fixed stars are at rest, therefore so that they maintain the given
positions at the nodes and aphelions.

Corol. 2. And thus since nothing shall be evident of the parallax of these, arising from
the annual motion of the earth, the forces of these, on account of the immense distance of
the bodies, will give rise to no noticeable effect in the region of our system. Perhaps the
fixed stars dispersed equally in all the parts of the heavens mutually destroy the forces
from mutual attractions, by Prop. LXX. Book I.
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.

Scholium.
Since the nearer planets of the sun (evidently Mercury, Venus, the earth, and Mars) on
account of the smallness of the pairs of bodies acting in turn between themselves : the
aphelions and nodes of these are at rest, unless perhaps they may be disturbed by the
forces of J upiter, Saturn and further bodies. And thence it can be deduced from the theory
of gravitation, that the aphelia of these are moving a little in consequence with respect of
the fixed stars, and that in the three on two proportion of the distances of the planets from
the sun. So that if the aphelion of Mars should make 33' , 20" in a hundred years with
respect of the fixed stars as a consequence; the aphelions of the earth, of Venus, and of
Mercury in a hundred years would make 17', 40", 10', 53", and 4', 16" respectively. And
these motions, on account of the smallness, are ignored in this proposition.

PROPOSITION XV. PROBLEM I.
To find the principal diameters of the orbits.

These are to be taken in the two on three ratio of the periodic times,
by Prop. XV, Book I, then one by one increased in the ratio of the sum of the masses of
the sun and of each planet revolving to the first of the two mean proportionals between
that sum and the sun, by Prop. LX, Book I. [See Smart, Celestial Mechanics, p.15]

PROPOSITIO XVI. PROBLEMA II.
To find the eccentricities and aphelions of the orbits.

The problem has been done in Prop. XVIII. Book I.

PROPOSITION XVII. THEOREM XV.
The daily motions of the planets is uniform, and the libration of the moon arises from
its daily motion.

It is apparent by the first law of motion and Corol. 22. Prop. LXVI. Book I that J upiter
certainly is revolving with respect to the fixed stars in 9 hours and 56 minutes, Mars in 24
hours and 39 minutes, Venus in around 23 hours, the earth in 23 hours 56 minutes, the sun
in
1
2
25 and the moon in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes. It is evident that these are found
from the phenomena [i.e. experimental data in modern jargon]. Spots in the body of the
sun return at the same place on the solar disc in around
1
2
27 days, with respect to the earth
; and thus with respect to the fixed stars the sun is rotating in around
1
2
25 days. Truly
because there is the monthly revolution of the moon about its axis : the same face of this
will always look at the more distant focus of its orbit, as nearly as possible, and therefore
according to the situation of that focus will hence deviate thence from the earth. This is
the libration of the moon in longitude: For the libration in latitude has arisen from the
latitude of the moon and the inclination of its axis to the plane of the ecliptic. N. Mercator
has explained this theory of the libration of the moon more fully in letters from me,
published in his Astronomy at the start of the year 1676.
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
[Institutionum Astronomicarum libri duo, p.286-7; see note on p.16 of Book I of Newton's
Letters; these letters have been lost, but Newton's help had been fully acknowledged in
Mercator's work.]
The outer satellite of Saturn may be seen to be revolving in a similar manner about its
axis, with its same face always looking towards Saturn. For by revolving around Saturn,
as often as it arrives at the eastern part of its orbit, it appears most decayed [in brightness]
and the fullness seen to cease: as which can arise through certain spots on that part of the
body which then is turned towards the earth, as Cassini noted. Also, the outer satellite of
J upiter may be seen to be to be revolving about its axis in a like motion, therefore so that
it may have a spot on the part of its body turned away from J upiter as in the body of
J upiter is discerned whenever the satellite passes between J upiter and our eyes.

PROPOSITION XVIII. THEOREM XVI.
The axes of the diameters of the planets which are drawn normally to the same axes
are the minor axes.

Planets must conform to a spherical shape with all the daily circular motion removed,
on account of the equal weight of the parts on all sides. Through that circular motion it
comes about that parts next to the equatorial axis will try to rise, receding from the axis.
And thus the matter, if it shall be fluid, rising by itself will increase the diameter of the
equator, truly the axis at the poles will be diminished by its falling. Thus the axis of
J upiter (in common agreement from observations) it taken to be shorter between the poles
than from East to West. By the same argument, unless our earth were a little higher at the
equator than at the poles, the seas would subside at the poles, and by ascending adjoining
the equator, there they would flood everything.

[Again, need it be said, we have a present instance of Newton's insight : the melting of
glaciers and polar ice caps due to global warming is and will continue to increase the
equatorial bulge of the earth, leading to permanent flooding of equatorial regions,
increased tidal activity, etc. ; in the same manner, the sea levels in the northern polar
regions may remain unchanged or actually fall.]

PROPOSITION XIX. PROBLEM III.
To find the proportion of the axis of a planet to the same perpendicular diameter.

Our countryman Norwood around the year 1635 by measuring the distance between
London and York as 905751 London feet, and by observing the difference of the latitude
to be 2
0
, 28' deduced the measure of one degree to be 367196 London feet, that is, 57300
Paris toises.
Picart by measuring the arc of 1
0
, 22' , 55" in the meridian between Amiens and
Malvoisine, found the arc of 1
0
to be 57060 Paris hexafeet [or toises]. Cassini the elder
measured the distance along the meridian from the town of Colliore in Roussilon to the
observatory in Paris; and his son had added the distance from the observatory to the tower
of the town Dunkirk. The total distance was
1
2
486156 toises and the difference of the
latitudes of the towns Collioureand Dunkirk was 8
0
, 31',
1
6
11 ". From which the arc of 1
0
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
produced 57061 toises. And from these measurements a circuit around the earth is
deduced to be 123249600 Paris feet, and its radius 19615800 Paris feet, from the
hypothesis that the earth shall be a sphere.
In the latitude of Paris a heavy body by falling in a time of one second will describe 15
Paris feet, 1 inch and
7
9
1 lines as above, that is,
7
9
2173 lines. The weight of the body is
diminished by the weight of the surrounding air. We may suppose the weight lost to be
one eleven thousandth part of the total weight, and that heavy body by falling in a vacuum
describes a height of 2174 lines in one second. [recall that 1 line is
1
12
part of an inch.]
A body revolving uniformly in a circle at a distance of 19615800 feet from the centre,
in single sidereal days of 23 hours, 56' minutes, and 4" seconds will describe in a time of
one second an arc of 1433,46 feet, the versed sine of which is 0,052656, or of 7,54064
lines. And thus the force, by which weights descend at the latitude of Paris, is to the
centrifugal force of bodies at the equator arising from the daily motion of the earth, as
2174 to 7,54064.
The centrifugal force of bodies at the equator of the earth is to the centrifugal force, by
which bodies tend to move directly from the earth at the latitude of Paris of 48
0
, 50' ,
10", in the square ratio of the radius to the sine of the complement of its latitude, that is,
as 7,54064 to 3,267. This force may be added to the force by which the bodies descend at
that latitude of Paris, and a body at that latitude by falling with that total force, in a time
of one second describes 2177,267 lines, or 15 feet 1 inch and 5,267 lines. And the total
force of gravity at that latitude will be to the centrifugal force of bodies at the equator of
the earth as 2177,167 to 7,54064 or 289 to 1.
From which if APBQ may designate the figure of the earth now no longer spherical
but generated by the revolution of an ellipse around the minor axis PQ, and ACQqca
shall be a channel full of water, from the pole Qq to the centre Cc, and thence going to
the equator Aa : the weight of water in the legs of the channel
ACca, is to the weight of water in the other leg QCcq as 289 to
288, because the centrifugal force arising from the circular motion
will sustain one part of the 289 parts and may be taken from the
weight of the parts, and the weight 288 in the other leg will
sustain the rest. [The alternate diagram for a prolate spheroid
rather than the true oblate spheroid has been drawn in all three
editions of the Principia, with PQ taken as the bulge; I have
changed this to the oblate shape, as Chandrasekhar has done, but
the orientation is now unusual, as the polar axis PQ is now horizontal ; this is the usual
view of someone standing at the equator and looking North along CQ.] Again (from
Proposition XCI. Corol. 2. Book I.) by entering upon a computation, [which is quite long
and is presented by Chandrasakher in Ch. 20, p. 281 of his work on Newton,] I find that if
the earth should be constructed from uniform matter, and it may be deprived of all
motion, and its axis PQ to be to the diameter AB as 100 to 101; the gravity at the location
Q on the earth becomes to the gravity at the same location Q in a sphere with centre C
with the radius PC or QC described, as 126 to 125. And by the same argument the weight
at the position A on the spheroid, by convoluting the ellipse APBQ described about the
axis AB, is to the weight at the same place A on the sphere described with centre C and
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
with the radius AC, as 125 to 126. But the weight at the position A on the earth is the
mean proportional between the weights on the said spheroid and sphere : so that therefore
the sphere, by diminishing the diameter PQ in the ratio 101 to 100, is turned into the
figure of the earth ; and this figure with a third diameter which is perpendicular to the two
diameters AB and PQ, being diminished in the same ratio, is turned into the said spheroid
; and the gravity at A, in each case, is diminished in approximately the same ratio.
Therefore the gravity at A on the sphere with centre C and described with the radius AC
is to the gravity at A on the earth as 126 to
1
2
125 , and the gravity at the position Q on the
sphere with centre C and described with the radius QC, is to the gravity at the location A
on the sphere described with centre C and with radius QC, in the ratio of the diameters
(by Prop. LXXII. Book I.) that is, as 100 to101. Now these three ratios may be taken
together, 126 to 125, 126 to
1
2
I25 , and 100 to 101: and the gravity at the location Q on the
earth becomes to the gravity at the position A on the earth, as
1
2
126 116 100 to 125 125 101 , or as 501 to 500.
Now since (by Corol. 3, Prop. XCI, Book I.) the weight in either leg of the canal ACca
or QCcq shall be as the distances of the places from the centre of the earth ; if those legs
may be separated into transverse and equidistant surfaces proportional to the total parts,
the weights of the individual parts in the leg ACca will be to the weights of just as many
parts in the other leg, as the magnitudes and accelerating weights jointly ; that is, as 101 to
100 and 500 to 501, that is, as 505 to 501. And thus if the centrifugal force of each part in
the leg ACca arising from the daily motion were to the weight of each part as 4 to 505, so
that therefore from the weight of each part, by dividing into 505 parts, four parts may be
subtracted; the weights will remain equal in each leg, and therefore the fluid might remain
in equilibrium. Truly the centrifugal force of each part is to the weight of the same as 1 to
289, that is, the centrifugal force must be equal to the
4
505
part of the weight is only the
1
289
.
part. And therefore I say, following the golden rule of proportions, that if the centrifugal
force were made
4
505
as the height of the water in the leg ACca may exceed the height of
water in the leg QCcq by the hundredth part of the total height: the centrifugal force
1
289

may be made as the excess of the height in the leg ACca shall be of the height in the other
leg QCcq by only the
2
229
part. Therefore the diameter of the earth along the equator to the
diameter through the poles is as 230 to 229. And thus since the mean radius of the earth,
close to the measurement of Picart, shall be 19615800 Paris feet, or of 3923,16 miles (on
putting that a mile shall be a measure of 5000 feet), the earth will be higher at the equator
than at the poles by an excess of 85472 feet, or of
1
10
17 miles. And its altitude at the
equator will be around 19658600 feet, and at the poles 19573000 feet.
If a planet shall be greater or smaller than the earth with its density remaining and the
daily periodic time of revolution, the proportion of the centrifugal force to gravity will
remain, and therefore the proportion of the diameter between the poles to the diameter
along the equator will remain also. Or if the daily motion may be accelerated or retarded
in some ratio, the centrifugal force will be augmented or decreased in that ratio squared,
and therefore the difference of the diameters will be increased or diminished in the same
ratio approximately. And if the density of the planet may be increased or decreased in
some ratio, the drawing force of gravity also will be increased or decreased in the same
ratio, and the difference of the diameters in turn will be diminished in the ratio of the of
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
the increased gravity or diminished in the ratio of the diminished gravity. From which
since the earth with respect to the fixed stars may be revolving in 23hours and 56 minutes,
but J upiter in 9 hours and 56 minutes and the squares of the times shall be as 29 to 5, and
the densities of the revolving bodies as 400 to
1
2
94 : the difference of the diameters of
J upiter will be to the smaller diameter as
1
2
29 400 1
5 229 94
to 1, or 1 to
1
3
9 approximately.
Therefore the diameter of J upiter drawn from the east to the west , to the diameter
between the poles is as
1
3
10 to
1
3
9 approximately. From which since the major diameter
of this shall be 37", the minor diameter lying between the poles will be 33", 25'''. From
the erratic [refraction of the] light there may be added around 3", and the apparent
diameters of this planet emerge 40'' and 36" : which are to each other approximately as
1 1
6 6
11 to 10 . This thus may be itself had from the hypothesis that the body of J upiter shall
be of uniform density. But if its body shall be denser towards the plane of the equator
rather than the poles, it diameters may be in turn as 12 to 11, 13 to 12, or perhaps as 14 to
13. And indeed Cassini observed in the year 1691, that the diameter of J upiter stretched
out from east to west surpassed the other by about a fifteenth part. Moreover our
countryman Pound with a telescope of 123 feet long and with the best micrometer,
measured the diameters of J upiter in the year 1719, as follows.

Times. Diam. max. Diam. min. Diameters ratio.
days hours. part. part.
J an. 28 6 13,40 12,28 as 12 to 11
Mar. 6 7 13,12 12,20
3 3
4 4
13 12
Mar. 9 7 13,12 12,08
2 2
3 3
12 11
Apr. 9 9 12,32 11,48
1 1
2 2
12 11

Therefore the theory has agreed with the phenomena. For planets are warmed more in
the light of the sun towards their equators, and therefore they are heated there a little more
than towards the poles.
Even though the force of gravity be diminished at the equator by the daily rotation of
our earth, and therefore there the earth rises higher than at the poles (if its matter shall be
of uniform density), it will be apparent from experiments with pendulums which are
reviewed in the following proposition.
[See Chandrasekhar Ch. 20 for a modern exposition of this proposition and related work.]

PROPOS1TION XX. PROBLEM IV.
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
To find and to compare amongst themselves, the weights of bodies in different regions
of the earth.

Because the weights of the unequal legs of the channels of water ACQqca are equal;
and the weights of the parts proportional to the whole legs, and similarly situated to the
whole, are in turn as the weights of the whole, thus they are also equal to each other ; the
weights of the equal and similarly situated parts are inversely as the legs, that is, inversely
as 230 to 229. And likewise the ratio of any homogeneous and similarly situated bodies
in the legs of the channels. The weights of these are reciprocally as the legs, that is,
reciprocally as the distances of the bodies from the centre of the earth. Thus if bodies may
be considered in the upper parts of the channels, or on the surface of the earth ; the
weights of these in turn will be inversely as the distances of these from the centre. And
the weights by the same argument, in any other regions over the whole surface of the
earth, are inversely as the distances of the places from the centre; and therefore are given
in proportion, from the hypothesis that the earth shall be a spheroid.
From such thence a theorem arises, that the increment of the weight in going from the
equator to the pole, shall be nearly as the versed sine of twice the latitude, or which is the
same thing, as the sine square of the right latitude. And the arc of the degrees of latitude
may be increased in around the same ratio in the meridian. Therefore since the latitude of
Paris shall be 48
0
, 50', that of places on the equator 00
0
, 00', and that of places at the
poles 90
0
, and the squares of the versed sines shall be as 11334, 00000 and 20000, with
the radius present 10000, and the weight at the pole shall be to the weight at the equator as
230 to 229, and the excess of the weight at the pole to the weight at the equator shall be as
1 to 229: therefore the excess of the weight at the latitude of Paris to the weight at the
equator shall be as
11334
20000
1 to 229 or 5667 to 2290000 , . And therefore the total weighs in
these places will be in turn as 2295667 to 2290000. Whereby since the lengths of
isochronous pendulums shall be as the forces of gravity, and at the latitude of Paris the
length of a pendulum oscillating in individual seconds shall be three Paris feet and
1
2
8 lines, or rather on account of the weight of the air
5
9
8 : the length of the pendulum at
the equator will be overcome by the length of the Parisian pendulum by an excess of
1,087 parts of a line. And by a similar calculation the following table can be constructed.

General latitude
of the place.
Length of
the pendulum.
Measure of 1
0

along a meridian.
Degrees Ft. Lin. Toises.
0 3 7,468 56637
5 3 7,482 56642
10 3 7,526 56659
15 3 7,596 56687
20 3 7,692 56724
25 3 7,812 56769
30 3 7,948 56823
35 3 8,099 56882
40 3 8,261 56945
1 3 8,294 56958
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
2 3 8,327 56971
3 3 8,361 56984
4 3 8,394 56997
45 3 8,428 57010
6 3 8,461 57022
7 3 8,494 57035
8 3 8,528 57048
9 3 8,561 57061
50 3 8,594 57074
55 3 8,756 57137
60 3 8,907 57196
65 3 9,044 57250
70 3 9,162 57295
75 3 9,258 57332
80 3 9,329 57360
85 3 9,371 57377
90 3 9,387 57382

Moreover it is agreed by this table that the inequalities of degrees shall be so small that
in it may be taken as a sphere in the geographical shape of the earth: especially if the earth
were a little denser towards the equatorial plane than towards the poles.
Now truly some astronomers sent to far away regions to make astronomical
observations, observe that oscillating clocks may move slower near the equator than in
our regions. And indeed Richer observed this in the year 1672 on the island of Cayenne.
For while he observed the transit of fixed stars through the meridian in the month of
August, he found his clock to be moving slower than for the mean motion of the sun, with
a difference present of 2'.28" for individual days. Thereupon by arranging so that a
simple pendulum might oscillate in single seconds as measured by a reliable clock, he
noted the length of the simple pendulum, and this he did often each day for ten months.
Then on returning to France he compared the length of this pendulum with the length of
the Parisian pendulum (which was of three Parisian feet, and
3
5
8 ) and he found it to be
shorter, with the difference being
1
4
1 lines.
Afterwards our countryman Halley sailing to the island of St. Helens in the year 1677,
found the oscillations of his clock there to be moving slower than in London, but he did
not measure the difference. Truly he rendered the pendulum shorter by
1
8
part of an inch,
or by
1
2
1 lines. And in order to do this, since the length of the screw at the end of the
pendulum was insufficient, he interposed a wooden ring between the sheath of the screw
and the pendulum bob.
Then in the year 1682, Varin and Des Hayes found the length of the pendulum
oscillating in a time of one second at the royal observatory in Paris to be 3ft.,
5
9
8 lin. And
on the island of Goreby the same method they found the length of the isochronous
pendulum to be 3 ft.,
5
9
6 lin., with a difference of the lengths present of 2 lin. And in the
same year sailing to the islands of Guadeloupeand Martinique, the found the length of the
isochronous pendulum on these islands to be 3ft.,
1
2
6 lin.
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
After this Couplet the younger in the month of J uly of the year 1697, thus setting his
pendulum clock to the mean motion of the sun at the royal observatory in Paris, so that in
a long enough time the clock was in agreement with the motion of the sun. Then sailing to
Lisbon he found that late in the month of November the clock would go slower than
before, with a time difference of 2', 13" in 24 hours. And in the month of March following
sailing to Paraiba he found there his clock to go slower than in Paris, with a difference
present of 4', 12" in 24 hours. And it confirms that the pendulum swinging in one second
should be shorter in Lisbon by
1
2
2 lin. and in Paraiba by
2
3
3 lines than in Paris. He would
have corrected the differences better to be
5 1
3 9
1 and 2 . For these differences [of the
lengths] correspond to the differences of the times 2', 13", and 4', 12". There is less trust
in gross observations of this kind.
In the next years (1699 and 1700) des Hayes sailing again to America, determined that
on the islands of Cayenneand Granada the length of a pendulum swinging in a time of
one second, should be a little less than 3 ft.,
1
2
6 lin., and that on the island of St.
Christophers that length should be 3 ft.,
3
4
6 lin., and that on the island of St. Dominicathe
same should be 3 ft., 7 lin.
In the year 1704 Father Feuille found at Portobello in America that the length of a
pendulum oscillating in seconds was 3 Parisian ft., and only
7
12
5 lin, that is, almost a line
shorter than at Paris, but from an erring observation. For then sailing to the island of
Martinique, he found the length of the isochronous pendulum to be 3 Parisian ft., and
10
12
5
lin.
But the latitude of Paraibais 6
0
, 38' to the South, and that of Portobello 9
0
, 33' to the
North, and the latitudes of the islands of Cayenne, Gore, Guadeloupe, Martinique,
Granada, & St. Christophors [St. Kitts] and St. Dominicaare respectively 4
0
, 55', 14
0
,
40', 14
0
, 00', 14
0
, 44', 12
0
, 6', 17
0
, 19', and 19
0
, 48' to the North. And the excess of the
longitude of the Parisian pendulum over the lengths of the isochronous pendulums at
these latitudes are a little greater than for the table of lengths of pendulums calculated
above. And therefore the earth is a little higher at the equator than for the above
calculation, and denser at the centre than in the mines near the surface, except perhaps the
heat in the torrid zones may have increased the lengths of the pendulums a little.
Certainly Picart observed that iron rods, which in winter time were one foot in length
frozen solid, heated in the fire emerged one foot with the quarter of a line. Then de la
Hire observed that an iron rod which in the same manner in winter time was six foot long,
when it was exposed to the summer sun emerged six feet in length with the two thirds part
of a line. In the former case the heat was greater than in the latter case, truly in this latter
case it was greater than the heat of the external parts of the human body. For metals
become exceedingly hot in the summer sun. But the rod of a pendulum in the pendulum
clock at no time is accustomed to be exposed to the heat of the summer sun, nor at any
time to take in heat equal to the heat of the external surface of the human body. And
therefore the rod of the pendulum in the clock three feet in length, indeed will be a little
longer in summer time than in winter time, but scarcely by exceeding a quarter of a line.
Therefore the total difference of the lengths of the pendulums which are isochronous in
diverse regions, cannot be attributed to different amounts of heat. But nor is this
difference to be attributed to errors of the astronomers sent from France. For whatever of
rd
Ed.

Book III Section I.
their observations were not in perfect agreement among themselves, yet the errors are
small and thus may be ignored. [One may note that at this time the science of statistics
was virtually unknown.] And they all agree, that isochronous pendulums are shorter at the
equator than at the royal observatory in Paris, with a difference not less than
1
4
1 , not
greater than
2
3
2 . Through the observations made by Richer in Cayenne, the difference
was
1
4
1 . From these made by des Hayes that corrected difference produced
1
2
1 lines or
3
4
1 lines. From these measurements of others made with less accuracy the same result was
produced as around 2 lines. And this discrepancy was able to arise partially from errors in
observations, partially from the differences of the internal parts of the earth and the height
of mountains, and partially from the different heats [that we would now call temperatures]
in the air.
An iron rod three feet long, in winter time in England, is shorter than in summer time, I
believe, by the sixth part of a line. On account of the heat at the equator this quantity [
1
6
th
of a line] may be taken away from the difference of the lines
1
4
1 observed by Richer, and
1
12
1 line will remain which now agrees properly with that deduced before by theory
87
1000
1 .
Moreover the observations made by Richer in Cayenne, that he repeated in the individual
weeks through ten months, and the lengths of the pendulum in the iron rod noted with the
length of that similarly noted when he returned to France. Which diligence and caution
seems to be lacking in the observations of others. If it is required to put trust in the
observations of this, the earth is higher at the equator than at the poles in excess of around
17 miles as predicted by the above theory.

PROPOSITION XXI. THEOREM XVII.
The equinoctial points regress, and the axis of the earth by nutating in the individual
yearly revolution, inclines twice towards the ecliptic and twice to the first position.

It is apparent by Corol. 20. Prop. LXVI. Book I. But that motion of nutation must be
very small, and scarcely or not perceptible at all.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section II.
Translator's Introduction.

For an elementary understanding of lunar theory, if such a thing is possible, a good
place to start is the Wikipedia article of the same name, and related topics, followed
perhaps for a brief account of the history of lunar theory, by reading if available J . F.
Scott's note at the start of Vol. IV of Newton's Letters, and progressing to a text such as
Godfray : An Elementary Treatise on the Lunar Theory (1853), the Appendix of which
contains a nice non-technical summary of early developments, and then to the more
compendious volume of Brown (1895) of the same name, etc. The Lectures on the Lunar
Theory by J .C. Adams are also of interest, a little of which is quoted here below. All of
these except the Letters can be downloaded from the Open Library website. Most books
on classical mechanics including Whittaker, Synge & Griffith, do not mention the moon
at all (!), an indication of the difficulty of the task, although Goldstein's work is an
exception, and one can get some idea of the immense labour that individuals such as Hill
and Delauney put into this study, since Newton's time, before the dawn of the computer
age, whereby we may gain numerical prediction, but not necessarily physical
understanding. A modern and highly relevant mathematical commentary is found in
Chadrasekhar's delightful book, Newton's Principia for the common reader, Ch.13. In
addition, the lecture notes of Prof. Richard Fitzpatrick on Newton's Dynamics, Ch. 14 are
of special interest, where the problem is given a modern setting, and some of the
inequalities resolved to some extent. Newton used the moon as a template for his theory
of gravitation, in which endeavour he was highly successful, but he could not complete
the task : indeed, J ohn Couch Adams in the introduction to his lunar lectures, tells us that:
' Newton's Principia did not profess to be and was not intended to be a complete
exposition of the Lunar Theory. It was fragmentary; its object was to shew that the more
prominent irregularities admitted of explanation on his newly discovered theory of
universal gravitation. He explained the Variation completely, and traced its effect in
Radius Vector as well as in Longitude; and he also saw clearly that the change in
eccentricity and motion of the apse that constitute the Evection could be explained on his
principles, but he did not give the investigation in the Principia, even to the extent to
which he had actually carried it. The approximations are more difficult in this case than
that of the Variations, and require to be carried further in order to furnish results of the
same accuracy as had already been obtained by Horrox from observation. He was more
successful in dealing with the motion of the node and the law of the inclination. He
shewed that when the Sun and Node were in conjunction, then for nearly a month the
moon moved in a plane very approximately, and that the inclination of the orbit then
reached a maximum, namely, 5
0
17' about; but as the Sun moved away from the Node the
latter also began to move, attaining its greatest value when the separation was a quadrant,
and that at this instant, the inclination was 5
0
very nearly. He also assigned the law of
intermediate positions. The fact that the there was no motion when the Sun was at the
Node, that is, in the plane of the moon's orbit, confirmed his theory that these inequalities
were due to the Sun's action. When we spoke of Newton's results as being fragmentary
and incomplete, let it not be understood that he gave only a very rude approximation to
the truth. His results are far more accurate than those arrived at in elementary works of
present day on the subject (i.e. towards the end of the 19
th
Century).'
rd
Ed.

It seems appropriate to insert here some definitions of astronomical terms and to quote
relevant formulas for the various inequalities described by Newton. For this we follow
Chandrasakher mainly: the diagram and the lettering used is that of Newton.

Some Descriptive Terms

Celestial sphere : an imaginary spherical shell of very large radius concentric with the
earth and rotating with the earth, onto which all heavenly bodies are projected.
Plane of the ecliptic: the plane of the earth's orbit around the sun, which changes slowly in
time. Eclipses of the sun or moon can occur only in this plane, and hence the name.
Syzygy : when the sun S, the moon P (or a planet) & earth T lie on, or almost on, the same
straight line, whether in conjunction or opposition.
Quadrature : when the moon (or a superior planet) lies in the first or last quarter position
so that PT is perpendicular to ST.
Apogee: point in the moon's orbit furthest from the earth.
Perigee: point in the moon's orbit nearest to the earth.
Nodes : the two points were the moon's orbit cuts the plane of the earth's orbit or ecliptic,
one rising and the other falling.
Vernal equinox : a reference point on the earth's orbit, when the sun rises in the first point
of Aries, at which the tilt of the earth is at 90 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic, and the
sun is directly overhead at the equator.
Synodic month : the time for a complete orbit of the moon around the sun measured by a
line drawn from the earth to the sun. This is taken from a long time average to be
29.530589 days.
Main Phenomena
Evection (Ptolemy) : changes in the apparent size of the moon over monthly periods of
time, measured by its subtended angle.
Elliptic Inequality, or, Equation of the Centre (Tycho.): changes in the rate of motion of
the moon's centre or longitude as it rotates around the earth.
Variation (Tycho.): additional speeding up of the moon as it approaches full moon or new
moon, and slowing down as it approaches quadrature.
Annual Equation : Gradual expansion of the moon's orbit as the earth gets closer to the
sun at perihelion in J anuary, and contraction as it goes through aphelion in J uly, due to the
sun's perturbation.
Two effects that arise from the interaction with the sun are the precessions of the
perigee and of the nodes. The perigee precesses in the same sense as the moon rotates
about the earth, completing a complete cycle in 8.85 years, while the right ascending node
precesses in a retrograde manner, and completes a cycle in 18.6 years.

rd
Ed.

The following notes relate mainly to Prop. XXV and Prop. XXVI. Initially we assume the
moon's orbit is almost circular around the earth as centre, and lies in the plane of the
ecliptic.

1. The perturbing function TL
:
The standard unit of acceleration, being that experienced by the earth in the Sun's
gravity, is given by
2
S
GM
ST
, and
2
2
S
GM
ST
N ST = , where N is the angular frequency of the
earth about the sun; n is similarly defined as the mean angular frequency of the moon
around the earth : and
2
2
T
GM
PT
n PT k = = .
In the above diagram, we may note that SL
denotes the force of the sun on the moon at

P, while ST
denotes the force of the sun on the earth at T; from which we note that the
force TL
must be added to ST
to give SL
and hence in the position shown, TL
is the extra
perturbing force due to the sun acting on the moon, all else being equal; on the other side
of the quadrature line CD, the force acting on the moon is less by TL
than the force

acting on the earth; these forces thus distort the circular orbit of the moon. In the above
diagram, ST PT >> , and it will be shown later that in this case 2 KL PK , where K is the
average distance of the moon from the sun in its orbit round the earth, and the figure
PLMT is assumed to be a parallelogram. The extra force TL
can then be resolved into

components TE and LE parallel and perpendicular to TP : the component of the perturbing
force LE, or

3 3
2
3 3 3 2
PK TK PK
TP TP
F PK sin PT cos PT sin cos PT sin
= = = = =
acting perpendicular to the radius TP; while the original component PT TE + acts along
TP; or the parallel perturbing force
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1
2
2
2 2
3 3 1 3cos 1 3cos 1 1 3 2
PK PK
PT PT
TE F PK PT PT PT PT PT cos .

= = = = = = +

Note finally that these lengths are to be multiplied by N

2
to give absolute forces as above,
and the force
2
3
2
2 F N .PT sin
= , while
( )
1
2
2
1 3 2 F N .PT cos . = +

The perturbing forces (or accelerations towards the sun) acting at the syzygies, when
0 or = = are both parallel to the axis AB, and given by
( )
2
2
S
F syzy. N .r =
; in the
position A, the moon P is pulled by an acceleration greater by this amount then the earth,
rd
Ed.

while in the position B, in the above diagram, the force at B has the same value, but in
this case, the earth is now accelerated more than the moon, by the same amount.

The perturbing forces acting at the quadratures C and D are given by
3 1
2 2
or = = , when the forces along CD are now both
( )
2
Q
F quad. N .r =
.
2. The max. and min .centripetal acceleration:
The initial circular orbit satisfies
2
2
T
GM
PT
n PT = ; this centripetal force becomes at the
syzygies,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 1 2 2
T
S
GM
N
S S S S
r n
F F syzy. n N r n r n N r = = = =
,
where n is the corresponding angular frequency of the moon, assumed to rotate in a circle
about the earth as centre. At quadrature, the centripetal force becomes
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1
T
Q
GM
N
Q Q Q Q
r n
F F quad. n N r n r n N r = = + = + = +

Thus,
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 1
S S
F n N r n N AT x = = and
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
1
Q Q
F n N r n N AT x = + = + + ,
where x is the departure from the initial radius. These accelerations can also be written in
the form :
( )
( )
( )
( ) 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1
2 1 2 1 2
T
GM
k
S S S
x x PT
F n r N r m m

= = = and similarly,
( )
( )
( )
( ) 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1
1 1
T
GM
k
Q Q Q
x x PT
F n r N r m m
+ +
= + = + = + ; results established by
Chandrasekhar in his notation. Thus, the orbit is a prolate ellipse, and reverting to a
general point on the orbit, the value of the radius becomes ( ) 1 2 r AT xcos = .]
3. Variation of the areas swept out: Recall that
2
3
2
2 F N .PT sin
= , then the torque

exerted on the moon is given by
2 2
3
2
2
dH
dt
F .PT N .PT sin
= = , which we can equate

to a quantity proportional to the rate of change of the area swept out by the moon, relating
to Kepler's Second Law. For the moon in a circular orbit,
d
dt
n

= , where n is the average
time of the rotation of the moon for a synodic month, that is, following the phases of the
moon. Thus,
2
2 2 2
3 3
2 2
2 2
N
n
dH N .PT sin .dt .PT sin .d = = ; recall that is the
angle between the earth-moon and the earth-sun radii, and on these being referred to the
earth-moon ascending nodal angles of these radii, and v v' (or U) respectively, we have
( ) ( ) 1 1
v'
v
v v' v v m = = = , where
v'
v
can also be expressed by the ratio
N
n
m= ,
where N is the angular frequency of the earth around the sun, and n the synodic angular
frequency of the moon around the earth. Thus,
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3
2 2
2 2 1 3 2 1
dv
n
dH N .PT sin .dt m n .PT sin v m . m n.PT sin v m .dv = = =
this can be integrated to give :
2
2
3
41
constant 2
m n
m
H .PT cos .
= + To turn this into a

manageable form, recall that for an almost circular orbit, we have
rd
Ed.

2 2
av.
H nr nPT H = = = , and hence
( )
2 2
3
41
1 2
dv m
av.
dt m
H PT H cos .
= = + As m is very
small, in fact,
1000
178718
m , then the variation in the area between syzygies and quadrature
is given approximately by
2
2
3 3
41 4
2 2
3
3
4
41
1 1
11131
11023
1
1
m
syz .
m
m
quad .
m
H m
H
m
+ +
= = .
4. Finding the other quantities.
Since the radial velocity is very small, the velocity V of the moon in orbit can be
approximated by
2
t
V PT nPT
= = . Clearly this is related to the approximate rate at

which the area A is swept out
1
2
2
dA dv
dt dt
PT.PT PT n = = , and we have
( )
2
1 1 1
2 2 2
2
3
41
1 2
dA dv m
av.
dt dt m
H PT H cos
= = = + , while the velocity V is found from

( )
2
2
2
2
2
3
41
1 2
av.
H
m
m
PT
V cos
= + .
Thus at the syzygies and at quadrature, we have
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2
3
21
1
1
av.
H
m
S
m
x PT
V

+ and
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2
3
21
1
1
av.
H
m
Q
m
x PT
V

+
. Other quantities of interest can be found in the relevant
chapters of Chandrasekhar.
As was his custom, Newton gives word summaries only in this initial proposition, for
the quite extensive mathematical investigations that he had carried out in relation to the
various inequalities of lunar motion, which he sketches out briefly in subsequent
propositions, and which are treated here hopefully in more detail, with the help of
Chadrasekhar's and the work of others.

PROPOSITION XXII. THEOREM XVIII.
All lunar motions, and all the inequalities of motions, follow from the principles put in
place.

The major planets, while they are carried around the sun, meanwhile are able to have
other smaller planets conveyed revolving around them, and these smaller ones must
appear by Prop. LXV. Book I to revolve in ellipses having foci at the centres of the major
planets. But the motions of these are disturbed in various ways by the action of the sun,
and from these they will bring about the inequalities which are observed in our moon.
Certainly this is moving faster at the syzygies than at the quadratures (by Corol. 2, 3, 4,
& 5, id.), and with a radius drawn to the earth will describe a greater area in the time, and
have an orbit less curved, and thus may approach closer to the earth, unless perhaps it
may be prevented by an eccentric motion.
[Note that Newton's use of the term eccentricity referring to ellipses is not that of more
modern times; he meant presumably merely the curvature of the approximately elliptic
orbit at the point in question. The word of course has a long history in astronomy, dating
rd
Ed.

from Hipparcus, where it referred to eccentric circular orbits and the use of epicycles in
describing inequalities in the motion of the moon and planets.]
For the eccentricity is a maximum (by Corol. 9. id.) where the apogee of the moon is
situated at the syzygies, and the minimum where likewise it stands at the quadrature
positions ; and thence the moon is faster at the perigee and closer to us , but slower at the
apogee, and [in this case] further from us at the syzygies than when at the quadratures. In
addition the apogee progresses forwards, and the nodes go backwards, but in unequal
motions. And indeed the apogee is progressing faster at its syzygies, regressing slower at
its quadratures (per corol. 7. & 8, id.), and as a consequence it is carried forwards
annually by the excess of the progression over the regression. But the nodes (by Corol. 2,
id.) are at rest in their quadratures and regressing the most quickly at the syzygies.
[We have inserted the correction made by Chandrasekhar on p. 422; by transposing the
words quadratures and syzygies, thus correcting a mistake made in all three editions of the
Principia & in all the translations.]
And also the latitude of the moon is greater at its quadratures (by corol.10, id.) then in
its syzygies: and the mean motion is slower at the perihelion of the earth (by corol. 6. id.)
than at its aphelion. And these are the most significant inequalities observed by
astronomers. Also there are certain other inequalities not observed in earlier times by
astronomers, by which the lunar motions thus may be disturbed, so that they are unable to
be reduced by a law to some certain rule so far. For the velocities or the hourly motions of
the moon at the apogee and nodes, and the equations of the same, so that both the
difference between the maximum eccentricity at the syzygies and the minimum at the
quadratures, and which inequality is called the variation, may be increased or diminished
annually (by Corol. 14, id.) in the cubic ratio of the apparent diameter of the sun. And
therefore the variation is increased or diminished in the square ratio of the time between
the quadratures approximately (by Corol. 1 & 2, Lem. X. & Corol. 16, idem) but this
inequality is usually referred to in astronomical calculations as part of the lunar
prosthaphaeresis [i.e. the central equation of lunar theory], and combined with that.

PROPOSITION XXIII. PROBLEM V.
To derive the inequalities of the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn from lunar motions.

From the motions of our moon, the analogous motions of the moons or satellites of
J upiter thus may be derived. The mean motion of the nodes of the outermost of J upiter's
satellites [Callisto], is to the mean motion of the nodes of our moon, in a ratio composed
from the square ratio of the periodic time of the earth around the sun to the periodic time
of J upiter around the sun, and in the simple ratio of the periodic time of the satellite
around J upiter to the periodic time of the moon around the earth (by Corol. 16. Prop.
LXVI. Section XI. Book I.) and thus in 100 years the nodes are advanced by 8
gr
. 24'.
[Following Chandrasakher, we have
2
2 2
1669 1
2632
1186
J C E
E
E J
T T
.
T .
T .
= = ; from the known

average value for the moon,
0 0
=19286 per year, we have 8 . 22'
E C
. = for Callisto
for 100 years, in close agreement with what is observed.]

rd
Ed.

The mean motions of the nodes of the inner satellites are to the motion of this outer
satellite, as the periodic times of these inner satellites to the periodic time of this outer
satellite (by the same corollary) and thence are given. Moreover the motion of the apogee
of each satellite consequently is to the antecedent motion of its nodes [i.e. carried
backwards], as the motion of the apogees of our moon to the antecedent motion of its
nodes (by the same Corol.) and thence is given. Yet the motion of the perigees thus found
must be diminished in the ratio 5 to 9 or approximately as 1 to 2, by a reason that cannot
be explained here. The equations of the greatest nodes and of the apogee of each are
almost to the greatest equations and of the apogee of the moon respectively, as the motion
of the nodes and of the apogees of the satellites in the time of one revolution of the first
equations, to the motion of the nodes and of the lunar apogee in the time of one revolution
of the latter equations. The variation of the satellite seen from J upiter, is to the variation
of the moon, as in turn are the whole motion of the nodes in the times in which the
satellites and the moon are rotating around the sun, by the same corollary ; and thus in the
outer satellite does not exceed 5". 12"'.

PROPOSITION XXIV. THEOREM XIX.
The flow and ebb of the sea arise from the actions of the sun and the moon.

[We may note that for this proposition, Chandrasakher has produced an annotated version
on pp. 403411 of his work on the Principia, setting out where he agrees and where he
disagrees with what Newton has stated, from his modern knowledge concerning tides; the
3 hour rule introduced by Newton for the rising of the tide after the sun or moon has
passed its meridian is thus discarded, as are other rather vague assertions, while the main
body of the argument is retained.]
The sea must be raised up twice in each day both by the sun as well as by the moon,
and it is apparent by Corol. 19. & 20. Prop. LXVI. Book I, that the maximum height of
the water in deep and open seas, follows the influence of the luminous bodies at the
meridian of a place, in an interval of less than six hours, as occurs in the seas of the
Atlantic and of Ethiopia on being drawn eastwards between France and the Cape of Good
Hope, and as in the seas of the Pacific along the coasts of Chile and Peru : on all the
shores of which the tide comes in for around two, three or four hours, except where the
motion propagated from the ocean depths may be retarded by shallow places as much as
five, six, or seven hours or more. The number of hours I count from the influence of each
luminous body at the meridian of the place, both below the horizon as well as above, and
by the hours said of the moon I understand the twenty four parts of the time in which the
moon by its apparent daily motion is returned to the place of the meridian. The force of
the sun or of the moon required for the maximum elevation in the sea by the luminous
body itself is at the meridian of the location. But the force from that remains acting on the
sea for some time, and the influence may be increased by the new force, then the sea may
rise to a new height, which happens in a space of one of two hours but more often in a
space of around three hours on a shore, or even more if the sea shall be shallow.
The two motions, which the two luminous bodies excite, cannot be discerned
separately, as they bring about a certain mixed motion. In the conjunction or opposition of
the luminous bodies the effect of these will be added together, and the maximum flow and
rd
Ed.

ebb will be put in place. At the quadratures, the sun may raise the water where the moon
depresses it, or it may depress the water where the moon may raise it ; and from the
difference of the effects the smallest of all the tides may arise. And because, by
experience, it may be seen that the moon has a greater effect than the sun, the maximum
height of the water occurs around the third lunar hour. Outside the conjunctions and the
quadratures, the maximum tide which arises only from the force of the moon must always
be in the third hour of the moon, and by the sun alone in the third hour of the sun, with the
sum of the forces it is incident at some intermediate time that is close to the third hour of
the moon ; and thus in the transition of the moon from the syzygies to the quadratures,
where the third hour of the sun precedes the third hour of the moon, the maximum height
of the water will also precede the third hour of the moon, and that in a maximum interval
a little past the eight part of the lunar time ; and with equal intervals the maximum tide
will follow the third lunar hour in the transition of the moon from quadrature to
conjunction [or syzygies]. These are thus in the open sea. For at the estuaries of rivers the
greatest flow with all else being equal reach a peak later.
But the effect of the luminous bodies depends on their distances from the earth. Indeed
at the smallest distances the greater are the effects of these, at greater distances the lesser,
and that in the cubic ratio of the apparent diameters. Therefore the sun in winter time,
present at the perigee, produces a greater effect, and it comes about that the tide at the
syzygies shall be greater, and at the quadratures less (with all else being equal) than in the
summer time ; and the moon in perigee in individual months will disturb the tide more
than before or after the fifteenth day, when it is moving into apogee [i.e. the half-cycle of
the moon's orbit nearest the perigee ]. From which two causes it happens that at
successive syzygies the tides may not follow
each other entirely as two high tides.
Also the effect of each luminous body
depends on the declination of that, or the
distance from the equator. For if a luminous
body may be put in place at a pole, that may
attract the individual parts of the water
constantly, without an increase or decrease in
the action, and thus it will generate no
reciprocation of the motion. Therefore the
luminaries by receding from the equator towards the pole, gradually lose their effect, and
therefore they will raise smaller tides in the solstical syzygies than in the equinoxal
syzygies. But they will raise greater tides in the solstical quadratures than in the equinoxal
quadratures ; because now there the effect of the moon situated at the equator certainly
exceeds the effect of the sun. Therefore the maximum tides arise in the syzygies and the
minima at the quadratures of the luminaries, around the equinoxal times of each. And the
maximum tide in the syzygies is always accompanied by the minimum in the quadrature,
as is known from experience. But during the minimum distance of the sun from the earth,
as in winter rather than in summer, it arises that the maximum and minimum tides often
precede rather than follow the vernal equinox, and often follow rather than precede the
autumnal equinox.
rd
Ed.

Also the effects of the luminous bodies depends on the latitude of the places. The
figure ApEP designates the earth completely overwhelmed with deep water ; C is centre;
P, p the poles; AE the equator ; F some place above the equator; Ff parallel to the place ;
Dd parallel to that corresponding to the other side of the equator; L the place that the
moon will occupy three hours before ; H the place on the earth directly under that ; h the
place opposite to this; K, k places thus at 90 degrees distance; CH, Ch the maximum
heights of the sea measured from the centre of the earth ; and CK, Ck the minimum
heights : and if with the axes Hh, Kk an ellipse is described, then by revolving about the
major axis of this ellipse Hh the spheroid HPKhpk may be described; this will designate
the figure of the sea approximately, and CF, Cf, CD, Cd will be the heights of the sea at
the places F, f, D, d. Truly indeed if in the aforemade ellipse by revolving some point N it
may describe the circle NM, cutting the parallel Ff, Dd at some points R, T, and the
equator AE in S; CN will be the height of the sea at all the places R, S, T, situated on this
circle. Hence in the daily revolution of some place F, the influx will be a maximum at F,
three hours after the influence of the moon at the meridian above the horizon ; later the
maximum outflow will be at Q three hours after the setting of the moon; then the
maximum influx will be at f three hours after the influence of the moon at the meridian
below the horizon ; the final maximum outflow will be at Q three hours after the rising of
the moon ; and the last influx at f will be less than the first influx at F. For the whole sea
may be separated into two completely hemispherical seas, one in the hemisphere KHk
inclined to the north, the other towards the south in the opposite hemisphere Khk; which
can be called the northern and southern floods. These seas always come in turn at the
meridians of individual places mutually opposed to each other, between lunar intervals of
twelve hours. And since the northern regions partake more in the northern seas, and the
southern regions in the southern seas, thence the tides arise alternately greater and lesser,
in the individual places beyond the equator, in which the luminous bodies rise and set. But
the greater tide, with the moon declined at the vertical of the place, will happen at around
three hours after the influence of the moon at the meridian above the horizon, and with the
declination of the moon changed it becomes the lesser tide. And the greatest difference of
the maximum flux arises at the time of the solstices ; especially if the ascending node of
the moon is passing through the principle point of Aries. Thus it is found from experience,
that in winter time the morning tide surpasses the evening tide, and in summer the
evening tide surpasses the morning tide, indeed at Plymouth by a height of as much as one
foot, at Bristol truly by a height of fifteen inches : from the observations of Colepress and
Sturmy.
But the motions described up to this point are changed a little by that returning force of
the waters, by which the tides of the sea, even with the cessation of the luminous bodies,
may persevere for some time. This persistence of the impressed motion diminishes the
difference of the alternate tides ; and the tide just after the syzygies is returned the most,
and that diminished the most just after the quadratures. From which it shall be that the
alternate tides at Plymouth and Bristol shall not be more different in turn than one foot or
fifteen inches ; and so that the maxima of all the tides in the same ports shall not be the
first from the syzygies, but the third. Also all the motions are retarded by passing through
channels, thus so that the maximum of all the tides, in certain straits and estuaries of
rivers, shall be even as the fourth or fifth day after the syzygies.
rd
Ed.

Again it can come about that the tide will be propagated from the ocean through
different channels to the same port, and it may pass faster by one channel than by another
: in which case the same tide, divided into two or more arriving successively, may consist
of new motions of different kinds. We may consider two equal tides to arrive at the same
port from different locations, the foremost of which precedes the other by a space of six
hours, and may happen in the third hour after the influence of the moon at the meridian of
the port. If the moon were turning at the equator, then by its own influence, equal flows
would arrive every six hours, which being equal to the mutual reflux the same flows shall
be equal, and thus in the space of that day the tides will effect that the still water remain at
rest. If the moon then should decline from the equator, major and minor tides in turn are
produced in the ocean, as has been said ; and then two major and two minor inflows are
propagated in turn to this port. But the two major influxes compound the water to the
highest level in the middle between each, the major and the minor influx act so that the
water rises to the average height in the middle of these, and between the two minor
influxes the water ascends to the minimum height in the middle of these. Thus in the
space of twenty four hours, the water is accustomed to arrive not twice, but only once at
the maximum height and once at the minimum ; and the maximum height, if the moon
declines towards the pole above the horizon of the place, falls either in six or thirty hours
after the influence of the moon at the meridian, and by changing the lunar declination it
will become a deflux [i.e. an ebb-tide]. An example of all of which has been revealed
from the observations of Halley's sailors at the port of Batsham in the kingdom of
Tunquin, at the northern latitude of 20
0
. 50'.
[This channel is now the Qiongzhou Strait, a region where unusual tides are found,
separating the island of Hainan from the P.R. of China, and connecting the South China
Sea to the Gulf of Beibu.]
There during the day following the transit of the moon through the equator, the water
remains unmoved, then with the moon declining to the north the tides begins to flow and
ebb, not twice, as in other ports, but only once in individual days ; and the tide rises on the
setting of the moon, the maximum deflux on the moon rising. Here the tides increase with
the declination of the moon, as far as the seventh or eighth day, then through another
seven days falling by the same amounts, by which before it had risen ; and finally stops
changing with the lunar declination [again passing through the equator], and soon it
changes into deflux. For indeed at once the deflux starts at the setting of the moon, and
the influx at its rising, then again it changes with the declination of the moon [until the
whole process repeats itself].
The approach to this port is apparent from two narrow channels, the one from the
Chinese Sea between the continent and the island of Leuconia [Hainan Island], the other
from the Indian Sea between the continent and the island of Borneo. But the tide in the
space of twelve hours arrives from the Indian Sea, and in the space of six hours from the
Chinese Sea arrives through that narrow channel, and thus arising in the third and ninth
hours of the moon, motions of this kind add together ; lest there shall be a condition
imposed by other seas, I leave that determination from the observations of neighbouring
shores. [For an early paper, see Whewell. Phil. Trans. 1833, p. 224.]
Up to this point I have given an account of the motions of the moon and of the seas.
Now it is fitting to add a little on the quantity of the motions.
rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XXV. PROBLEM VI.
To find the forces of the sun perturbing the motion of the moon.

Let S designate the sun, T the earth, P the moon, and CADB the orbit of the moon.
On SP there is taken SK equal to ST [i.e. the mean Sun-Earth distance]; and let SL to SK
be in the square ratio SK to SP,
[i.e. the forces and SL SK

vary inversely with the distance from the sun :
2
2
SL
SK
SP SK
=
;]
and LM is acting parallel to PT itself ;
[i.e. resolve LS
into components so that LS LM MS = +

; ]
and if the gravitational acceleration of the earth on the sun may be put in place by the
distance ST or SK, SL will be the gravitational acceleration of the moon on the sun.
[Note that due to the inverse square law, the line SL is hence longer than the line ST,
while the forces of attraction on the moon and the earth due to the sun act along SL and
ST, while the ratio of the accelerations of these is
2
2
SP
ST
SL ST
=
.]
This is composed from the parts SM and LM,
[on re-arranging the above forces per unit mass : SL LM SM = +

]
of which LM and the part TM of SM perturb the motion of the moon ; as established in
Book I, Prop. LXVI., and in its corollaries.
[Thus, the earth and the moon form a sub-system, falling with almost the same centripetal
acceleration a
TS
towards the sun, while extra accelerations exist between these two bodies,
so that
LS LT TS
a a a = +

, where
LT LM MT
a a a = +

]
Certainly the earth and the moon are revolving about a common centre of gravity, also the
motion of the earth will be perturbed around that centre by similar forces [by the third law
of motion] ; moreover both the sums of the forces as well as of the motions as referred to
the moon [instead of the earth], and the sums of the forces designated by the analogous
lines TM and ML themselves. The force ML in its mean magnitude is the centripetal force,
by which the moon may rotate at a distance PT in its orbit around the earth at rest,
[i.e. with the sun's perturbation acting independently in the quadrature position, or
0
MT
a
=
;
or (according to a note of L. & J. on p. 2 of vol. IV) : on account of the great distance of
rd
Ed.

the sun from the earth, the figure PTML is a parallelogram, and thus ML is approximately
equal to PT, and hence the force ML will be to the force by which the sun acts at the point
T, as PT to SK or ST, but any central forces are between themselves as the radii of the
circles which are described by these, and inversely as the square of the periodic times of
these, and hence this force by which the sun acts at the point T is to the force by which the
moon is retained in its orbit (supposing that to rotate about the earth at rest) as PT
directly, and as the square of the periodic time of the moon around the earth to the square
of the periodic time of the earth around the sun; hence from the composition of the ratios,
the force ML is to the force holding the moon in its orbit, as the square of the periodic
time of the moon to the square of the periodic time of the earth around the sun; that is, in
the square ratio of ..... ],
as the square ratio of the periodic times of the moon around the earth and of the earth
around the sun (by Corol. 17. Prop. LXVI. Book I.) that is, in the square ratio of 27days, 7
hours, and 43 minutes to 365 days, 6 hours and 9 minutes, that is, as 1000 to 178725, or 1
to
29
40
178 .
[i.e. recall that
( )
2 PT
PT T
ST t
ST

, where ST ST =
has a scaling factor of 1 in the diagram,

but other lengths such as PT have to be scaled as shown to become forces ; we can write
this ratio of the centripetal forces in modern terms as
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
1000
178725
PT
t
ST
T
F
PT
PT
ST
F
ST
= =
.]

But we have found in Proposition IV that, if the earth and the moon may be revolving
about a common centre of gravity, the mean distance between these will be in turn as
1
2
60
mean earth radii approximately. And the force by which the moon can rotate around the
earth at rest, to the distance PT of
1
2
60 earth radii, is to the force, by which it can revolve
in the same time at a distance of 60 radii, as
1
2
60 to 60; and this force to the force of
gravity with us on the earth as 1 to 60 60 approximately. And thus the average force ML
compared to the force of gravity on the earth is as
29 1
2 40
1 60 to 60 60 60 178 , or 1 to
638092,6. [i.e. the acceleration ML at the moon's orbit can be taken as
6380926
g
,
.] Thence
truly, and from the known proportion of the lines TM, ML, the force TM is also given :
and these are the sun's forces disturbing the motion of the moon. Q.E.I.

rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XXVI. PROBLEM VII.
To find the hourly increment to the area that the moon will describe in a circular orbit, by
a radius drawn to the earth.

We have said the area that will be described by a radius drawn from the moon to the
earth, to be proportional to the time, unless perhaps the motion of the moon may be
disturbed by the action of the sun. Here we propose to investigate the inequality of the
moments, or of the hourly increments. In order that the computation may be carried out
more easily, we may consider the orbit of the moon to be circular, and we may neglect all
the inequalities, with the sun excepted, by which this orbit is disturbed. On account of the
truly huge distance of the sun, we may also consider the lines SP, ST to be parallel to
each other. With this agreed on, the force LM will always be reduced to its average value
TP, and so that the force TM is reduced to its average value 3PK.

[For the distance ST, with the sun S imagined very far to the left in the diagram, is on
average given by the distances SP PK + , and SL is given by SP PL + ; while the
magnitudes of the forces and SP SL

vary inversely as their associated distances squared
as above :
2
2
SL
SK
SP SK
=
or
3 3
2 2
SK ST
SP SP
SL = = . Hence if we consider the constant distance ST to
be given by ST SP PK = + , then
( )
( ) ( )
3 3 2 2 2 2 2
2 ST SP ST SP ST ST.SP SP PK SP .SP.PK PK ST.SP SP = + + = + + + +
( )
2 2 3 2 3 2 2
3 2 SP .PK .SP.PK PK LS.SP SP SP LS SP SP .PL + + = = = ; or, on
dividing,
( )
2
2
2
3
3
3 1
.PK PK
.SP
SP
PL PK + + ; then, since PK is much less than SP, we
have 3 PL PK , as was required to be shown.]

These forces (by Corol. 2 of the laws ) make the force TL; and this force, if the
perpendicular LE may be sent to the radius TP, is resolved into the forces TE, EL, of
which TE, by always acting along the radius TP, neither accelerates nor retards the
description of the area TPC made by that radius TP ; and EL by acting along the
perpendicular, does accelerate or retard the area described, at the same times as it
rd
Ed.

accelerates or retards the moon. That acceleration of the moon, in the transition of that
from the quadrature C to the conjunction A, made in individual moments of time, is as the
accelerating force EL, that is, as
3PK TK
TP
. [i.e., from the similar triangles PEL and PKT.]

The time may be established from the mean motion of the moon, or (because it returns
almost the same thing) by the angle CTP, or also by the arc CP.
[L. & J. note 110 a : Thus, the perturbation produced by the sun is extremely small, and
thus the arc or angle may be taken in proportion to the time.] The normal CG may be
erected equal to CT. And with the arc of the quadrant AC divided into innumerable equal
parts Pp, &c. by which just as many equal parts of the time shall be put in place, and by
drawing pk perpendicular to CT, TG may be crossed by KP and kP produced to F and f ;
and FK will be equal to TK, and =
Pp
Kk
PK Tp
, that is, in a given ratio
[L. & J. note 110 b : this proportion follows from a
most noteworthy property of the circle, for if from the
point p the line increment pq may be drawn normal to
PK, that will be parallel and equal to the line Kk, and
the differential triangle Ppq will be formed similar to
the triangle PKT, for since the angles pPK and KPT
together make a right angle, and equally the angles KPT
and PTK, the angles pPK and PTK are equal, from
which =
Pp
Kk
PK Tp
.],
and thusFK Kk or the area FKkf, will be as [the applied tangential force]
3PK TK
TP
, that
is, as EL; and by adding the increments, the whole area GCKF will beas the sum of all
the forces EL impressed on the moon in the total time CP, and thus also as the velocity
generated by this sum, that is, as the acceleration of the described area CTP, or the
increment of the moment.
The force by which the moon can revolve about the earth at rest at the distance TP, in
its periodic time CADB of 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes, effects that a body, by
falling in the time CT, describes the distance
1
2
CT , and likewise it acquires a velocity
equal to the velocity, by which the moon is moving in its orbit, which is apparent by
Corol. 9. Prop. IV, Book I. But since the perpendicular Kd sent to TP shall be the third
part of EL, and the half of TP itself or of ML at the octant, the force EL at the octant ,
where it is a maximum, will exceed the force ML in the ratio 3 to 2, and thus it will be to
that force, by which the moon will be able to revolve about the quiescent earth in its
periodic time, as 100 to
2 1
3 2
17872 or to 11915, and in the time [corresponding to] CT it
must be able to generate a velocity which will be the
100
22915
part of the lunar velocity, but in
the time CPA it will generate a greater velocity in the ratio CA to CT or TP. The
maximum force EL in the octant may be established by the area FK Kk equal to the
rectangular area
1
2
TP Pp . And the velocity, that the maximum force can generate in
some time CP, will be to that velocity that all the smaller forces EL can generate in the
same time, as the rectangle
1
2
TP CP to the area KCGF : but in the total time CPA, the
velocities arising will be in turn as the rectangle
1
2
TP CA and the triangle TCG, or as the
arc of the quadrant CA and the radius TP. And thus (by Prop. IX, Book V, Euclid's
rd
Ed.

Elements.) the latter velocity, generated in the total time, will be the
100
22915
part, of the
moon's velocity. To this velocity of the moon, which is analogous to the average moment
[i.e. increment] of the area, there may be added and taken away half the other velocity ;
and if the average moment may be expressed by the number 11915, the sum 11915+50 or
11965 will show the maximum moment of the area at the syzygies A, and the difference
11915 50 or 11865 the minimum moment of the same at quadrature. Therefore the areas
described in equal times at the syzygies and quadratures, are in turn as 11965 to 11865.
To the minimum moment 11865 there may be added the moment, which shall be to the
difference of the moments 100 as the trapezium FKCG to the triangle TCG (or which is
the same thing, as the square of the sine PK to the square of the radius TP, that is, as Pd to
TP), and the sum will show the moment of the area, when the moon is at some
intermediate place P. Thus all these may themselves be had, from the hypothesis that the
sun and the earth are at rest, and the moon is revolving in the synodic time of 27 days, 7
hours, and 43 min. But since the synodic period of the moon shall truly be 29 days, 12
hours and 44 min., the increments of the moments must be increased in the ratio of the
times, that is, in the ratio 1080853 to1000000. With this agreed upon, the total increment,
that was the
100
11915
part of the average moment, now will become the
100
11023
part of this. And
thus the moment of the area of the moon at the quadrature will be to the moment of this at
the syzygies as 1102350 to 11023+50, or as 10973 to 11073; and to the moment of this,
when the moon is moving through some intermediate place P, as 10973 to 10973+Pd,
clearly with TP arising equal to 100. [See Chandrasakher, p. 239 onwards for a modern
interpretation of the perturbing function (a) and the variation of the 'constant of areas' (c)]
Therefore the area, that the moon will describe with the radius drawn to the earth in
individual instants of time, is as an approximation as the sum of the numbers 219,46 and
the versed sine of double the distance of the moon from the nearest quadrature, in the
circle the radius of which is one. Thus these themselves are found when the variation at
the octant is of average magnitude. But if the variation there shall be greater or less, that
versed sine has to be increased or diminished in the same ratio.

PROPOSITION XXVII. PROBLEM VIII.

From the hourly motion, to find the distance of the moon from the earth.

The area, that will be described by a radius drawn from the moon to the earth in
individual instants of time, is as the hourly motion of the moon and the square of the
distance of the moon from the earth jointly ; and therefore the distance of the moon from
the earth is in a ratio composed from the square root of the area directly, and inversely as
the ratio of the square root of the hourly motion. Q.E.D.

Corol. 1. Hence the apparent diameter of the moon is given: which certainly shall be
inversely as its distance from the earth. Astronomers can test whether this rule agrees
correctly with the phenomena.

Corol. 2. Hence also it is possible for the orbit of the moon to be defined more
accurately than before from these phenomena.
rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XXVIII. PROBLEM IX.
To find the diameters of the orbit in which the moon can move without eccentricity.

[Here initially we give a modern view on solving this problem, following from the results
expressed in Prop. XXVI :
( )
2
3
41
1 2
m
av.
m
H H cos .
= +

]
The curvature of the trajectory that will be described by a moving body, if it may be
drawn along the perpendicular of that trajectory, is as the attraction directly and inversely
as the square of the velocity. I consider the curvatures of
lines to be between the final ratio of the sine or tangent
of the angle of contact pertaining to equal radii, when
these radii are reduced indefinitely. But the attraction of
the moon towards the earth at the syzygies is the excess
of its gravity 2PK over the force of the sun (see fig.
Prop.25.), by which the gravitating acceleration of the
moon towards the sun exceeds the gravitating
acceleration of the earth towards the sun, or may be
increased by that amount. But in quadrature that
attraction is the sum of the gravities of the moon towards
the earth and of the force of the sun KT, by which the
moon is drawn towards the earth. And these attractions,
if
2
AT CT +
is called N [the average radius], shall be as
2 2
178725 2000 178725 1000
and +
CT N AT N
AT CT

approximately; or as
2 2 2 2
178725 2000 and 178725 1000 N CT AT CT N AT CT AT + .

For if the accelerative gravity of the moon towards the earth may be expressed by the
number 178725, then the average force ML, which is PT or TK in quadrature, and is
drawn towards the earth, will be 1000, then the average force TM in syzygies will be
3000; from which, if the average force ML may be removed there will remain 2000 by
which the moon is drawn from the earth, formerly called 2PK. But the velocity of the
moon in syzygies A and B is to its velocity in the quadratures C and D, as CT to AT and
the moment of the area which the radius drawn from the moon to the earth will describe at
the syzygies to the same moments conjointly, i.e. as 11073 CT to 10973 AT. This inverse
ratio is taken squared and the first ratio taken once directly, and the curvatures of the orbit
of the moon in syzygies to the same curvature in quadrature becomes as

2 2 4
120406729 178725 120406729 2000 AT CT N AT CT
to

2 2 4
122611329 1178725 122611329 l000 AT CT N CT AT + ,
rd
Ed.

i.e. as

3 3
2151969 24081 to 2191371 N 12261 AT CT N AT AT CT CT . +

Because the figure of the moon's orbit is unknown, we may assume this in turn to be
the ellipse DBCA, in the centre of which the earth T may be located, and the major axis of
which is between the quadratures DC, and the minor axis
AB may be placed between the syzygies . But since the
plane of this ellipse is revolving in an angular motion
about the earth, and the we may consider the curved
trajectory of this that is completely free from any angular
motion: the figure will be required to be considered,
which the moon will describe in that ellipse by revolving
in that plane, that is the figure Cpa, the individual points
p of which may be found by taking some point P on the
ellipse, that may represent the position of the moon, and
by drawing Tp equal to TP, from that law that the angle
PTp shall be equal to the apparent motion of the sun
completed from the time of the quadrature C ; or (what
returns almost the same) that the angle CTp shall be to
the angle CTP as the synodic time of revolution of the
moon to the periodic time of revolution or 29
d
. 12
h
. 43', to 27
d
. 7
h
. 43' .
Therefore the angle CTa may be taken in the same ratio to the right angle CTA, and the
longitude Ta shall be equal to the longitude TA; and a will be the inner apse and C the
outer apse of this orbit Cpa. Because I find from the required ratio to be entered, that the
difference between the curvature of the orbit Cpa at the vertex a, and the curvature of the
circle described with centre T and with the radius TA, shall be to the difference between
the curvature of the ellipse at the vertex A and the curvature of the same circle, in the
square ratio of the angle CTP to the angle CTp; and because the curvature of the ellipse at
A shall be to the curvature of that circle, in the square ratio TA to TC; and the curvature of
that circle to the curvature of the circle with centre T described with radius TC, as TC to
TA ; but the curvature of this to the ellipse curvature at C, in the square ratio TA to TC;
and the difference between the ellipse curvature at the vertex C and the newest curvature
of the circle , to the difference between the curvature of the figure Tpa at the vertex C and
the same curvature of the circle, in the square ratio of the angle CTp to the angle CTP.
Which ratios indeed are easily deduced from the sines of the angle of contact and the
difference of the angles. But with these deduced between themselves, the curvature of the
figure Cpa at a to the curvature of this at C can be produced, as
16824 16824
200000 200000
3 2 3 2
to AT CT AT CT AT CT + + . Where the number
16824
200000
may designate
the difference of the squares of the angle CTP and CTp applied to the square of the
smaller angle CTP, or (which amounts to the same) the difference of the squares of the
times 27
d
. 7
h
. 43', and 29
d
. 12
h
. 44' 1.9, applied to the square of the time 27
d
. 7
h
. 43'.
Therefore since a may designate the syzygies of the moon, and C the quadrature of
this, the proportion now found must be the same as the proportion of the curvature of the
rd
Ed.

orbit of the moon in syzygies to the same curvature at quadrature, as we have found
above. Hence so that the proportion CT to AT may be found, I multiply the extremes and
means between themselves. And the terms arising to the applied term AT CT , becomes

4 3 2
2 3 2 3 4
206279 215I969 368676
36342 362047 2191371 40514 0
, CT N CT N AT CT
AT CT N AT CT N AT , AT .
+
+ + + =

Here for the half sum of the terms AT and CT , N I write 1, and by putting x for the semi
difference of the same, there shall be 1 and 1 CT x, AT x = + = : with which written into
the equation, and with the equation produced resolved, there will be obtained x equal to
0,00719, and thence the radius CT shall be 1,00719, and the radius AT 0,99281, which
numbers are approximately as
1 1
24 24
70 and 69 . Therefore the distance of the moon from
the earth at syzygies is to the distance of this in quadrature as 69 to 70 (clearly with the
consideration of the eccentricity disregarded), or with rounded numbers as 69 to 70.

PROPOSITION XXIX. PROBLEM X.
To find the variation of the moon.

This inequality arises partially from the elliptic form of the lunar orbit, partially from
the inequality of the moments of the area, that the moon describes by the radius drawn to
the earth. If the moon P is moving in the ellipse DBCA around the earth at rest at the
centre of the ellipse, and with the radius TP drawn to the
earth describing an area CTP proportional to the time ;
moreover the maximum radius CT of the ellipse shall be
to the minimum radius TA as 70 to 69: the tangent of the
angle CTP to the tangent of the mean motion at the
quadrature C shall be computed, as the radius of the
ellipse TA to the same radius TC or as 69 to 70. But the
description of the area CTP, in the progression of the
moon from quadrature to syzygies, to be accelerated in
that ratio, so that the moment of this in the syzygies of
the moon shall be to the moment of this in quadrature as
1073 to 10973, and so that the excess of the moment at
some intermediate place P over the moment in
quadrature shall be as the square of the sine of the angle
CTP. As that comes about well enough, if the tangent of
the angle CTP may be diminished in the square root ration of the number 10973 to the
number 11073, that is, in the ratio of the number 68,6877 to the number 69, and with
which agreed on, the tangent of the angle CTP now will be to the tangent of the mean
motion as 68,6877 to 70, and the angle CTP in the octants, where the mean motion is 45
0
,
will be 44
0
. 27'. 28", which taken from the angle of the mean motion 45
0
leaves the
maximum variation 32' .32". These thus themselves are found if the moon, by going from
the quadrature to the syzygy, may describe an angle CTA of almost 90
0
. Truly on account
rd
Ed.

of the motion of the earth, by which the sun as a consequence by moving, has been
apparently carried across, the moon, before it overtakes the sun, will describe the angle
CTA greater than a right angle in the ratio of the synodic time of revolution of the moon to
the periodic time of revolution, that is, in the ratio 29
d
. 12
h
. 44' to 27
d
. 7
h
. 43'. And with
this agreed on, all the angle about the centre T may be enlarged in the same ratio, and the
maximum variation which otherwise shall be 32'. 32", now increased in the same ratio
shall be 35'. 10''.
This is its magnitude at the average distance of the sun from the earth, with the
differences ignored which may arise from the curvature of the great orbit [of the earth]
and from the greater attraction of the sun on the sickle-shaped moon at the new moon
rather than at the gibbous and full moon [phases]. At the other distances of the sun from
the earth, the maximum variation is in a ratio that is composed from the square of the ratio
of the synodic time of the moon (at a given time of the year) directly, and in the inverse
cubic ratio of the distance from the sun. And thus at the apogee of the sun, the maximum
variation is 33'. 14", and at its perigee 37'.11", but only if the eccentricity of the sun shall
be to the transverse radius of the great orbit as
15
16
16 to 1000.
Up to the present we have investigated the variation in an orbit without eccentricity, in
which the moon certainly in its octants is always at its average distance from the earth. If
the moon because of its eccentricity, may be more or less distant from the earth than if
located in this orbit, the variation can be a little more or a little less than produced here by
this rule : but I leave the excess or deficiency requiring to be determined through the
phenomena being observed by astronomers.

PROPOSITION XXX. PROBLEM XI.
To find the hourly motion of the moon's nodes in a circular orbit.
[The Latin word horarius means 'related to the hours or seasons' or perhaps 'scheduled', as
applied to a timetable.]
Let S represent the sun, T the earth, P the moon, NPn the orbit of the moon, NPn the
projection [lit. footprint] of the orbit in the plane of the ecliptic; N, n the nodes, nTNm the
nodal line produced indefinitely ; PI, PK the perpendiculars sent to the lines ST, Qq; Pp
the perpendicular sent to the plane of the ecliptic; A, B the syzygies of the moon in the
plane of the ecliptic ; AZ the perpendicular sent to the nodal line Nn; Q, q the quadratures
rd
Ed.

of the moon in the plane of the ecliptic, & pK meeting the perpendicular to the line of Qq.
The force of the sun perturbing the motion of the moon is twofold (by Prop. XXV.), the
one proportional to the line LM in the diagram of that proposition, the other proportional
to the line MT. And the moon is attracted to the earth by the first force, by the latter
towards the sun along a right line drawn parallel to ST from the earth to the sun. The first
force LM acts along the plane of the lunar orbit, and therefore changes nothing in the
situation of the plane. This force therefore can be ignored. The latter force MT by which
the plane of the orbit of the moon may be perturbed, may be expressed by the force 3PK
or 3IT. And this force (by Prop. XXV.) is to the force by which the moon may be
revolving uniformly almost in a circle in its periodic time about the earth at rest, as 31T to
the radius of the circle multiplied by the number178,725, or as IT to the radius multiplied
by 59,575. For what remains in this calculation, and from that which follows generally, I
consider all the lines drawn from the moon to the sun as parallel to the line which is
drawn from the earth to the sun, therefore so that by diminishing all the effect in some
cases almost as much as it may be increased in others ; and we seek the mean motion of
the nodes, with minute details of this kind ignored, which may exceedingly impair the
calculation.
Now let PM designate the arc, that the moon will describe in a given time taken as
minimal, and ML the small line the half of which the moon, with the before mentioned
force 3IT impressed, may describe in the same time. PL and MP may be joined, and these
may be produced to m and l, where they cut the plane of the ecliptic ; and the
perpendicular PH may be sent to Tm. And because the right line ML is parallel to the
plane of the ecliptic, and thus which cannot cross with the right line ml lying in that plane,
and yet these lines lie in the common plane LMPml ; these right lines will be parallel and
therefore the triangles LMP and lmP are similar. Now since MPm shall be in the plane of
the orbit, in which the moon will be moving at the place P, it meets the line Nn drawn
through the nodes N, n of this orbit at the point m. And because the force by which half of
the line LM is generated, if likewise the whole force were impressed once at the place P,
it would generate that whole line ; and puts into effect that the moon should move in an
arc, of which the chord must be LP, and thus it should carry the moon from the plane
MPmT into the plane LPIT; the motion of the angle of the nodes generated by that force,
will be equal to the angle mTl. But ml is to mP as ML to MP, and thus since MP shall be
given on account of the time given, mt is as the rectangle ML mP , that is, as the
rectangle IT mP . And the angle mTl, but only if the angle Tml shall be right, is as
ml
Tm
,
and therefore as
IT Pm
Tm
, that is (on account of the proportionals Tm and mP, TP and PH)

as
IT PH
TP
, and thus on account of TP given, as IT PH . Because if the angle Tml, or

STN shall be oblique, the angle mTl now becomes less, in the ratio of the sine of the angle
STN to the radius, or AZ to AT. Therefore the velocity of the nodes is as IT PH AZ , or
as contained by the product of the sines of the three angles TP1, PTN and STN.
If these angles may be right, with the nodes in quadrature and with the moon present in
syzygies, then the small line ml will go off to infinity, and the angle mTl will emerge
equal to the angle mPl . But in this case, the angle mPl is to the angle PTM, that the moon
will describe in the same time by its apparent motion around the earth, as 1 to 59,575. For
the angle mPl is equal to the angle LPM, that is, to the angle of deflection of the moon
rd
Ed.

from a straight course, that only the aforementioned force of the sun 3IT, may generate in
a given time, if the gravity of the moon should cease ; and the angle PTM is equal to the
angle of deflection of the moon from a straight line course, by that force, by which the
moon may be retained in its orbit, that could be generated in the same time, if the force
31T of the sun should then cease. And these forces, as we have said above, are in turn as
1 to 59,515. Therefore since the mean hourly motion of the moon with respect to the fixed
stars shall be
1
2
iv
32 56 27 12 ' . " . ''' . , the hourly motion of the node in this case will be
iv v
33 10 33 12 '' . '" . . . Moreover in other cases this hourly motion will be to
iv v
33 10 33 12 '' . '" . . as the multiple of the three sines of the angles TPI, PTN, and STN (or
of the distances of the moon from quadrature, of the moon from the node, and of the node
from the sun) to the cube of the radius. And just as often as the sign of some angle
changes from positive to negative, or from that in which a negative will be changed into a
positive, the motion of regression is changed into progression, and progression is changed
into regression. From which it shall arise that the nodes shall be progressing as often as
the moon shall be moving between one quadrature and the node of the nearest quadrature.
In other cases it will be regressing, and by the excess of the regression over the
progression are carried forwards each month in advance.

Corol.1. Hence if from a given minimal arc PM with the ends P and M there may be
sent the perpendiculars PK, M k to the line Qq joining the quadratures, and the same may
be produced cutting the nodal line Nn at D and d; the hourly motion of the nodes will be
as the area MPDd and the square of the line AZ jointly. For indeed PK, PH and AZ
become the three aforesaid sines. Clearly PK is the sine of the distance of the moon from
the quadrature, PH the sine of the distance of the moon from the node, and AZ the sine of
the distance of the node from the sun : and the velocity of the node will be as the product
PK PH AZ . But PT is to PK as PM to Kk, and thus on account of the given PT and
PM , there is Kk proportional to PK itself. Also AT is to PD as AZ to PH, and therefore
PH is proportional to the rectangular PD AZ , and with the adjoining ratios, PK PH it
as the product and Kk PD AZ, PK PH AZ as Kk PD AZqu ; that is , as the
area PDdM and AZ
2
jointly.
Q. E.D.

rd
Ed.

Corol. 2. At some given position of the nodes, the hourly mean motion is half the
hourly motion at the syzygies of the moon, and therefore is to
iv v
16 35 16 . 36 " . "' . . as the
square of the sine of the distance of the nodes from the syzygies to the square of the
radius, or as AZ
2
to AT
2
. For if the moon may be going around the semicircle QAq with a
uniform motion, the sum of all the areas PDdM, in which time the moon goes from Q to
M, will be the area QMdE which is terminated by the tangent to the circle QE ; and in
which time the moon reaches the point n, that sum will be the total area EQAn that the
line PD will describe, then with the moon going from n to q, the line PD falls outside the
circle, and the area nqe described terminated by the tangent qe to the circle ; which,
because the nodes at first were regressing, now indeed because they are progressing, the
area must be taken from the first area, and since it shall equal the area QEN, there will
remain the semicircle NQAn. Therefore since the sum of all the areas PDdM, in which
time the moon will describe the semicircle, is the area of the semicircle ; and the whole
sum in which time the moon will describe the circle is the whole area of the circle. But
the area PDdM, when the moon is turning in the syzygies, is the rectangle under the arc
PM and the radius PT; and the sum of all the areas equal to this area, in which time the
moon will describe the circle, is the rectangle under the whole circumference and the
radius of the circle ; and this rectangle, since it shall be equal to two circles, is more than
twice the first rectangle. Hence the nodes, that by continuing with a uniform velocity as
they have at the lunar syzygies, describe a distance twice as great as they actually describe
; and therefore the average motion by which, if it were continued uniformly, they would
be able to describe a distance between themselves by the unequal motion they actually
complete, is half the motion that they have in the moon's syzygies. From which since the
maximum hourly motion, if the nodes are passing through quadrature, shall be
iv v
33 10 33 . 12 " . "' . , and the mean hourly motion in this case will be
iv v
16 35 16 36 " . ''' . . .
And since the hourly motion of the nodes always shall be as AZ
2
and the area PDdM
jointly, and therefore the hourly motion of the nodes at the syzygies of the moon shall be
as AZ
2
and the area PDdM jointly, that is (on account of the area PDdM described at the
syzygies) as AZ
2
also the mean motion will be as AZ
2
, and thus this motion, when the
nodes are moving beyond the quadratures, will be to
iv v
16 35 16 36 " . "' . . as AZ
2
to AT
2
.
Q. E. D.

rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XXXI. PROBLEM XII.
To find the hourly motion of the nodes of the moon in an elliptic orbit.

Let Qpmaq designate the ellipse described with the major axis Qq, and with the minor
axes ab, QAqB the circumscribed circle, T the earth in the common centre of each, S the
sun, p the moon moving in the ellipse, and pm the arc that will be described in a given
particular element of time, Nn the line joining the nodes N and n, pK and mk
perpendiculars sent to the axis Qq and hence produced from there until they cross the
circle at P and M, and the line of the nodes at D and d. And if the moon, with the radius
drawn to the earth, describes an area proportional to the time, the hourly motion of the
nodes will be as the area pDdm and AZ
2
jointly.
For if PF is a tangent to the circle at P, and produced crosses TN in F, and pf is a
tangent at p and produced meets the same line TN at f, moreover these tangents meet the
axis TQ at Y; and if ML may designate the distance that the moon revolving in a circle,
while meanwhile it describes the arc PM, urged and impelled by the aforementioned force
3IT, or can describe 3PK by a transverse motion, and ml may designate the distance that
the moon revolving in the ellipse in the same time can describe, also urged by the force
3IT or 3PK ; and LP and lp produced cross the plane of the ecliptic at G and g; and FG
and fg are joined, of which FG produced cuts pf, pg and TQ in c, e and R respectively, and
fg produced cuts TQ in r. Because the force 31T or 3PK in the circle is to the force 3IT or
3pK in the ellipse, as PK to pK, or AT to aT; the distance ML generated by the first force
will be to the distance ml generated by the second force, as PK to pK, that is, on account
of the similar figures PYKp and FYRc, as FR to cR. But ML is to FG (on account of the
similar triangles PLM, PGF) as PL to PG, that is (on account of the parallel lines Lk, PK,
GR) as pl to pe, that is to say, (on account of the similar triangles ( plm, cpe) as lm to ce ;
and inversely as LM is to 1m, or FR to cR, thus FG is to ce. And therefore if fg shall be to
ce as fY to cY, that is, as fr to cR (that is, as sr to FR and FR to cR jointly, that is, as fT to
FI and FG to ce jointly) because the ratio FG to ce with each taken away leaves the ratios
fg to FG and fT to FT, there becomes fg to FG as fT to FT; and thus the angles, which
rd
Ed.

FG and fg subtend at the earth T, are equal to each other. But these angles (by that which
we have put in place in the preceding proposition) are the motions of the nodes, by which
in the time the moon travels in the arc of the circle PM, it travels in the arc of the ellipse
pm : and therefore the motions of the nodes in the circle and in the ellipse are equal to
each other. These thus are found, but only if fg shall be to ce as fY to cY, that is, if fg
shall be eqaual to
ce fY
cY
. Truly on account of the similar triangles fgp, cep, there is fg to

ce as fp to cp; and thus fg is equal to
ce fp
cp
; and therefore the angle, that fg actually

subtends, is to the first angle, that FG subtends, that is, the motion of the nodes in the
ellipse to the motion of the nodes in the circle, as this line fg or to the first value of fg or
ce fY
cY
, that is, as to fp cY fY cp , or fp to fT and cY ad cp, that is to say, if ph crosses

FP at h parallel to TN itself, so that Fh to FY and FY to FP; that is, as Fh to FP or Dp to
DP, and thus as the area Dpmd to the area DPMd. And therefore, since (by Corol. I. Prop.
XXX.) the latter area and AZ
2
jointly shall be proportional to the hourly motion of the
nodes in the circle, the former area and AZ
2
jointly shall be proportional to the hourly
motion of the nodes in the ellipse. Q.E.D.

Corol. Whereby since, in the given position of the nodes, the sum of all the areas
pDdm, in which time the moon goes through from quadrature to some place m, shall be
the area mpqQEd, which is terminated by the tangent line of the ellipse QE ; and the sum
of all those areas, in a whole revolution, shall be the area of the whole ellipse: the mean
motion of the nodes in the ellipse will be to the mean motion of the nodes in the circle, as
the [area of the] ellipse to the [area of the] circle; that is, as Ta to TA, or 69 to 70. And
therefore, since (by Corol. 2. Prop. XXX.) the mean hourly motion of the nodes in the
circle shall be to
iv v
16 35 16 36 " . ''' . . . as AZ
2
to AT
2
, if the angle
iv v
16 21 3 30 " . "' . . . may
be taken to the angle
iv v
16 35 16 36 " . ''' . . .as 69 to 70, the mean hourly motion of the
nodes in the ellipse will be to
iv v
16 21 3 30 " . ''' . . . as AZ
2
to AT
2
; that is, as the square of
the sine of the distance of the node from the sun to the square of the radius.
For the remainder the moon, with the radius drawn to the earth, will describe areas
faster at the syzygies than at the quadratures, and by that account the time is diminished at
the syzygies, and augmented at the quadratures ; and together with the time the motion of
the nodes is augmented or diminished. But the moment of the area at the quadrature of the
moon to the moment of this in syzygies was as 10973 to 11073, and therefore the mean
moment at the octants is to the excess in syzygies, and the defect at quadrature, as half the
sum of the numbers 11023 to half the difference 50. From which since the time of the
moon in equal individual particular orbits shall be inversely as its velocity, the mean time
in the octants to the excess of the time at quadrature, and the defect in syzygies, arising
from this effect, will be as 11023 to 50 approximately. Moreover in going from
quadrature to syzygies, I find that the excess of the moments of the area in individual
places, above the minimum moment at the quadratures, shall be as the square of the sine
of the distance of the moon from the quadrature approximately ; and therefore the
difference between the moments at some place and the average moment at the quadrant, is
as the difference between the square of the sine of the distance of the moon from the
rd
Ed.

square of the sine of 45 degrees, or half the square of the radius ; and the increment of the
time in the individual places between the octants and the quadratures, and the decrement
of this between the octants and the syzygies, is in the same ratio. But the motion of the
nodes, in which time the moon traverses equal individual parts of the orbit, may be
accelerated or retarded in the square ratio of the time. For this motion, while the moon
passes through PM (with all else equal) is as ML, and ML is in the square ratio of the time.
Whereby the motion of the nodes at syzygies, performed in that time in which the moon
traversed a small part of the orbit, is diminished in the square ratio of the number 11073
to the number 11023 ; and the decrement to the motion of the rest as 100 to 10973, to the
true total motion as 100 to 11073 approximately. But the decrement in places between the
octants and the syzygies, and the increment in places between the octants and quadrature,
is approximately to this decrement, as the ratio of the whole motion in these places to the
whole motion at the syzygies, and the difference between the square of the sine of the
distance of the moon from the quadrature and half the square of the radius to half the
square of the radius taken jointly. From which, if the nodes are present in quadrature, and
two places hence may be taken equally distant from the octant on each side, and two
others may be taken, one equally distant from the syzygies and the other from the
quadrature, then, from the decrements of the motion in the two places down between the
syzygy and the octant, the increments of the motions in the two remaining places may be
taken away, which are between the octant and quadrature ; the remaining decrement will
be equal to the decrement in the syzygies : the reason for that will be easily seen on
entering into a computation. And therefore the mean decrement, that must be taken from
the mean motion of the nodes, is the fourth part of the decrement in the syzygy. The
whole hourly motion of the nodes in syzygies, when the moon was supposed to describe
equal areas by the radius drawn to the earth, was
iv
32 42 7 '' . ."' . . And the decrement of the
motion of the nodes, the moon in which time now moving faster will describe the same
distance, we have said to be to this motion as 100 to 11073 ; and thus that decrement is
iv v
17 43 11 ''' . , the fourth part of which
iv v
4 25 48 ''' . . , of the mean hourly motion, taken
from
i v
16 21 3 30
v
" . ''' . . found above, leaves
iv v
16 16 37 42 '' . ''' . . . , the correction of the mean
hourly motion.
If the nodes may be moving beyond the quadratures, and hence two places may be
considered equally distant from the syzygies ; the sum of the motions of the nodes, when
the moon is moving through these places, will be to the sum of the motions, when the
moon may be present in the same places and the nodes may be at the quadratures, as AZ
2

to AT
2
. And the decrements of the motions arising, from the causes now discussed, will
be in turn as the motions themselves, and thus the remaining motions will be in turn as
AZ
2
to AT
2
and the mean motions as the remaining motions. And thus the correct mean
hourly motion, in some given situation of the nodes, is to
v
16 16''' 37 42
iv
'' . . . . as AZ
2
to AT
2
, that is, as the square of the sine of the distance of the nodes from the syzygies to the
square of the radius.

rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XXXII. PROBLEM XIII.
To find the mean motion of the nodes of the moon.

The mean annual motion is the sum of all the mean horary motions during the year.
Consider the node to be moving through N, and with an individual hour completed to be
drawn back to its first position, so that with no obstacle to its proper motion, it may
maintain a given situation with regard to the fixed stars. Meanwhile truly the sun S, by the
motion of the earth, has moved from the node, and to complete uniformly its annual
course. Moreover let Aa be that minimum given arc described in the minimum given time,
by the direction of the right line TS always drawn to the sun and the circle NAn: and the
mean hourly motion (by what has just been shown) will be to AZ
2
, that is (on account of
the proportionals AZ, ZT) as the rectangle under AZ and ZY, that is, as the area AZTa.
And the sum of all the mean hourly motions from the beginning, is as the sum of all the
areas aTZA, that is, as the area NAZ. But the maximum AZTa is equal to the rectangle
under the arc Aa and the radius of the circle ; and therefore the sum of all the rectangles in
the whole circle to the sum of just as many maximas, as the whole area of the circle to the
rectangle under the whole circumference and the radius, that is, as 1 to 2. Moreover the
hourly motion, corresponding to the maximum area, was
iv v
l6 16 37 42 '' . ''' . . . And this
motion, in the whole sidereal year of 365 days. 6 hours. 9 min. shall be
0
39 38 7 50 . ' . " . ''' . And thus the half of this
gr
19 49 3 55 . ' . " . "' . is the mean motion of the
nodes corresponding to the whole circle. And the motion of the nodes, in which time the
sun goes from N to A, is to
gr
19 49 3 55 . ' . " . ''' . as the area NAZ to the whole circle.
These results themselves thus are obtained from the hypothesis, that the node of the
individual hour is redrawn into its former position, thus so that the sun by completing a
whole year may return to the same node from which in the beginning it had set out. Truly
by the motion of the node it shall arise that the sun shall return to the node quicker, and by
computation now is in a shorter time. Since the sun in a whole year completes 360
0
and
the node by the maximum motion completes
0
39 38 7 50 . ' . " . ''' in the same time, or
39,6355 degrees ; and the mean motion of the node at some place N shall be to the mean
motion of its quadrature, as AZ
2
to AT
2
: the motion of the sun to the motion of the node at
N, shall be as 360 AT
2
to 39,6355 AZ
2
; that is, as 9,0827646 AT
2
to AZ
2
. From which if
the circumference of the whole circle NAn may be divided into equal small parts Aa, the
rd
Ed.

time in which the sun travels through the element Aa, if the circle were at rest, will be to
the time in which it traverses the same element, if the circle together with the nodes were
revolving around the centre T, reciprocally as 9,0827646 AT
2
to 9,0877646AT
2
+AZ
2
. For
the time is reciprocally as the velocity in which an element is traversed, and this velocity
is the sum of the velocities of the sun and of the node. Therefore if the time, in which the
sun without the motion of the node traversed the arc NA, may be expressed by the sector
NTA, and the element of the time in which it traversed that element of the arc Aa, may be
expressed by the element of the sector ATa; and (with the perpendicular aY sent to Nn) if
dZ may be taken on AZ , its length shall be as the rectangle dZ by ZY to the element of the
section ATa as AZ
2
to 9,0827646AT
2
+AZ
2
, that is, as dZ shall be to
1
2
AZ as AT
2
to
9,0827646AT
2
+AZ
2
, the rectangle eZ into ZY will designate the decrement of the time
arising from the motion of the node, in the total time in which the arc Aa is traversed. And
if the point d touch the curve NdGn, the curved area NdZ will be the total decrement, in
which time the whole arc NA is traversed; and therefore the excess of the sector NAT
above the area NdZ will be that total time. And because the motion of the node in a
smaller time is smaller in the ratio of the time, also the area AaYZ must be diminished in
the same ratio. Because that arises if eZ may be taken in the length AZ, which shall be to
the length AZ as AZ
2
to
2 2
90827646 , AT AZ + . Thus indeed the rectangle eZ in ZY will be
to the area AZYa as the decrement of the time, in which the arc Aa is traversed, to the total
time in which it may be traversed, if the node may be at rest : and therefore that rectangle
will correspond to the decrement of the motion of the node. And if the point e may touch
the curve NeFn, the total area NeZ, which is the sum of all the decrements, will
correspond to the total decrement, in which time the arc AN is traversed ; and the area
remaining NAe will correspond to the remaining motion, which is the true motion of the
node, in which time the whole arc NA is traversed by the motion of the sun and node
conjointly. Now truly the area of the semicircle is to the area of the figure NeFn, sought
by the method of infinite series, as 793 to 60 approximately. But the motion which
corresponds to the whole circle was
0
19 49 3 55 . ' . " . "' , and therefore the motion, which
corresponds to duplicate figure NeFn, is
gr
1 29 58 2 . ' . '' . "' . Which taken from the first
motion leaves
0
18 19 5 53 . ' . " . "' , the total motion of this with respect to the fixed stars
between conjunctions with the sun ; and this motion taken from the annual motion of the
sun of 360
0
, leaves
0
341 40 54 7 . ' . ' . "' , the motion of the sun between the same
conjunctions. But this motion is to the annual motion 360
0
. So that the motion of the
nodes is now found,
0
18 19 5 53 . ' . " . "' . to the motion of the year itself, which therefore
will be
0
19 18 1 23 . ' . " . ''' . This is the mean motion of the nodes in a sidereal year. The
same from astronomical tables is
0
19 21 21 50 . ' . " . ''' . The small difference is a one three
hundredth part of the total motion, and may be seen to arise from the lunar eccentricity
and from the inclination to the plane of the ecliptic. The motion of the nodes is
accelerated by the eccentricity of the orbit, and by this in turn the inclination may be
slowed down a little, and at the same time the velocity is reduced.

rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XXXIII. PROBLEM XIV.
To find the true motion of the lunar nodes.

In the time which is as the area NTA-NdZ, (in the fig. preced.) the motion is as this area
NAe, and thence is given. Truly on account of the excessive difficulty of the calculation,
it is better to keep to the following construction of the problem. With the centre C, with
some radius CD, the circle BEFD may be described. DC is produced to A, so that AB to
AC shall be as the mean motion to half the true mean motion, when the nodes are in
quadrature, that is, as
0 0
19 18 1 23 to 19 49 3 55 . ' . " . ''' . . ' . " . ''' , and thus BC to AC as the
difference of the motions
0
0 31 2 32 . ' . " . ."' , to the latter motion
0
19 49 3 55 . ' . " . ''' , that is, as
1 to
3
10
38 ; then through the point D the indefinite line Gg is drawn, which is a tangent to
the circle at D; and if the angle BCE or BCF may be taken equal to twice the distance of
the sun from the place of the node, by the mean motion found; and AE or AF may be
acting cutting the perpendicular DG in G; and the angle may be taken which shall be to
total motion of the node between its syzygies (that is, to
0
9 11 3 . ' . " .) as the tangent DG to
the circumference of the whole circle BED; and this angle (for which the angle DAG can
be used) may be added to the motion of the nodes when the nodes pass from quadrature to
syzygies, and may be subtracted from the same mean motion when they pass from
syzygies to quadratures; the true motion of these will be had. For the true motion thus
found agrees approximately with the true motion which arises by putting in place the time
by the area NTA-NdZ, and the motion of the node by the area NAe; so that the matter
considered carefully will agree with the computations put in place. This is the half yearly
equation of the motion of the nodes. And there is a monthly equation, but which is hardly
necessary for finding the latitude of the moon. For since the variation of the inclination of
the moon's orbit to the plane of the ecliptic shall be liable to a two-fold inequality, the one
half-yearly, but the other monthly ; the monthly inequalities of this and the monthly
equation of the nodes thus mutually modify and correct each other, so that both can be
ignored in determining the latitude of the moon.

Corol. From this and from the preceding proposition it is evident that the nodes are at
rest at their syzygies, but in the quadratures they are regressing by the hourly motion
iv
16 19 26 " . ''' . . And because the equation of motion in the octants shall be
0
1 30 . ' . Which
are rightly in order with all celestial phenomena.

rd
Ed.


Scholium.
J. Machin, Prof. of Astronomy at Gresham College, and Henry Pemberton M. D. have
separately discovered the motion of the nodes by another method. Certain mention of this
method has been made elsewhere. And each paper that I have seen, contained two
propositions, and they agreed between each other in each case. Truly Machin's paper is
here adjoined, since it came first into my hand.

' Concerning the motion of the moon's nodes.

PROPOSITION I.
The mean motion of the sun from a node, is defined by the mean geometrical
proportion, between the mean motion of the sun, and that mean motion by which the sun
recedes most rapidly from the node in quadrature.

T shall be the place where the earth is, Nn the line of the lunar nodes at some given time,
KTM a right angle drawn to this, TA a right line revolving around the centre with that
angular velocity by which the sun and the nodes recede from each other in turn, thus so
that the angle between the line Nn at rest and the revolving line TA, always becomes equal
to the distance of the places of the sun and of the node. Now if some right line TK may be
divided into the parts TS and SK which shall be as the motion of the mean hourly sun to
the motion of the mean hourly node at quadrature, and the right line TH may be put as the
mean proportional between the part TS and the whole TK, this right line between the rest
of the proportions will be the mean motion of the sun from the node. For the circle NKnM
with centre T and radius TK may be described, and with the same centre and radius TH
and TN the ellipse NHn is described, and in the time in which the sun recedes from the
node through the arc Na, if the right line Tba is drawn, the area of the sector NTa
expresses the sum of the motions of the sun and of the node in the same time. Therefore
by the afore mentioned law let the arc aA be the element the right line Tba will describe
revolving in the given element of time, and that minimal sector TAa will be as the sum of
the velocities by which the sun and the node are carried separately in that time. But the
rd
Ed.

velocity of the sun is almost constant, just as the small inequality of this will lead to
scarcely any variation in the mean motion of the nodes.
The other part of this sum, clearly the mean value of the velocity of the node, may be
increased by the departure from the syzygies in the square ratio of the sine of its distance
from the sun ; by the Corollary to Prop. 31, Book 3 Princip. and since it is a maximum at
the quadrature to the sun at K, it will be obtained in the same ratio to the velocity of the
sun which SK has to TS, that is as (the difference of the squares from TK and TH or) the
rectangle KHM to the square TH. But the ellipse NBH divides the sector ATa which
expresses the sum of these two velocities, into the two parts ABba and BTb proportional
to these velocities. For BT may be produced to the circle at , and from the point B the
perpendicular BG may be sent to the major axis, which each produced cross the circle at
the points F and f, and because the distance ABba it to the sector TBb as the
rectangleAB to the square BT (for that rectangle is equal to the difference of the
squares from TA and TB on account of the right lineA cut equally and unequally at T
and B.) Therefore this ratio, when the distance ABba is a maximum at K, will be the same
as the ratio of the rectangle KHM to the square HT, but the maximum mean velocity of
the nodes was in this ratio to the velocity of the sun. Therefore in the quadratures the
sector ATa is divided into parts proportional to the velocities. And because the rectangle
KHM is to the square HT as FBI to the square BG and the rectangleAB is equal to the
rectangle FBf. Therefore the little area ABba when it is a maximum to the sector TBb of
the remaining, as the rectangleAB to the square BG. But the ratio of these small areas
always was as the rectangle AB to the square BT ; and therefore the element of the area
ABba at the place A is less than the similar element in quadrature, in the square ratio BG
to BT that is in the square ratio of the sine of the distance of the sun from the node. And
therefore the sum of all the elements of area ABba surely the interval ABN will be as the
motion of the node in the time in which the sun is moving away from the node through
the arc NA. And the distance of the remaining, surely the elliptic sector NTB will be as the
mean motion of the sun in the same time. And therefore because annual mean motion of
the node, that is which shall be in the time in which has completed its period, the mean
motion of the node from the sun will be to the mean motion of the sun itself, as the area of
the circle to the elliptic area, that is as the right line TK to the mean right line TH
evidently the proportional between TK and TS ; or what amounts to the same, as the mean
proportional TH to the right line TS.

PROPOSITION II.
From the given mean motion of the nodes, to find the true motion.

The angle A be the distance of the sun from the mean location of the node, or the mean
motion of the sun from the node. Then if the angle B is taken, its tangent shall be to the
tangent of the angle A as TH to TK, that is, in the square root ratio of the mean hourly
motion of the sun with the node moving in quadrature ; the angle B will be the same
distance of the sun from the true position of the node. For FT may be joined and from the
demonstration of the ratio in the above proposition, the angle FTN will be the distance of
rd
Ed.

the sun from the mean place of the node, but the true distance of the angle ATN from the
node, and the tangents of these angles are to each other as TK to TH.

Corol. Hence the angle FTA is the equation of the lunar nodes, and the sine of this
angle when it is a maximum in the octants, is to the radius as KH to TK TH + . But the
sine of this equation at some other place A is to the maximum sine, as the sine of the sum
of the angles FTN ATN + to the radius : that is almost as the sine of twice the distance of
the sun from the mean place of the node (clearly 2.ETN) to the radius.

Scholium.
If the mean hourly motion of the nodes in quadrature shall be
iv v
16 16 3 42 " . "' . . . that is,
39 38 7 50 . ' . '' . ''' in the whole sidereal year, TH will be to TK in the square root ratio of
the number 9,0827646 to the number 10,0827646, that is, as 18,6524761 to 19,6524761.
And therefore TH shall be to HK as 18,6514761 to 1, that is, as the motion of the sun in
one sidereal year to the mean motion of the nodes
2
3
0
19 18 1 23 . ' . '' . ''' .
But if the mean motion of the nodes of the moon in the 20 J ulian years shall be
0
386 50 15 . ' . " . as thus from observations it is deduced in the theory of the moon used : the
mean motion of the nodes in a sidereal year shall be
0
19 20 31 58 . ' . '' . ''' . And TH will be to
HK as 360
0
to
0
19 20 31 58 . ' . '' . ''' , that is, as 18,61214 to 1, from which the mean hourly
motion of the nodes in quadrature becomes
iv
16 18 48 '' . ''' . . And the maximum equation
of the nodes in the octants will be
0
1 29 57 . ' . " . '

PROPOSITION XXXIV. PROBLEMA XV.
To find the variation of the hourly inclination of the moon's orbit to the plane of the
ecliptic.

Let A and a designate the syzygies; Q and q the quadratures; N and n the nodes; P the
location of the moon in its orbit ; p the projection of that place into the plane of the
ecliptic, and mTl the instantaneous motion of the nodes as above. And if the
perpendicular PG may be sent to the line Tm, pG may be joined, and with that then
produced then it may cross Tl in g, and also may be joined PG: the angle for the
inclination to the orbit of the moon to the plane of the ecliptic will be PGp, when the
moon may be passing through P ; and the angle Pgp will be the inclination of the same
after a completed instant of time; and thus the angle GPg is the instantaneous variation of
the inclination. But this angle GPg is to the angle GTg as TG to PG and Pp to PG jointly.
And therefore if for the instant of time an hour may be substituted; since the angle GTg
(by Prop. XXX.) shall be to the angle
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . . as
3
to IT PG AZ AT , the angle
GPg (or the variation of the hourly inclination) shall be to the angle
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . . as
3
to
Pp
PG
IT AZ TG AT Q. E.I.
rd
Ed.

Thus these may be had themselves from the hypothesis that the moon is gyrating
uniformly in its orbit. Because if that orbit is elliptical, the mean motion of the nodes may
be diminished in the ratio of the minor axis to the major axis ; as has been explained
above. And the variation of the inclination may be diminished in the same ratio also.

Corol. 1. If the perpendicular TF may be erected to Nn, and pM shall be the hourly
motion of the moon in the plane of the ecliptic ; and the perpendiculars pK, Mk may be
sent to QT and each produced crossing TF in H and h: IT will be to AT as Kk to Mp, and
TG to Hp as TZ to AT, and thus IT TG equals
Kk Hp TZ
Mp

, that is, equal to the area HpMh
taken by the ratio
TZ
Mp
: and therefore the hourly variation of the inclination
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . . as HpMh multiplied by
3
to
Pp
TZ
Mp PG
AZ AT .
Corol. 2. And thus if the earth and the nodes of the individual completed hours may be
withdrawn from the new places of these, and always reintroduced at once again into the
first place, so that their position, through the period of a whole month, may remain in
place ; the whole variation of the inclination in the time of a month of its inclinations will
be to
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . . as the sum of all the areas HpMh, described in the revolution of the
point p, and taken together with the appropriate signs + and , multiplied into
3
to
Pp
PG
AZ TZ Mp AT , that is to say, as the whole circle QAqa multiplied into
3
to
Pp
PG
AZ TZ Mp AT that is, as the circumference QAqa multiplied into
2
to 2
Pp
PG
AZ TZ Mp AT .

Corol. 3. Hence in the given situation of the nodes, the mean hourly variation, from
which that monthly variation can be generated continually each month, is to
rd
Ed.

iv
33 10 33 " . "' . . as
2
to 2
Pp
PG
AZ TZ AT , or as
1
2
to 4
AZ TZ
AT
Pp PG AT
, that is (since Pp
shall be to PG as the sine of the aforesaid inclination to the radius, and
1
2
shall be to 4
AZ TZ
AT
AT
as the sine of double the angle ATn to the radius quadrupled) as the
sine of the same inclination multiplied into the sine of double the distance of the nodes
from the sun, to four times the square of the radius.

Corol. 4. Because the variation of the hourly inclination, when the nodes are turning in
the quadratures, is (by this proposition) to the angle
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . . as
3
to
Pp
PG
IT AZ TG AT , that is, as
1
2
to 2
Pp
IT TG
PG AT
AT
; that is to say, as the sine of

twice the distance of the moon from the quadrature multiplied into
Pp
PG
to the radius
doubled: the sum of all the hourly variations, in which time the moon in this situation of
the nodes passes from quadrature to syzygies (that is, the space of
1
6
177 hours,) will be to
the sum of just as many angles
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . , or 5878", as the sum of all the sines of
twice the distances of the moon from quadrature multiplied into
Pp
PG
to the sum of just as
many diameters ; that is, as the diameter multiplied by
Pp
PG
to the circumference; that is,
if the inclination shall be
0
5 1 . ' , as
874
10000
7 to 22 , or 278 to 10000. And hence the whole
variation, from the sum of all the hourly variations in the aforementioned time put
together, is 163", or 2'. 43".

PROPOSITION XXXV. PROBLEM XVI.
To find the inclination of the moon to the ecliptic arising at a given time.

Let AD be the sine of the maximum inclination, AB the sine of the minimum
inclination ; BD is bisected in C, and the circle BGD may be described with centre C, and
with the radius BC. On AC, CE may be taken in that ratio to EB that EB has to 2BA: and if
in a given time the angle AEG may be put in place equal to twice the distance of the nodes
from the quadratures, and to AD there may be sent the perpendicular GH: AH will be the
sine of the inclination sought.
For GE
2
is equal to

rd
Ed.

2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
GH HE BHD HE HBD
HE BH HBD BE BH BE
BE EC BH EC AB EC BH EC AH.
+ = + = +
= +
= + = + =

And thus since 2EC is given, GE
2
is as AH. Now AEg designates twice the distance of the
nodes from the quadratures after some given instant of time completed, and the arc Gg on
account of the given angle GEg will be as the distance GE. But Hh is to Gg as GH to GC
and therefore Hh is as the productGH Gg , or GH GE ; that is, as
2
or
GH GH
GE GE
GE AH , that is, as AH and the sine of the angle AEG jointly. Therefore if
AH in some case shall be the sine of the inclination, that will be increased in the same
increments with the sine of the inclination, by Corol. 3 of the above proposition, and
therefore it will always remain equal to that sine. But AH, when the point G falls on either
the point B or D, is equal to the sine of this, and therefore always remains equal to the
same. Q. E. D.
I have supposed in this demonstration that the angle BEG, which is twice the distance
of the nodes from quadrature, is increased uniformly. For it would be superfluous on this
occasion to consider all the small inequalities. Now consider the angle BEG to be right,
and in this case Gg is to be the increase of the hours of twice the distance of the nodes and
of the sun in turn ; and the hourly variation of the inclination in the same case (by Corol. 3
of the most recent Prop.) will be to
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . as the product of the sine of the
inclination AH and the sine of the right angle BEG, which is twice the distance of the
nodes from the sun, to four times the square of the radius ; i.e. as the sine of the mean
inclination AH to four times the radius ; that is (since that mean inclination shall be as
1
2
0
5 8 . ' as its sine 896 to the fourfold radius 40000, or as 224 to 10000. Moreover the
whole variation, corresponding to the difference of the sines BD, is to that hourly
variation as the diameter BD to the arc Gg; i.e., as the diameter BD to the semi
circumference BGD and the time of the hours
7
10
2079 , in which a node goes from
quadrature to syzygies, to one hour jointly ; i.e., as 7 to 11 and
7
10
2079 to 1. Whereby if
all the ratios may be joined together, the total variation BD becomes to
iv
33 10 33 " . "' . as
7
10
224 7 2079 to 110000, i.e., as 29645 to 1000, and thence that variation BD will be
produced
1
2
16 23 ' . " .
This is the maximum variation of the inclination as long as the position of the moon in
its orbit may not be considered. For the inclination, if the nodes may be turning in
syzygies, are not changed from the variation of the moon. But if the nodes are present in
quadrature, the inclination is less when the moon turns in syzygies, as when that may be
in quadrature, by the excess 2'. 43"; as we have indicated in corollary four of the above
proposition. And the whole mean variation BD with the moon in quadrature, diminished
by half of its excess
1
2
1 21 ' . " , shall become 15'. 2", but in the syzygies increased by this
amount to become 17'. 45". Therefore if the moon may be in place in syzygies, the whole
variation of the nodes from quadrature to syzygies will be 17'. 45": and thus if the
rd
Ed.

inclination, when the nodes are present in syzygies, shall be
0
5 17 20 . ' . " ; the same, when
the nodes are in quadrature, and the moon in syzygies, will be
0
4 59 35 . ' . '' . And this is
thus confirmed from observations.
If now that inclination of the orbit may be desired, when the moon is turning in
syzygies and the nodes anywhere ; AB becomes to AD as the sine of 4
0
. 59'. 35" to the
sine of 5
0
. 17'. 20", and the angle AEG may be taken equal to twice the distance of the
nodes from quadrature ; and AH will be the sine of the inclination sought. For the
inclination of this orbit is equal to the inclination of the orbit , when the moon shall be set
at 90
0
from the nodes, [as just found]. In other locations of the moon the monthly
inequalities, that are allowed in the variation of the inclination, may be compensated in
the calculation of the latitude of the moon, and in some manner may be corrected by the
monthly inequality of the motion of the nodes (as we have said above), and thus it can be
ignored in the calculation of the latitude.

Scholium.
I wished to show from these computations of the moon's motions, how the causes of
the lunar motions could be calculated from the theory of gravity. In addition by the same
theory I found that the annul equation of the mean motion of the moon arose from the
various dilations of the moon's orbit by the force of the sun, as in Corol. 6. Prop. LXVI.
Book 1. This force is greater at the perigee of the sun, and dilates the moon's orbit ; at its
apogee it is less, and it allows that orbit to be contracted. In a dilated orbit the moon is
revolving slower, in the contracted orbit faster ; and the annual equation, by which this
inequality may be balanced, is nothing at the apogee and perigee of the sun, at the mean
distance of the sun from the earth it rises to around 11'. 50'", at other places it is
proportional to the equation of the centre of the sun ; and it is added to the mean motion
of the moon when the earth goes from the aphelion to its perihelion, and it is subtracted in
the opposite part of the orbit. On assuming the radius of the orbit to be of size 1000 and
the eccentricity of the earth to be
7
8
16 , this equation, when it is a maximum, will produce
11'. 49", by the theory of gravity. But the eccentricity of the earth may be seen to be a
little greater, and with increased eccentricity this equation must be increased in the same
ratio. The eccentricity may be
11
12
16 , and the maximum equation will become 11'. 51".
I have also found that at the perihelion of the sun, because of the greater force of the
sun, the apogee and nodes of the moon move faster than at its aphelion, and that inversely
in the cubic ratio of the distance from the earth. And thence the annual equations of these
motions arise proportional to the equation of the sun's centre. But the motion of the sun is
in the inverse square ratio of the distance from the sun to the earth, and the maximum
equation of the centre, that these inequalities may generate, is
0
1 . 56' 20" . agreeing with
the predicated eccentricity of the sun
11
12
16 . But if the sun's motion were inversely in the
cubic ratio of the distance, this inequality would generate the maximum
equation
0
2 .54'. 30'' . And therefore the greatest equations, that the inequalities of the
motions of the apogee, and of the nodes of the moon can generate, are to
0
2 . 54 30 ' . " as
the mean diurnal motion of the apogee and the mean diurnal motions of the nodes of the
moon are to the mean diurnal motion of the sun. From which the greatest equation of the
rd
Ed.

mean motion of the apogee becomes 19'.43", and the maximum mean motion of the nodes
9'. 24". Truly it is added to the first equation and subtracted from the second, when the
earth travels from it perihelion to its aphelion : and it shall be the contrary on the opposite
side of the orbit.
It will be agreed also by the theory of gravity that the action of the sun on the moon
shall be a little greater, when the transverse diameter of the moon's orbit passes through
the sun, than when the same is at a right angle to the line joining the earth and the sun :
and therefore the orbit of the moon is a little greater in the first case than in the second.
And hence another equation of the mean motion of the moon arises, depending on the
position of the moon's apogee relative to the sun, which indeed is a maximum when the
apogee of the moon is in the same octant as the sun ; and nothing when that arrives at the
quadrature or syzygies : and it is added to the mean motion in the transition of the lunar
apogee from the sun's quadrature to syzygies, and taken away in the transition of the
apogee from the syzygy to the quadrature. This equation, that I will call half-yearly, when
it is a maximum in the octants of the apogee, increases to around 3'. 45", as many times as
I can gather from the phenomena. This is the quantity of this in the mean distance of the
earth from the sun. Truly it may be increased or diminished in the inverse cubic ration of
the distance of the sun, and thus at the maximum distance of the sun it is 3'. 34'" and at the
minimum 3'.56" approximately: truly when the apogee of the moon is placed beyond the
octants, it emerges smaller ; and is to the maximum equation, as the sine of twice the
distance of the moon's apogee from the nearest syzygy or quadrature to the radius.
By the same theory of gravity the action of the sun on the moon it is a little greater
when the right line drawn through the nodes of the moon pass through the sun, than when
that line is at right angles with the right line joining the earth and the sun. And thence
arises another equation of the mean motion of the moon, that I will call the second half-
yearly, and which is a maximum when the nodes are turning in the octants of the sun, and
which vanishes when they are in syzygy or in quadrature, and in other positions of the
nodes proportional to the sine of twice the distance of each node from the nearest syzygy
or quadrature: truly is added to the mean motion of the moon, if the sun is moving away
ahead of its nearest node, subtracted if it is moving away behind its nearest node, and in
the octants, when it is a maximum, it rises to 47" in the mean distance of the sun from the
earth, as I have deduced from the theory of gravity. At other distances of the sun this
maximum equation at the octants of the nodes is inversely as the cube of the distance of
the sun from the earth, and thus at the perigee of the sun it rises to around 49" , and to
around 45" at the apogee.
And by the same theory of gravity the moon's apogee is progressing at a maximum rate
when it is either in conjunction with the sun or in opposition to the same, and recedes
when it goes in quadrature with the sun. And the eccentricity shall be a maximum in the
former case and a minimum in the latter, by Corol. 7, 8 and 9. of Prop. LXVI. Book I.
And these inequalities by the same corollaries are very great, and they generate the
principle equation of the apogees, that I have called half-yearly. And the maximum of this
equation is around
0
12 .18', as much as I have been able to gather from observations. Our
Horrox first put in place that the moon revolved in an ellipse around the earth situated at
its lower focus. Halley located the centre of the ellipse in an epicycle, the centre of which
is revolving uniformly around the earth. And from the motion in the epicycle the
rd
Ed.

inequalities now discussed arise in the progression and recession of the apogees as well as
the amount of the eccentricity. It is supposed that the distance between the moon and the
earth be divided into 100000, and T refers to the earth and TC the mean eccentricity of the
of the moon from 5505 parts. TC may be produced to B, so that CB shall be the sine of the
equation of the maximum half-yearly inequality
0
12 .18' to the radius TC, and the circle
BDA described with centre C, radius CB will be that epicycle in which the centre of the
orbit of the moon is located and is revolving following the order of the letters BDA. The
angle BCD is taken equal to twice the annual argument, or to twice the true distance of the
place of the sun from the lunar apogee corrected once, and CTD will be the half-yearly
first correction of the lunar apogee and TD the eccentricity of it orbit tending towards the
apogee, corrected in the second place. Moreover, having the mean motion, the
eccentricity, and the apogee of the moon, as well as with the major axis of the orbit of
200000 parts; and from these there is extracted the place in the orbit and its distance from
the earth, and that by well-known methods.
At the perihelion of the earth, on account of the greater force of the sun, the centre of
the lunar orbit will move faster around the centre C than at the aphelion, and that in the
inverse cubic ratio of distance of the earth from the sun. On account of the equation of the
centre of the sun included in the annual argument, the centre of the moon's orbit will be
moving faster in the epicycle BDA in the inverse square ratio of the distance of the earth
from the sun. So that also at this time it will be moving faster in the simple inverse ratio
of the distance ; from the centre D of the orbit there may be drawn the right line DE
towards the lunar apogee, or parallel to the right line TC , and the angle EDF may be
taken equal to the excess of the aforementioned angular argument over the distance of the
lunar apogee from the following perigee of the sun; or what is the same, the angle CDF
may be taken equal to the complement of the true anomaly of the sun to 360
0
. And DF
shall be in the ratio to DC as twice the eccentricity of the great orbit to the mean distance
of the sun from the earth, and the mean diurnal motion of the sun from the lunar apogee to
the mean diurnal motion of the sun from the appropriate apogee jointly, that is, as
7
8
33 to
1000 and 52'. 27". 16'" to 59'. 8". 10'" jointly, or as 3 to 100. And consider the centre of
the moon to be located at the point F, and revolving on an epicycle whose centre is D, and
the radius DF, and meanwhile the point D is progressing on the circumference of the
circle DABD. For by this account, the velocity by which the centre of the moon will be
moving along some curve described about the centre C, will be inversely as the cube of
the distance of the sun from the earth approximately, as required.
The computation of this motion is difficult, but it may be rendered easier by the
following approximation. If the mean distance of the moon from the earth shall be of
100000 parts, and the eccentricity TC shall be of 550 parts as above, the right lineCB or
rd
Ed.

CD will be found of
3
4
1172 parts, and the right line DF of
1
5
35 parts. And this right line
DF at the distance TC, subtends an angle at the earth, which the translation from the
centre of the orbit from some place D to some place F, produced in the motion of its
centre : and twice the same right line 2DF in a parallel position to the line which joins the
earth and the upper focus of the lunar orbit, will subtend the same angle at the earth, that
certainly that translation generates in the motion of the focus, and at the distance of the
moon from the earth, it will subtend an angle that the same translation will generate in the
motion of the moon, and which therefore can be said to be the second equation of the
centre. And this equation, at the mean distance of the earth from the sun, is as the sine of
the angle, which that right line DF contains approximately with the right line drawn from
the point F to the moon, and when it is a maximum, 2'. 25" emerges. But the angle that
the right line DF makes with the right line drawn from the point F to the moon taken
together, is found either by subtracting the angle EDF from the mean anomaly of the
moon, or by adding the distance of the moon from the sun to the distance of the lunar
apogee from the apogee of the sun. And as the radius is to the sine of the angle thus
found, thus 2'. 25", is required to be added to the second equation of the centre, if that sum
shall be less than a semicircle, and to be subtracted if greater. Thus its longitude will be
found in the syzygies of the luminous bodies themselves.
Since the atmosphere of the earth refracts the light of the sun as far as a height of 35 or
40 miles, and by refracting may scatter the same into the shadow of the earth, and on
being scattered the light in the confines of the shadow dilates the shadow : to the diameter
of the shadow, which is produced by parallax, I add 1 minute or
1
3
1 minutes in eclipses of
the moon.
Truly lunar theory must be examined through the phenomena and firmly established
first in syzygies, then in the quadratures, and finally in the octants. And with this need in
mind, I have observed rather precisely the average movements of the moon and of the sun
at the time of the meridian, in the royal observatory in Greenwich, and for the last day in
December of the year 1700 in the old style , it will not be an inconvenience to use the
following : truly the mean motion of the sun
0
20 .43 40 ' . ' , and of its apogee
0
7 . 44 30 ' . " , and the mean motion of the moon
0
15 . 21' 00" . , and of its apogee
0
8 20' 00" . , and of the ascending node
0
27 .24' 20" . ; and the difference of the
meridians of this observatory and of the royal observatory in Paris to be
h
0 .9' 20''. but the
mean motion of the moon, and of the apogees of this have not yet been found accurately
enough.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section III.

PROPOSITION XXXVI. PROBLEM XVII.
To find the force of the sun required to move the waters of the sea.

The force [per unit mass] ML or PT of the sun required to perturb the lunar motion
acting at the lunar quadratures, was to the force of gravity with us on earth (by Prop.
XXV. of this Book;), as 1 to 638092,6. And the force TM LM or 2PK at the lunar
syzygies is twice as great. [see the notes at the start of the previous section, from which
the results presented here follow; see also Chandrasekhar, p. 412.] But these forces, if one
descends to the surface of the earth, are diminished in the ratio of the distances from the
centre of the earth, that is, in the ratio
1
2
60 to 1; and thus the first force on the surface of
the earth is to the force of gravity as 1 to 38604600. It is by this force that the sea is
lowered in places, which stand apart at 90 degrees from the sun. The sea is raised both
under the sun and in the region opposite the sun by the other force, which is greater by
twice as much,. The sum of the forces is to the force of gravity as 1 to 12868200. And
because the same force produces the same motions, that either lowers the water in
regions which are set at 90 degrees to the sun, or raises the same in regions under the sun
and in regions opposite to the sun, thus sum will be the total force of the sun required to
set the seas in motion ; and the same effect will be had, if the whole sea may be raised in
regions under the sun and in regions opposite the sun, but in regions which are set at 90
degrees to the sun it gives rise to no effect.
This is the force of the sun required to set the sea in motion at some given place, both
when the sun is situated overhead as well as at its mean distance from the earth. In other
places the force required to raise the sea from the position of the sun is directly as the
versed sine of twice the altitude of the sun above the horizon of the place, and inversely as
the cube of the distance of the sun from the earth.
Corol. Since the centrifugal force of the parts of the earth arises from the diurnal
motion of the earth, which is to the force of gravity as 1 to 289, it has the effect that the
height of the water at the equator exceeds the height of this at the poles by an amount of
85472 Parisian feet, as in Prop. XIX above ; the force of the sun by which we are driven,
since it shall be to the force of gravity as 1 to 12868200, and thus to that force as 289 to
12868200 or 1 to 44527, effects that the height of water in regions under the sun and
opposite to the sun shall surpass the height of this in places, which are set at 90 degrees to
the sun, by a measure of one Parisian foot and
1
30
11 inches. For this measure is to the
measure of 85472 feet as 1 to 44527.
rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XXXVII. PROBLEM XVIII.
To find the force of the moon required to move the waters of the sea.

The force of the moon required to move the sea can be deduced from the proportion of
its force to the force of the sun, and this proportion is to be deduced from the proportion
of the motions of the seas, which arise from these forces.
[At the time of writing, the mass of the moon was not known precisely: Newton could
hardly go to the moon and measure the acceleration of gravity there, and as there was no
small satellite on hand on which measurements could be made, so he adopted this rather
imprecise method, the only one available to him at the time.]
Before the mouth of the river Avon at the third milestone below Bristol, at spring time
and in autumn the whole rise of the water at the conjunction and opposition of the moon,
according to the observation of Samuel Sturmy, is around 45 feet, but in the quadratures it
is only 25 feet. The first height arises from the sum of the forces, and the last from the
difference of the same. Therefore let S and L be the forces of the sun and moon situated
above the equator and at their mean distances from the earth, and to L S L S + will be as
45 to 25, or as 9 to 5.

[These tide-producing forces, due to the sun and moon individually as viewed from the
earth, act on a unit mass at some place in question; this mass is situated a whole earth-
radius from the centre of the mean earth-sun distance and the mean earth-moon distances
respectively at the meridian, by which the force is increased by the inverse square law
above the average value at the centre of the earth ; each force in turn sweeping through
180
0
, from acting initially along one tangent to the sea through the normal at the meridian
and finally acting along the tangent in the opposite direction, in a time of 12 hours, due to
the earth's diurnal rotation, while the sun or moon can be considered as almost at rest.
These actions are simultaneously performed, by the forces of the sun and the moon acting
through the earth on the water on the far side of the earth, and now diminished by the
inverse square law, giving rise on the whole to corresponding tidal bulges on opposite
sides of the earth.
This sum or difference of the forces arises from the simple addition of the vectors L
and S at the various places : at the new moon syzygies these forces are simply added
L S + , allowing 6 hours for the earth to rotate into the tangential position of the forces;
the full moon case requiring both forces to act in the opposite direction, this being the
case for the sun as the force is now less than the average at the centre of the earth by the
same amount S; An elementary derivation of part of this argument is given, e.g. in
Ohanian, Gravitation and Spacetime, p.26. At the quadrature positions, the tangential
moon's force and that of the sun after a quarter rotation of the earth, are considered to act
in opposite directions, giving the magnitude of the force to be now L S in this simplified
scheme. See the notes at the start of the last section.
For a concise modern analysis, you may consult p.355 onwards of Volume 7 of the
Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Physics, where the whole matter of tide-generating forces is
addressed from the point of view of potentials, introduced some hundred years later by
Laplace. This is one section of such a work that does not get dated! Thus, the potential
rd
Ed.

energy of a unit mass due to the moon, situated on the earth's surface at a point P a
distance d from the centre of the moon, is given by
m
GM / d , where M
m
is the mass of the moon, G
the constant of universal gravitation; a negative
sign may be attached to give the gradient forces
the correct sign for the direction in which they act.
Hence, if R is the distance between the centres of
the earth and moon, and e the radius of the earth
making an angle to R, then
2 2 2
2 d e R eRcos = + ; in which case the
potential becomes
( )
2
2
1 2
n
m m
n
e e
R
R
GM GM
e
m n
R
R
R cos
n
GM / d P cos

+
= =

,
where the coefficients ( )
n
P cos are the Legendre polynomials defined by

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
2 2
0 1
2 3
2 3
1
3 1 5 3 etc
P cos ; P cos cos ;
P cos cos ; P cos cos cos ; .

= =
= =

Now, the mean value of
e
R
is 0.01659, and due to its small magnitude, only a few terms
need be considered; on differentiation of the potential function to obtain the forces, the
first term is constant and disappears; the second term can be shown to give rise to a
constant force along the line of the centres, and hence only the derivative of the third term
involving P
2
need be considered in most cases to cause relative motion. Since
2
E
GM
e
g = ,
where M
E
is the mass of the earth ande the mean radius of the earth , then the potential
generating the lunar tides has the form
( ) ( )
2
3
2
3
2
1
0 0
3
and
m
E
M
e e
M R
e
V gV cos V = = ; from
which we see that the tangential component
0
2
dV
ed
gV sin
= is the only large

component, generating tides over large distances on the earth's surface, since the vertical
component
( )
2
0
2 1
dV
de
gV cos = is negligible in comparison with the local acceleration
of gravity g, since V
0
has a mean value of
8
56 10 .

. From the historical viewpoint, we
may note that Newton worked with forces in his analysis, a hard task, while Laplace on
introducing the idea of potential, was able to perform a simpler analysis; but of course
Laplace could not have seen the easier method without Newton's great labours.]

In the port of Plymouth the tides of the sea from the observations of Samuel Colepress
rise around 16 feet from the average, and at spring time and autumn the height of the tide
in syzygies can surpass the height at quadrature by 7 or 8 feet. If the maximum difference
of these heights shall be 9 feet, then to L S L S + will be as
1 1
2 2
20 to 11 or 41 to 23.
rd
Ed.

Which proportion agrees well enough with the previous. On account of the magnitude of
the tide at the port of Bristol, it may appear that the observations of Sturmy to be more
reliable, and thus we will use the proportion 9 to 5, as it is a little more certain.
For the remainder, on account of the reciprocal motion of the waters, the maximum
tides do not occur at the syzygies of the luminary bodies themselves, but are the third
tides after the syzygies as it has been said, either nearest to the third passage of the moon
through the meridian of the place, or rather, (as it has been noted by Sturmy) they are the
third tides to arrive after the day of the new moon or the full moon, or within an
[additional] interval of [half of] 12 hours of the new or full moon, and thus are incident a
little more or less than the 43rd hour from the new or full moon. [Such situations may
arise when the moon acts as a forcing oscillator on a body of water in a confining basin,
which builds up a resonance, as it were.] Truly these arrive at this port at around the
seventh hour from the approach of the moon at the place of the meridian ; and thus the
tides follow the passage of the moon through the meridian very closely, when the moon
either stands apart from the sun, or is in opposition by 18 or 19 degrees as a consequence.
[In fact, the tidal forces at the time act along the tangent rather than normally, as
Chandrasakher points out; also, this is a place where Mott translates Newton's octodecim
vel novemdecim as 18 or 19, which would seem to be correct though this is not the
usual way of writing these numbers, and which is translated by Madame du Chatelet as 80
or 90.] The summer and winter tides are especially vigorous, not in the solstices
themselves, but when the sun stands at around a twentieth part of the whole circuit, or
around 36 or 37 degrees. And similarly the maximum tide of the sea arises from the
approach of the moon to the meridian of the place, when the moon stands away from the
sun by a tenth part of the whole motion from tide to tide. That distance shall be of around
1
2
18 degrees. And the force of the sun at this distance of the moon from syzygies and
quadratures, will have a smaller value towards increasing or decreasing the motion of the
seas arising from the force of the moon, than at the syzygies and the quadratures, in the
ratio of the radius to the sine of twice the complement of the angle
1
2
18 , i.e. of 37
0
, that is,
in the ratio 10000000 to 7986355. And thus in the above analogy 0,7986355 S must be
written for S.
And thus the force of the moon in quadrature, on account of the declination of the
moon from the equator, must be diminished. For the moon in quadrature, or rather at
1
2
0
18 after quadrature, is present at a declination of around 22
0
.13'. And the force required
to move the sea is diminished by the decline from the equator in the square ratio
approximately as the square of the complement of the sine of the declination.

[Note from L & S. p. 110, De Mund. Syst.: Let TBD be the plane of the equator, T the
centre of the earth, and the moon shall be at L,
the angle LBD will measure the declination
from the equator, or on account of the very
small angle TLB, that declination will be
approximately equal to the angle LTD, the
cosine of which angle is TF, by taking TL for
the radius. Now the force which pulls on the water from the centre T, at the location B of
rd
Ed.

the equator, when the moon is present in the equatorial plane at D, is to force that pulls
the same water directly from the centre, when the moon is at L, as TL to TF, that is, as the
radius to the sine of the compliment of the declination LDT, distinct from the centripetal
force of the water towards T. But with that centripetal force increased, the other force
drawing the water from the centre is diminished in the same ratio; whereby, on
compounding the effects, the force of the moon at the location D, is to the force of this at
L, as the square of the whole sine TL, to the square of the complement of the sine, TF, of
the declination of the moon LTD.]

And thus the force of the moon in these quadratures is only 0,857327 L. Therefore there is
07986355 to 08570327 L 079863558 as 9 to 5 L , S , . , + .
Besides the diameters of the orbit, in which the moon must be moving without
eccentricity [as in the Horrox sense], are in turn as 69 to 70; and therefore the distance of
the moon at syzygies is to its distance at the quadratures as 69 ad 70, with all else being
equal. And the distances of this at
1
2
0
18 from syzygies, when the maximum tide is
generated, and at
1
2
0
18 from quadratures, when the minimum tide is generated, are to the
mean distance of this as 69,098747 and 69,897345 to
1
2
69 . But the lunar forces requiring
to move the sea are inversely in the cubic ratio of the distances, and thus the forces at the
maximum and minimum of these distances are to the force at the mean distance as
0,9830427 and 1,017522 to 1. From which there arises 1017522 07986355 , L , S +
to 09830427 08570327 07986355 , , L , S as 9 to 5. And S to L is as 1 to 4,4815. And thus
since the force of the sun shall be to the force of the gravity 1 to 12868200, the force of
the moon shall be to the force of gravity as 1 ad 12871400.

[Because this value of S to L adopted is even further than the original estimate of 3.5 from
the now accepted value of 2.34, Chandrasekhar wisely decides not to investigate the
following Corollaries.]

Corol. 1. Since the water disturbed by the force of the sun rises to a height of
1
30
1ft 11 '' ., , by the force of the moon the same will rise to a height of
5
22
8ft.,7 '' and the
force with each acting shall be to a height of
1
2
10 ft., and when the moon is in perigee to a
height of
1
2
12 ft.and more, especially when the tide is helped by the winds blowing.
Moreover so much force suffices in abundance for all the excited motions of the sea, and
corresponds properly to the quantity of the motions. For in seas which extend out widely
from east to west, as in the Pacific, and in the parts of the Atlantic & Ethiopic [i.e. Indian]
Oceans outside the tropics, the water is accustomed to be raised to a height of 6, 9, 12, or
15 feet. But in the Pacific Ocean, because it is deeper and extends wider, the tides are said
to be greater than in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. And indeed so that the tide shall be
full, the width of the sea from east to west cannot be less than 90
0
. In the Indian Ocean
the rise of the water within the tropics is less than in the temperate zone, on account of
the narrow seas between the African and the southern part of America. The water is
unable to rise in the middle of the sea unless at it may fall on each eastern and western
shore at the same time: since yet with our narrow seas it must fall alternately in turn on
rd
Ed.

these shores. For that reason the flow and ebb for islands which are farthest from the
shores, is usually very small. In certain ports, where water is trying to flow in and out
with great force through the shallow places, alternately filling and emptying the bays, the
flow and ebb must be customarily greater, as at Plymouth & at Chepstowe bridge in
England ; at mount St. Michael and at Avranches in Normandy ; at Cambaia and
Pegu in theEast Indies. In these places the sea, by approaching and receding with great
speed, now inundates the shore and again now leaves it dry for many miles. Neither the
impetus of the inflow or of the return of the first can be broken, as the water is raised or
lowered by 30, 40, or 50 feet and more. And equal is the account of long narrow and
shallow seas, as the Magellanic Straits, and of that by which England is surrounded. The
tide in ports of this kind and in narrow channels is augmented by the impetuosity of the
flow and ebb above the normal. Truly, the magnitude of the tide corresponds to the forces
of the sun and moon for shores which descend to the depths of the abyss and which are
seen to be open, and where water without precipitation can flow and ebb by rising and
falling without an impetuous motion.

Corol. 2. Since the force of the moon requiring to move the seas shall be to the force
of gravity as 1 to 2871400, it is evident that that force shall be much less than those
considered in any experiments with pendulums, or in statics or hydrostatics. This force is
able to produce a sensible effect only in the tides in the sea.

Corol. 3. Because the force of the moon required to move the sea compared to the
force of the sun is as 4,4815 to 1 [recall that this is an overestimate roughly by a factor of
2, so that the following values are not numerically correct and the conclusion is wrong],
and these forces (by corol. 14 Prop. LXVI, Book I.) are as the densities of the bodies of
the moon and of the sun and the cubes of the apparent diameters conjointly ; the density
of the moon will be to the density of the sun as 4,4815 to 1 directly, and the cube of the
diameter of the moon to the cube of the diameter of the sun inversely : that is (since the
mean apparent diameters of the moon and sun shall be
1
2
31 16'' and 32 12 ' . , ' . " ) as 4891 to
1000. But the [mean] density of the sun was to the density of the earth as 1000 to 4000;
and therefore the density of the moon is to the density of the earth as 4891 to 4000 or 11
to 9. Therefore the body of the moon is more dense that our earth.

Corol. 4. And since the true diameter of the moon from astronomical observations shall
be to the true diameter of the earth as 100 to 365 the mass of the moon to the mass of the
earth shall be as 1 to 39,788.

Corol. 5. And the gravitational acceleration on the surface of the moon will be as if
three times smaller than the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the earth.

Corol.6. And the distance of the centre of the moon from the centre of the earth will be
to the distance of the centre of the moon from the common centre of gravity of the earth
and the moon, as 40,788 to 39,788.

rd
Ed.

Corol. 7. And the mean distance of the centre of the moon from the centre of the earth
in the lunar octants will be approximately
2
5
60 of the maximum earth radii. For the
maximum radius of the earth became 19658600 Parisian feet, and the mean distance of
the centres of the earth and the moon from
2
5
60 constant radii [these are called diameters
in the original] of this kind, is equal to 1187379440 feet. And this distance (by the above
corollary) is to the distance of the centre of the moon from the common centre of gravity
of the earth and the moon, as 40,788 to 39,788: and thus the latter distance is 158268534
feet. And since the moon is revolving with respect to the fixed stars, in 27 days, 7 hours,
an
4
9
43 minutes; the versed sine of the angle, that the moon will describe in a time of one
minute, is 12752341 parts, for a radius of 1000,000000,000000 parts. And as the radius is
to this versed sine, thus as 1158268534 feet is to 14,7706353 feet. Therefore the moon, by
that force by which it is held in orbit, by falling towards the earth, describes a distance of
14,7706353 feet in a time of one minute. And by increasing this force in the ratio
29 29
40 40
178 to 177 , the total force of gravity of the moon in orbit will be had, by the corol.
of Prop. III. And by this force the moon by falling for a time of one minute describes a
distance of 14,8538067 feet. And to the sixtieth part of the distance of the moon from the
centre of the earth, that is to the distance of 197896573 feet from the centre of the earth, a
heavy body in a time of one minute will also describe a distance of 14,853067. And thus
at the distance of 19615800 feet, which is the mean radius of the earth, a weight by
falling describes 15,11175 feet, or 15 feet, 1 inch, and lines
1
11
4 [a line was the twelfth
part of an inch]. This will be the descent of bodies at 45
0
latitude. And by the table
described in the preceding Prop. XX, the descent will be a little greater arising at the
latitude of Paris by an excess of as much as the
2
3
parts of a line. Therefore a weight
through this computation by falling in a vacuum at the latitude of Paris, describes around
15ft,, 1inch, and
25
33
4 lines in a time of one second. And if the weight may be diminished
by taking away the centrifugal force, which arises from the diurnal motion of the earth at
that latitude, then weights by falling there describe15 feet,1 inch, and
1
2
1 lines in a time of
one second. And a weight had been shown above in Prop. IV and XIX to be falling with
this speed at the latitude of Paris.

Corol.8. The mean distance between the centres of the earth and of the moon at
syzygies is 60 of the earth's maximum radius, with around a 30
th
part of the radius taken
away. And in quadrature the mean distance of the moon from the same centres is
5
6
60
earth radii. For these two distances are to the mean distance of the moon in the octants as
69 and 70 to
1
2
69 by Prop. XXVIII.

Corol.9. The mean distance between the centres of the earth and the moon in the lunar
syzygies is
1
10
60 radii of the mean earth radius. And in the lunar quadratures the mean
distance of the same centres is 61 mean radii of the earth, with the 30
th
part of a radius
taken away.

rd
Ed.

Corol.10. In the lunar syzygies, its mean horizontal parallax at the latitudes of
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 30 38 45 52 60 90 , , , , , , , is
57 20 57 16", 57 14 57 12 57 10 57 8" 57 4 ' . ", ' . ' . ", ' . ,", ' . ", ' . , ' . " respective.

[This quantity of almost 1
0
can be considered as the difference in the angle the moon
subtends against the fixed stars, by viewing the moon vertically at one place on the earth,
and horizontally at another.]

In these computations I have not considered the magnetic attraction of the earth, as its
quantity is very little and it has been ignored. Indeed if whenever this attraction will be
able to be investigated, then all the measurements of degrees at the meridian, the lengths
of isochronous pendulums at different places, the laws of motion of the seas, the parallax
of the moon, the different apparent diameters of the sun and moon, will have to be
determined more carefully from the phenomena: then one would be permitted to repeat all
these calculations more accurately.

PROPOSITION XXXVIII. PROBLEM XIX.
To find the figure of the body of the moon.

If the lunar body were fluid just like our seas, the force of the earth required to raise
that fluid into parts both nearest and furthest from the earth, would be to the force by
which our sea is raised in parts both under the moon and opposite the moon, as the
acceleration of gravity of the moon on the earth is to the gravitational acceleration of the
earth on the moon, and the diameter of the moon to the diameter of the earth conjointly :
that is, as 39,788 to 1 and 100 to 365, or as 1081 to 100. From which since our sea is
raised to
3
5
8 feet by the force of the moon, the lunar fluid by the force of the earth must be
raised to 93 feet. And for that reason the figure of the moon must be a spheroid, of which
the maximum diameter produced passes through the centre of the earth, and exceeds the
perpendiculars by an excess of 186 feet. Therefore the moon affects such a figure, and the
same must endure from the beginning. Q.E.I.

Corol. Hence indeed it shall be for this reason that the same face of the moon is always
turned towards the earth. For the moon cannot be at rest in any other situation, but by
oscillating always returns to that situation. Yet the oscillations, on account of the
smallness of the forces of agitation, have to be the slowest, acting over a long period of
time : and thus so that that face, which must always look towards the earth, can look
towards the other focus of the moon's orbit (on account of the reason referred to in Prop.
XVII), and cannot at once be turned to look away from the earth.

rd
Ed.


LEMMA I.
If APEp may designate an earth of uniform density, with centre C and with the poles
P, p and with the equator delineated by the line AE; and furthermore from the centre C
and with the [smallest] radius CP, the sphere Pape is understood to be described ;
moreover QR shall be a plane, to which the right line drawn from the centre of the sun to
the centre of the earth stands normally; and the individual particles of all the exterior
part of the earth PapAPepE, only those particles which have been described beyond the
sphere will try to recede thence from the plane QR, and the attempt of each particle to
recede shall be as its distance from the plane.

[This Lemma starts the calculation of the torque exerted on the earth by the sun due to
the equatorial bulge of the earth, as the earth rotates about an axis at an angle of 23.5
0
to
the normal to the plane of the ecliptic. The forces acting away from the plane QR towards
the sun arise from the inverse square law applied at the slightly shorter distance than
average at the centre of the earth, while those in the opposite direction away from the sun
arise from the slightly smaller than average inverse square forces. Such forces are
proportional to their distance from the plane QR, and exert a torque along an axis formed
by the intersection of the plane of the equator with the plane QR. There is an uncertainty
about this proposition, as the particles within the inner sphere are not supposed to
contribute to the bulge by having an unbalanced force acting on them]

I say in the first place, that the total force and effectiveness [i.e. the torque] in making
the earth rotate around its centre [i.e. precess], of all the particles that have been placed
in the plane of the equator AE, and which are arranged regularly around the globe in the
form of a ring, will be to the whole force exerted by an equivalent number of particles
placed at the point A of the equator, which shall be maximally distant from the plane QR,
and which constitute a similar force and effectiveness for the circular motion [i.e.
precession] of the earth moving around its centre, in the ratio one to two. And this
circular motion will be carried out around the axis lying in the common section of the
equator and the plane QR.

[The diagram below is actually in three dimensions : and represents the earth with its axis
Pp tilted to the plane of the ecliptic, which is itself normal to the plane QR, and both
planes can be imagined to extend out of the plane of the diagram (note that Newton calls
QR a plane and not a line); the line AE is then the outermost part of the permanent
semicircular equatorial bulge as viewed normally, and the lines AH, FG, etc. are the
perpendicular distances of points on this bulge to the plane QR of the average distance to
the sun, passing through the centre of the earth C. Thus, the axis normal to the plane of
the diagram passing through C is the one about which the torques act (according to the
right-hand thumb rule, with the thumb pointing out of the plane of the page), due to the
equal and opposite attractions of the sun on the equatorial bulges in front of and behind
the earth w.r.t. the sun, leading to an unbalanced torque acting on the earth, which thus
precesses slowly about its angular momentum vector direction Pp. The component of the
torque described normal to Pp, performs this task ; and which is proportional to the whole
rd
Ed.

torque acting, because of the constant angle. The first Lemma shows that the torque acting
on all the points on the bulge at the equator added together is half the torque required to
produce the same motion with all the equatorial mass of the bulge placed at A, directly
under the sun, at the maximum separation from the plane QR ; note that the mass of a line
or curve can be taken as proportional to its length, as detailed in Lemma III below. We
may visualise the arch starting at C out of the plane, passing through A and going behind
the plane of the diagram. Note that we should use phrases such as moment of inertia and
angular momentum with due caution, as these notions came later from Euler's work on
mechanics. This then is Newton's excursion into the realm of extended bodies acted on by
torques, rather than particles being acted on by forces. It is then perhaps inappropriate to
consider these lemmas from the point of view of vector calculus, as Chandrasekhar does.
The approach adopted by the old faithful Le Seur and J acquier is probably more useful.]

For with centre K and diameter IL the semicircle INLK is described. It may be
understood that the semi circumference INL has been divided into innumerable equal
parts, and from each of the individual parts N the sine NM may be sent to the diameter IL.
And the sum of the squares from all the sines NM will be equal to the sum of the squares
from all the [co]sines KM, and both sums will be equal to the sum of the squares from the
whole radius KN; and thus the sum of the squares from all NM is half as large as the sum
of the squares from the whole radius KN.
[Thus, from a more modern viewpoint, the moment of inertia of the semicircular arch
through K normal to the diagram is twice as great as the moment of inertia about either
diameter IL or the vertical one through K in the plane of the diagram. Physically, the
torque required to generate the same angular speed is twice as great in the first case than
in the following two equal cases.]
Now the perimeter of the circle AE may be divided into just as many equal parts, and
from any of these F a perpendicular FG is sent to the plane QR, just as the perpendicular
AH is sent from the point A. And the force, by which a small particle F tries to recede
from the plane QR, will be by hypothesis as that perpendicular FG, and this force
multiplied by the distance CG will be the effectiveness [i.e. the word Newton uses here
for torque] of the small particle F in turning the earth about its centre [i.e. about an axis
normal to the plane of the diagram, passing through C]. And thus the effectiveness of the
particle at the place F, will be to the effectiveness of the particle at the place A, as
to FG GC AH HC , that is, as
2 2
to FC AC ;
rd
Ed.


[For the ratio to FG GC AH HC or
FG GC FC FC
AH HC AC AC
= by the similar triangles AHC

and FGC. Thus the torques are as the equivalent moments of inertia. For, the sum of all
the terms
2 2 2 2
FC .dm KM .dm AC d cos = = , and the summations give
( )
1
2
2
2 2 2
2
M M
.AC AC i
i
FC . M AC d cos AC
= =

, where AC KN = , and where
AC. M M = ; while ( )
2
2
M
AC
i
AC . M AC =
, thus giving the required ratio. Thus, the

torque produced by the annulus is half the torque exerted by the whole mass placed at A
required to produce the same motion, where both the force and distance are a maximum. ]

and therefore the total effectiveness of all the particles in the positions of F will be to the
effectiveness of an equivalent number of particles at the place A, as the sum of all FC
2
to
the sum of just as many AC
2
, that is (as now shown) as one to two.
Q. E. D.

And because the particles exert forces by receding perpendicularly from the plane QR,
and that equally from each side of the plane: the same will cause the circumference of the
equatorial circle to turn, and with that holding fast to the earth, around both the axis lying
in that plane QR as well as that in the plane of the equator.

LEMMA II.
With these in place: in the second place I say that the force and the effectiveness of all
the individual particles situated on both sides outside the globe, for making the earth
rotate [i.e. precess] around the same axis, shall be as the total force of just as many
particles set out uniformly on the equator of the circle AE in the manner of a ring, to set
the earth moving in a similar circular motion, as two to five.
[Thus, if we sum over the whole bulge, it will exert a torque equal to
2
5
th
of the torque
provided by a uniform ring with the same number of particles in the bulge over the
equator at the maximum distance.]
rd
Ed.

Let IK be some smaller circle parallel to the equator AE, and L, l shall be any two equal
particles placed on this circle beyond the globe Pape. And if perpendiculars LM, lm are
sent to the plane QR, that has been drawn perpendicularly to a ray from the sun: the total
forces, by which these particles flee from the plane QR, will be proportional to these
perpendiculars LM and lm. But the right line Ll [lying under the arc Ll] shall be parallel
to the plane Pape, and is bisected by the same at X and through the point X there is drawn
Nn, which shall be parallel to the plane QR and crosses the perpendiculars LM, lm at N
and n, and the perpendicular XY may be sent to the plane QR. And the opposite forces of
the particles L and l, rotating in opposite directions to the earth, are as the forces

[here and subsequently, Newton uses the word force, but clearly as the quantities are
forces times perpendicular distances from the vertical axis through C, these are moments
or torques]

and LM MC lm mC , that is, as LN MC NM MC + and ln mC nm mC , or
and LN MC NM MC LN mC NM mC + : and the difference of these
LN Mm NM MC mC + , is the force [i.e. resultant torque] of both the particles taken
together required to rotate the earth [i.e. precess].
The positive part of this difference : or 2 LN Mm LN NX is to force of two particles
of the same magnitude put in place at A ,
2 2
2 as to AH HC, LX AC .
And the negative part : NM MC mC + or 2XY CY is to the force of the same two
particles put in place at A,
2 2
2 as to AH HC, CX AC .
And hence the difference of the parts, that is, the force of the two particles L & l taken
together at the place A required to turn the earth is to the force of the same two equal
particles situated in the same place turning the earth in the same manner, as
2 2 2
to LX CX AC . [By part of Lemma I.]
But if the circumference IK of the circle may be divided into innumerable equal parts
L, all the terms LX
2
will be to a comparable number of terms IX
2
as 1 to 2 (by applying the
same argument as in Lemma I.) and as a consequence to a like number particles in AC
2
, as
IX
2
to 2AC
2
; and the equivalent number of particles in CX
2
to just as many in AC
2
is as
2CX
2
to 2AC
2
[i.e. this ratio is maintained, and written as shown for later convenience in
subtracting.].
rd
Ed.

[Thus,
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
1
2
= =
i i
i i
i i
i
m LX m LX
IX m M IX

, and
( )
2
2
2 2
2
=
i
i
i
i
m LX
IX
AC m AC
; while
2 2
2 2
2
2
CX CX
AC AC
= ; hence the total
torques acting at A are as
2 2 2
2 to 2 IX CX AC .]

Whereby the forces of all the particles taken together in the course of the circle IK are to
the forces taken together of just as many particles at the place A, as
2 2 2
2 to 2 IX CX AC : and therefore (by Lem. 1.) to the forces taken together of an
equivalent number of the particles on the circumference of the circle AE, as
2 2 2
2 to IX CX AC .
[Thus, a circuit of the bulge has been replaced by a mass at A, and then this mass is
distributed about the equatorial ring AE, and as the distance of the masses is now variable
to the plane QR, the torque is decreased to half its maximum value, according to Lemma
I.]
Now truly if the diameter of the sphere Pp may be divided into innumerable equal
parts, in which there are present just as many circles IK; the matter in the perimeter of
each circle IK will be as IX
2
: [Recall that all the matter in the ring IK was put at this
position above, where it exerted the maximum torque for that ring; and which matter is
proportional to the length of the IX, so that the quantity of motion is taken as IX
2
.], and
thus the force of that matter requiring to rotate the earth will be as IX
2
into
2 2
2 IX CX .
But the forceof the same matter, if it shall be present in the circumference of the circle
AE, shall be as IX
2
into AC
2
. And therefore the force [torque] of all the particles of all
the matter, outside the globe present in the perimeters of all the circles [constituting the
bulge], is to the force of just as many particles present in the perimeter of the great circle
AE, as all IX
2
by
2 2
2 IX CX to just as many IX
2
by AC
2
, that is, as all
2 2 2 2
by 3 AC CX AC CX to just as many
2 2 2
into AC CX AC ,

[For from the centre C, to the point I, the right line CI is supposed to be drawn, and there
will be
2 2 2
IX CI CX = : but CI AC = , whereby
2 2 2
IX AC CX = , and hence the total
number of particles by their appropriate torques,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3 IX IX CX AC CX AC CX = .]
that is, as the whole of
4 2 2 4
4 3 AC AC CX CX + to just as many
4 2 2
AC AC CX ,
that is, as the total fluent quantity, the fluxion of which is
4 2 2 4
3 AC AC CX CX + , to
the total fluent quantity , the fluxion of which is
4 2 2
AC AC CX ;
and hence by the method of fluxions, as
3 4
3 5
4 2 3 5
AC CX AC CX CX + to
1
3
4 2 3
AC CX AC CX , that is, if the total Cp or AC may be written for CX, as
4 2
15 3
5 5
to AC AC , that is, as two is to five. Q.E.D.

rd
Ed.

[The quantities
4 2 2 4
4 3 AC AC CX CX + and
4 2 2
AC AC CX , taken multiplied
together by the fluxion of the line CX, and with the fluents taken, will be the fluent of the
first quantity
3 4
3 5
4 2 3 5
AC CX AC CX CX + ; but the fluent of the second quantity
becomes
1
3
4 2 3
AC CX AC CX , and from that the total effectiveness may be obtained,
for CX there is written Cp or AC, the first fluent to the second fluent will be as
4 2
15 3
5 5
to AC AC , giving the ratio quoted. (A note from L. & S.). Basically, the torque
required to rotate the extended shell around earth is
2
5
th
of the torque required to rotate a
uniform ring of the same mass about the earth with the same angular acceleration.]

[Chandrasekhar establishes a result similar to this by modern methods, but he appears to
have solved a different problem, involving the moment of inertia of the whole earth and
solid discs. The results as stated here are also shown by Cohen.]

LEMMA III.
With the same in place: I say in the third place that the motion of the whole earth
about the axis already described, composed from the sum of all the motions of the
particles, will be to the motion of the aforesaid ring around the same axis in a ratio,
which is composed from the ratio of the matter in the earth to the matter in the ring, and
in the ratio of three times the square of the arc of the quadrant of some circle to twice the
square of the diameter ; that is, in the ratio of the matter in the ring to the matter in the
earth, and of number 925275 to the number 1000000.
[This ratio amounts to
2
3
32
]
For the motion of a cylinder revolving about its fixed axis is to the motion of the
inscribed sphere and likewise rotating, as any four equal squares are to three circles
inscribed in these squares ; and the motion of the cylinder to the motion of a very thin
ring, going around with the sphere and the cylinder at their common point of contact, as
twice the matter in the cylinder to three times the matter in the ring ; and the continued
uniform motion of this ring around the axis of the cylinder is to its uniform motion around
its own, made in the same periodic time, as the circumference of the circle to twice the
diameter.

[L. & J . Note 126: Lemma III is demonstrated. By rotating the semicircle AFB, and the
circumscribed rectangle
AEDB of the same, a
sphere and a circumscribed
cylinder may be described.
Let the radius 1 CB = , the
periphery of the circle
described in this ratio
( ) or 2 n, , = the abscissa
CP x = , the ordinate
PM y = , some part of this
rd
Ed.

PR v = , rR dv = ; the periphery of the circle described with the radius PR is 2 v; the
circular ring from the revolution of the line increment 2 rR vdv = ; the velocity of the
point R v = ; (taking the angular velocity as 1 for convenience and setting the density as 1,
so that the mass and volume are given by the same variable ; thus the angular momentum
considered here called the motion, for a given increment is the volume times the radius)
the motion of the aforementioned ring
2
2 v dv = , the motion of the whole circle described
(i.e. disc with unit thickness) with the radius PR
2
3
3
v
= ; the motion of the whole disc with

unit thickness described with the radius PM
2
3
3
y
= ; the motion of the unit disc described

with the radius PN
2
3
= , and the motion of the whole cylinder

4
3
= .
Let Pp dx = ; the motion of the solid ring described by the revolution of the figure
PMmp is equal to
( )
3
2
2 2 2
3 3 3
3 2 3
1 y dx dx x sin d sin

= = , on setting x cos = .
From which the motion of the solid figure of revolution of figure described CFMB
is equal to
2
2
3 8
4
sin d .

=
Therefore the motion of the half cylinder to the motion of

the hemisphere is as
2
2
3
8
to or 16 to 3

; that is, as some four equal squares
2
4 2 16 =
to three circles with
2
1 ; and so for the whole cylinder and sphere.
The most tenuous matter of the ring going around touching the sphere and the cylinder
adjacent to the common point F shall be at the height m, and the velocity shall be as CF,
or as 1; and thus the motion m = , and thus the motion (or angular momentum) of the
cylinder to the motion of this ring is
4
3
to m
, or as 4 to 3m, that is, as twice the matter

in the cylinder (taken as its volume) to three times the matter in the ring; for the base of
the cylinder is the circle
2
1 and the diameter height 2 AF = , and thus the cylinder
2 = . The matter of the aforesaid ring shall be
2
2 a . (where a
2
is the line density), and
thus the motion around the axis of the cylinder itself
2
2 a . = . Now likewise the ring may
be revolving around closer to the axis that the diameter AB may be showing, and the
particles of the matter of the arc corresponding to the infinitesimal Mm, will be
2
a Mm
and the motion of this
2 2
a y Mm a dx = , on account of the proportion
( )
( )
( )
1 CM i.e. arc Mm
mH or dx PM i.e. y
= . Whereby the motion of the part FM, of the ring is
2
a x , and by
making 1 x = , the motion of the quadrant of the ring
2
a = ; and the motion of the whole
ring nearer the axis is
2
4a = . Therefore the motion of the ring about the axis of the
cylinder to its motion about the nearer axis is as
2 2
2 to 4 a . a , or as 2 to 4 ; that is, as
the circumference of the circle 2 to twice the diameter 4. On account of which we have
the ratios :

the motion of the cylinder to the motion of the sphere is as 16 to 3 ;
the motion of the ring around the axis of the cylinder is to the motion of the cylinder as

4
3
to m

;
rd
Ed.

and the motion of the ring around the nearer axis is to its
motion around the axis of the cylinder as 4 to 2 .
Whereby, by the composition of the ratios and from the equation, the motion of the sphere
around the closer axis is to the motion of the ring as ( )
3
2 to 64 . m But
2
4 12
3
3 16 8
64 8
=
m m

, and
4
3
is the quantity of matter in the earth of radius 1; m, the quantity of matter in the
ring;
2
12
16
is the sum of three squares from the arc of the circle AFB, and 8 is the sum of
two squares from the diameter AB. Whereby the motion of the whole earth around the
axis now described, composed from the motions of all the particles, will be to the motion
of the aforesaid ring around the same axis, in the ratio that is composed from the ratio of
the matter of the earth to the matter in the ring, and from the ratio of three squares from
the arc of the quadrant of some circle to two squares from the diameter, that is, in the ratio
of the matter to the matter and the number 925275 to the number 1000000 or
2
3
32
, with
the ratio of the diameter to the periphery taken approximately as 1 to 3.141
approximately. Q.e.d.]

HYPOTHESIS II.
If the aforesaid ring, with all of the remaining earth removed, alone may be carried in
orbit around the sun in its annual motion, and meanwhile revolving in a diurnal motion
around its axis inclined to the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of
1
2
23 degrees : likewise
the motion of the equinoctial points shall be the same, whether the annulus shall be fluid
or constructed from rigid and firm matter.

PROPOSITION XXXIX. PROBLEM XX.
To find the precession of the equinoxes.

The mean hourly motion of the lunar nodes in a circular orbit, when the nodes are in
quadrature, was
iv v
16 35 16 36 " . "' . . , and the mean hourly motion of the nodes in such an
orbit is half of this
iv v
8 17 38 18 " . "' . . (on account of the reasons explained above); and in a
sidereal year in total it shall be
gr
20 11 46 . ' . " . Therefore because in the preceding the
lunar nodes in such an orbit put such an annual amount in place
gr
20 11 46 . ' . " ; and if
there were several moons, the motion of the nodes of each (by Corol. 16. Prop. LXVI.
Book I.) would become as the periodic times ; if a moon were revolving next to the
surface of the earth in the space of a sidereal day, the annual motion of the nodes would
be to
gr
20 11 46 . ' . " as the sidereal day of 23. 56' hours to the periodic time of the moon of
27 days, 7 hours, 43minutes ; that is, as 1436 to 39343. And the ratio of the nodes of a
ring of moons around the earth is the same ; whether these moons do not affect each
other, or they merge together and form a continuous ring, or in fact that ring may be
rendered rigid and inflexible.
Therefore we may consider that this ring as a quantity of matter that shall be equal to
all the earth PapAPepE which is above the globe Pape; (See the figure for Lemma II ) and
rd
Ed.

because such a globe is to the earth above as aC
2
to
2 2
AC aC , that is (since the smaller
radius of the earth PC or aC shall be to the greater radius AC as 229 to 230) as 52441 to
459; if this ring should surround the earth around the equator and each were revolved
around the diameter of the ring, the motion of the ring would be to the motion of the
interior globe (by Lem. III of this part) as 459 to 51441 and 1000000 to 925175
conjointly, that is, as 4590 to 485223 ; and thus the motion of the ring would be to the
sum of the motions of the ring and the globe, as 4590 to 489813. From which if the ring
were attached to the globe, and its motion, by which nodes of this or the equinoctial
points were regressing, since it may share with the globe: the motion which will remain in
the ring will be to the first motion, as 4590 to 489813; and therefore the motion of all the
equinoctial points will be diminished in the same ratio. Therefore the annual equinoctial
motion of all the points of the body composed from the ring and the globe will be to the
motion
gr
20 11 46 . ' . " , as 1436 to 39343 and 4590 to 489813 conjointly, that is, as 100 to
292369. But the forces by which the lunar nodes (as I have set out above) and thus by
which the equinoctial points of the ring are regressing (that is the forces 3IT in the figure
to Prop. 30) are by the individual particles as the distances of the particles from the plane
QR, and by these forces these particles flee from that plane; and therefore (by Lem. II.) if
the matter of the ring may be spread out over the whole globe in the manner of the figure
PapAPepE above that part of the earth put in place, the force and the total turning effect
of all the particles rotating around the equator of the earth in some manner, and thus to the
movement of the equinoctial points, will emerge smaller than in that first ratio of 2 to 5.
And thus the annual regression of the equinoxes now will be to
gr
20 11 46 . ' . " as 10 to
73092 : and hence it becomes
iv
9 56 50 " . ''' . .
Further this motion on account of the inclination of the plane of the equator to the
plane of the ecliptic is to be diminished, and that in the ratio of the sine 91706 (which is
the complement of the sine of
1
2
23 degrees) to the radius 100000. On which account this
motion now becomes
iv
9 7 20 " . ''' . . This is the annual precession of the equinoxes arising
from the force of the sun.
Moreover the force of the moon requiring to move the sea was to the force of the sun
as 4,4815 to 1 approximately. And the force of the moon required to move the equinoxes
is in the same proportion to the force of the sun. And thence the annual precession of the
equinoxes by the force of the moon arises :
iv
40 52 52 " . ''' . , and thus the total annual
precession arising from both forces will be
iv
50 00 12 " . ''' . . And this motion agrees with
the phenomena. For the precession of the equinoxes from astronomical observations is
annually a little more or less than fifty minutes.
If the height of the earth at the equator should exceed that at the poles, by more than
1
6
17 miles, its matter will be rarer at the circumference than at the centre : and the
precession of the equinoxes on account of that height will be increased, on account of the
rareness it must be diminished.
Now we have described the system of the sun, of the earth, moon and planets; it
remains that something may be added concerning comets.

rd
Ed.

Book III Section IV.
Translated & Annotated by Ian Bruce. Page 869

LEMMA IV.
Comets occupy places beyond the moon, moving in the region of the planets.

Just as the lack of diurnal parallax raises comets beyond sub lunar regions,
so one is convinced from the annual parallax that they fall in the regions of the planets.
For comets, which are progressing along the order of the signs [of the Zodiac], are all at
the end of their appearance, either going more & more slowly or backwards, if the earth is
between them & the sun ; but just as much faster if the earth turns in opposition. And on
the contrary, those which go against the order of the signs are equally faster at the end of
their appearance, if the earth is present between them & the sun ; & equally they go
slower or backwards, if the earth is situated on the other side [of its orbit] . This is in
maximum agreement with the motion of the earth : in the variation of its position, in the
same way as it shall be with the planets, which for the motion of the earth are either in
agreement, or in opposition, in the one case seen to be progressing slower, in the other
quicker. If the earth travels in the same direction as the comet, & in the angular motion
about the sun it goes a little faster, so that a right line drawn through the earth & the
comet always meet at places beyond the comet, the comet seen from the earth on account
of its slower motion appears to be moving backwards ; but if the earth were carried
forwards slower [than the comet], the motion of the comet (with the motion of the earth
subtracted) shall be at least slower. But if the earth proceeds in the opposite direction, the
comet will appear a great deal faster. Moreover either from the acceleration or retardation
or from the backwards motion, the distance of the comet can be deduced in this manner.
Let [ QA, [ QB, [ QC be three observations of the longitudes of the comet from the
initial motion, & let [ QF be the final longitude observed, when the comet ceases to be
seen. The right line ABC is drawn, the parts of which AB, BC lying between QA & QB,
QB & QC , shall be in turn as the times between the first three observations. AC is
produced to G so that AG shall be to AB as the time between the first observation & the
final to the time between the first observation & the second, & QG may be joined. And if
the comet may be moving uniformly in a straight line, & the earth is either at rest or also
may be progressing along a line with a uniform motion; the angle [ QG will be the final
longitude of the comet observed in the final time of observation. Therefore the angle
FQG, which is the difference of the longitudes, arises from the inequality of the motion of
rd
Ed.

the comet & the earth. But this angle, if the earth & the comet are moving in opposite
directions, is added to the angle [ QG & thus the apparent motion of the comet is
returned faster : but if the comet goes in the same direction as the earth, the same is
subtracted, & the motion of the comet is returned either slower, or perhaps backwards ; as
I have just explained. Therefore here the angle arises particularly from the motion of the
earth, & therefore consequently can be taken for the parallax of the comet, clearly with
some increment or decrement of this ignored because an inequality in the motion of the
comet in its own orbit may arise. Truly the distance of the comet thus can be deduced
from this parallax.
Let S designate the sun, acT the great orbit, a the position of the earth at the first
observation, c the place of the earth at the third observation, T the place of the earth at the
final observation, & T[ a right line drawn towards the first star in Aries. The angle
[ TV is taken equal to the angle [ QF, that is, equal to the longitude of the comet when
the earth is present at T. Join ac, & that is produced to g, so that ag shall be to ac as AG to
AC, & g will be the position that the earth will reach in the time of the final observation,
by continuing uniformly in a straight line. And thus if gr is drawn parallel to Tr itself, &
the angle [ gV is taken equal to the [ QG, this will be the angle [ gV equal to the
longitude of the comet seen from the place g ; & the angle TVg will be the parallax, which
arises from the translation of the earth from the place g to the place T: & hence V will be
the position of the comet in the plane of the ecliptic. Moreover this place V is accustomed
to be within the orbit of Jupiter.
Likewise the paths of comets is deduced from the curvature. These bodies go almost in
large circles while they travel with their greatest speed ; but at the end of their course,
when that part of the apparent motion which arises from parallax, has a greater proportion
to the whole apparent motion, they are accustomed to be deflected from these circles, &
just as often as the earth is moving in one direction, to go off in the opposite direction.
This deflection arises mainly from the parallax, because that corresponds to the motion of
the earth ; & the amount of this is signified, by my calculation, to have deduced the
disappearance of comets well enough far beyond Jupiter. From which it follows that in the
perigees & perihelions, when they are present closer, often fall within the orbit of Mars &
of the inner planets.
rd
Ed.

Also the nearness of comets is confirmed by the light of the heads. For the light of a
heavenly body illuminated by the sun, & going off into distant regions, is diminished in
splendour in the square of the distance : clearly in the square ratio on account of the
increase of distance from the sun, & in another square ratio on account of the diminution
of the apparent diameter. From which if the apparent diameter & the quantity of light of
the comet is given, the distance of the comet will be given, by saying that the distance
will be to the distance of a planet, in the ratio of the diameter [of the comet] to the
diameter of the planet directly & inversely in the inverse square root ratio of the light [of
the comet] to the light of the planet. Thus if the smallest diameter of the hairs of the comet
of the year 1682, observed by Flamsted with an optical tube 16 feet long & measured by a
micrometer, was equal to 2 0 ' . " ; but the nucleus or the star in the middle of the head was
occupying scarcely the tenth part of this width, & thus the width was only 11" or 12".
Truly with the light & clarity of the head it exceeded the head of the comet of the year
1680, & was emulating a star of the first or second order magnitude. We may consider
Saturn & its ring to be as if four times brighter : & because the light of the ring will be in
the same manner equal to the light of the globe in the centre, & the apparent diameter of
the globe shall be as if 21", & thus the light of the globe & of the ring jointly will be equal
to the light of a globe, the diameter of which shall be 30": the distance of the comet to the
distance of Saturn will be as 1 to 4 inversely, & as 12" to 30" directly, that is, as 24 to
30 or 4 to 5. Again the comet of the year 1665 in the month of April, as Helvelius is the
authority, by its clarity surpassed almost all the fixed stars, even Saturn, on account of the
vividness of its colour for a long while. Certainly this comet was brighter than that other
one, which had appeared at the end of the preceding year, & might be compared with the
stars of the first magnitude. The width of the hairs was around 6', but the nucleus
compared with the planets with the aid of a telescope clearly was less than Jupiter, & now
smaller than the intermediate body of Saturn, & at other times judged to be equal. Again
since the diameter of the hairs of the comet rarely exceeded 8' or 12', truly the diameter of
the nucleus, or of the central star shall be around a tenth or perhaps a fifteenth part of the
diameter of the hairs, it is apparent that these stars & most of the same kind are of the
same apparent magnitudes as the planets. From which since the light of these can often be
compared with the light of Saturn, & which may exceed that a little ; it is evident, that all
comets taken together at the perihelion are either below Saturn, or not much more.
Therefore, those who relegate comets to the region of the fixed stars err completely: by
which account certainly comets would be illuminated no more by our sun, than the
planets, which are here, can be illuminated by the fixed stars.
We have discussed these things without considering the obscurity of comets through
all that most dense & abundant smoke, by which the head is surrounded, as if it were
always shining through a dense cloud. For as much as the body is rendered obscure by
this smoke, so it is necessary that it must approach much closer to the sun, so that the
abundance of light reflected from them emulates the planets. Thence it appears to be the
case that comets fall far below Saturn's globe, just as we have shown from parallax. The
same indeed as may be confirmed fully from the tails; these arise either from reflection
from the smoke scattered through the ether, or from the light of the head. In the first case
it is to be lessened with the distance of the comets, lest the smoke from the head always
arises & by expanding may be propagated with an incredible speed through an
rd
Ed.

exceedingly great distance, in the latter case all the light for both the tails as well as the
hairs are to be attributed to the nucleus of the head. [It is of course the solar wind that is
responsible for the tail.] Therefore if we may consider all this light to be gathered together
& to be encircled by the disc of the nucleus, certainly that nucleus now, whenever it sends
off a great & most brilliant tail, will exceed the splendour of Jupiter itself many times.
Therefore with an apparent smaller diameter emitting more light, the comet must be much
more illuminated by the sun, & thus much closer to the sun. Furthermore, when their head
is hidden under the sun, & with great smoking tails sometimes emitted in the image of
tree trunks on fire, by the same argument such comets must be deduced to be within the
orbit of Venus. For all that light if it be supposed to be gathered together in a star, I may
say that it may surpass Venus itself & lest whenever several Venuses are in conjunction.
Finally the same may be deduced from the increasing light of the heads of comets
receding from the earth towards the sun, & in the decrease in their recession from the sun.
For since the comet at the end of the year 1665 (from the observations of Hevelius) from
when it began to be seen, always maintained its apparent motion, & thus went beyond
perigee ; truly the splendour of the head likewise was increasing from day to day, until it
ceased to be evident on account of being hidden by the rays of the sun. The comet of the
year 1683 (from the observations of the same Hevelius) at the end of the month of July,
when first it was evident, was moving most slowly, completing around 40 or 45 minutes
of arc in its orbit. From that time its diurnal motion always increased as far as Sept. 4.
when it became around five degrees. Therefore in this whole time the comet was
approaching the earth. Which was also deduced from the diameter of the head measured
with a micrometer : evidently as Hevelius found on Aug. 6. to be as much as 6'. 5" with
the hair included, but on Sept. 2 to be 9'. 7''. Therefore the head appeared less long than at
the end of the motion, but yet initially in the vicinity of the sun it was more visible in
length than around the end, as the same Hevelius reports. Hence in this whole time, the
light decreased on account of its receding from the sun, not withstanding its approach to
the earth. The comet of the year 1618 about the middle of the month of December, & that
one of the year 1680 around the end of the same month, were moving with great speed, &
thus soon they were in perigees. The true maximum splendour of the heads was seen
almost two weeks before, but only when they emerged from the rays of the sun, & the
maximum splendour of the tails a little before, in the near vicinity of the sun. The head of
the first comet, beside the observations Cysat on December 1, was seen to be greater than
stars of the first order magnitude, & on December 16. (now present in perigees) with a
small magnitude, with the splendour or clarity of the light a great deal reduced. On Jan. 7,
with the head uncertain, Kepler finished his observations.
On the 12
th
day of December Flamsteed observed & noted the head of the latter comet
at a separation of 9 degrees from the sun ; it was conceded to be a star of scarcely the
third order magnitude. On December the 15
th
& 17
th
is appeared the same as a star of the
third order magnitude, certainly diminished compared to the splendour of the clouds of
the setting sun. December 26
th
, the day of the greatest motion, with that present near the
perigee, it dropped to the mouth of Pegasis, a star of the third magnitude. Jan. 3
rd
it
appeared as a star of the fourth magnitude, Jan. 9
th
as a star of the fifth, Jan.13
th
it
disappeared on account of the brilliance of the rising moon. Jan. 25. scarcely being equal
to a star of the seventh magnitude.
rd
Ed.

Thence if the times are taken equally from the perigee, then the heads put in more
distant regions at these times [from the earth], on account of the equal distances from the
earth, ought to shine equally with maximum brilliance; but it is of maximum brightness in
the direction of the sun, & nearly disappearing from the other side of the perigee.
Therefore from the great difference of the light in each situation, it must be concluded that
the maximum light comes from the comet & the sun nearby in the first situation. For the
light of comets is accustomed to be regulated, & the maxima to appear when the heads are
moving the fastest, & thus they are at the perigees; unless perhaps that is greater in the
vicinity of the sun.

Corol. 1. Therefore comets shine by the light of the sun reflected from them.

Corol. 2. Also from what has been said it is understood why comets frequent the region
of the sun so much. If they may be discerned in regions far beyond Saturn, often they
must appear on opposite sides of the sun. Indeed they must be closer to the earth, which is
present in these parts; & the sun interposed obscures the rest. Truly by running through
the history of comets, I have found that four or five times more have been detected in the
hemisphere towards the sun, than in the opposite hemisphere, besides, without doubt a
few others, that the light of the sun has concealed. Without doubt in the descent to our
regions neither do they emit tails, nor thus are they illuminated by the sun, as required so
that they may be found in the first place by the naked eye, as they shall be closer to
Jupiter itself. But of the space described in the small interval around the sun, the greater
length is situated on the side of the earth, which looks at the sun ; & in that greater part
comets are usually illuminated more by the sun, as they are very much closer.

Corol. 3. Hence also it is evident, that the heavens are free from resistance. For comets
have followed oblique paths sometimes contrary to the course of the planets, are moving
most freely in all cases, & their motion, even considered for a long time contrary to the
course of the planets. I am mistaken if they shall not be bodies of the same kind as
planets, & may be moving in orbit, returning perpetually. For as writers wish to regard
comets as some kind of meteors, the argument following from the constantly changing
heads, may be seen to be without foundation. The heads of comets are surrounded by
huge atmospheres ; & the atmospheres below must be denser. From which it is from these
clouds, not from the bodies of comets themselves, that these changes are seen. Thus the
earth if it may be viewed from the planets, without doubt brilliant from the light of its
clouds, & the firm body beneath the clouds almost hidden. Thus belts have been formed
by the clouds of the Jovian planet, in which the positions may change among themselves,
& the firm body of Jupiter is discerned with difficulty by these clouds. And the bodies of
comets must be buried under both much more deep & thicker atmospheres.

rd
Ed.


PROPOSITION XL. THEOREM XX.
Comets move in conic sections having foci in the centre of the sun, & with rays drawn
to the sun describe areas proportional to the times.

This is apparent by Corol. 1. Prop. X11I. Book I, together with Prop. V11I, X11, &
X11I. of Book 11I.

Corol. 1. Hence if comets return in orbit; the orbits will be ellipses, & the periodic
times will be to the periodic times of the planets in the three on two ratio of the principle
axes. And thus comets are present for the most part beyond the planets, & by that account
describing orbits with greater axes, revolving slower. So that if the axis of the orbit of a
comet shall be four times greater than the orbit of Saturn, the time of revolution of the
comet shall be to the time of revolution of Saturn, that is, to 30 years, as 4 4 (or 8) to 1,
& thus it will be of 240 years.

Corol 2. But the orbits will be thus so close to parabolas, that parabolas may be taken
in turn without sensible error.

Corol. 3. And therefore (by Corol. 7, Prop. XVI, Book 1.) the velocities of all comets,
will be to the velocity of any planet revolving in a circle around the sun, in the square root
ratio of twice the distance of the planet from the centre of the sun to the distance of the
comet from the centre of the sun approximately. We may consider the radius of the great
orbit, or the maximum radius of the ellipse in which the earth is revolving to be of
100000000 parts: & the earth from its daily motion describes on average 1720212 parts,
& in its hourly motion
1
2
71675 parts. And thus a comet at the same mean distance from
the sun, with that velocity which shall be to the velocity of the earth as 2 to 1, describes
in its daily motion 2432747 parts, & in the hourly motion
1
2
101364 parts. But in the
greater or lesser distances, the daily as well as the hourly motion will be inversely in the
square root ratio of the distances, & thus is given.

[Chandrasekhar points out the formula on page 480 from which this constant is derived,
correct to 6 places, which is now commonly called the Gaussian constant of gravitation.]

Corol. 4. From which if the major latus rectum of the parabola shall be four times the
radius of the great orbit, & the square of that radius is put to be of 100000000 : the area
that will be described by the radius drawn from the comet to the sun in single days will be
of
1
2
1216373 parts, & the area of the individual hours will be of
3
4
50682 parts. But the
major latus rectum may be either less or greater in some ratio, the diurnal area & hourly
areas will be greater or less inversely in the square root of that ratio.

rd
Ed.


LEMMA V.
To find the curved line of the parabola generated, that will pass through any number of
given points.

[This is Newton's theory of interpolation. An excellent article on this can be found by
Duncan C. Fraser, Newton & Interpolation, in the commemorative volume published in
1927 for the Mathematical Gazette by Bell & Co. This has subsequently been set out by
Chandrasekhar in his book, Newton's Principia for the Common Reader, p.481 (Oxford).]

Let these be the points A, B, C, D, E, F, etc, and from the same send some number of
perpendiculars AH, BI, CK, DL, EM, FN to some right line in the given position HN.

Case. 1. If the intervals HI, IK, KL of the points H, I, K, L, M, N shall be equal, gather
together the first differences b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b, of the perpendiculars AH, BI, CK, and the
second differences c, 2c, 3c, 4c ; the third d, 2d, 3d ; that is, so that thus there shall be

2 3 4 5 AH BI b, BI CK b,CK DL b, DL EM b, EM FN b = = = + = + = ; then
2 b b c = , thus it may go on to the last difference, which is f.
Then erect some perpendicular RS, which shall be the applied ordinate to the curve sought
: in order that the length of this may be found, put the intervals HI, IK, KL, LM, etc equal
to one, & call

1 1 1 1
2 3 4 5
AH a, HS p , p IS q, q SK r, r SL s, s SM t = = = + = + = + = ;

but it is clear that by proceeding as far as to the second last perpendicular ME, & by
putting negative signs in front of the terms HS, IS, which lie on the one side of the point S
towards A, & with a positive sign for the terms SK, SL, etc which lie towards the other
direction of the point S. And with the signs observed properly, there will be
RS a bp cq dr es ft = + + + + + ,
Case 2. However if the intervals HI, IK, etc of the points H, I, K, L, etc shall be
unequal, take the first differences b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b etc to be the difference of the
perpendiculars AH, BI, CK, etc , divided by the intervals of the perpendiculars ; the
rd
Ed.

second differences c, 2c, 3c, 4c, etc to be the previous differences divided by the interval
between every two intervals; the third d, 2d, 3d, etc those divided by the interval between
every three intervals; the fourth e, 2e, the third divided by every four intervals, & thus
henceforth; that is, so that there shall be thus :

2 2 3 3 4
, 2 , 3 , then 2 3
BI CK CK DL b b b b b b AH BI
HI IK KL HK IL KM
b b b & c , c , c ,&c.

= = = = = =
then again,
2 2 3
2
c c c c
HL IM
d , d ,

= =
With the differences found call

AH a, HS p, p IS q, q SK r, r SL s, s SM t = = = + = + = + = ;

clearly by proceeding as far as the penultimum perpendicular ME, & the applied ordinate
[i.e. the y coordinate] RS a bp cq dr es ft = + + + + + ,

Corol. Hence the areas of all curves can be found approximately. For if from some
points of any curve are found of which the quadrature is required, & a parabola is
understood to be drawn through the same points : the area of this same parabola will be
approximately equal to the quadrature sought. Moreover the quadrature of the parabola
can always be found geometrically by very wellknown methods.

LEMMA VI.
By observing some number of places of a comet to find its place at some given
intermediate time.

In fig. preceding figure, HI, IK, KL, LM may designate the times between
observations, HA, IB, KC, LD, ME are five observations of the longitude of the comet,
HS the given time between the first observation & the longitude sought. And if the regular
curve ABCDE is understood to be drawn through the points A, B, C, D, E ; then by the
above lemma, its applied ordinate RS can be found, & RS is the longitude sought.
By the same method from five latitudes observed the latitude at a given time can be
found.
If the differences of observed longitudes shall be small, for example only of 4 or 5
degrees ; three or four observations will suffice to find a new longitude & latitude. But if
the differences shall be greater, for example of 10 or 20 degrees, five observations must
be used.

rd
Ed.

LEMMA V11.
To draw a right line BC through a given point P, the parts of which PB, PC have a
given ratio in turn, with the two given positions of the abscissa AB, AC.

From that point P to one of the lines AB some line PD is
drawn, & the same is produced towards the other right line
AC as far as to E, so that PE shall be to PD in that given
ratio; EC shall be drawn parallel to AD itself ; & if CPB, is
drawn, PC will be to PB as PE to PD. Q.E.F.

LEMMA V11I.
Let ABC be a parabola having the focus S. The chord AC, bisected in I, cuts the
segment ABCI, of which the diameter shall be I and the vertex . On I produced
there is taken O equal to half of I . OS is joined, & that is produced to , so that S
shall be equal to 2SO. And if the comet B is moving in the arc CBA, & B is drawn
cutting AC in E: I say that the point E will cut a segment AE from the chord AC,
approximately proportional to the time.

[From the construction,
1 1 1
2 3 3
and O I IO, SO O = = = .]
For EO is joined cutting the parabolic arc ABC in Y & X may be drawn, which is a
tangent to the same arc at the vertex , & crossing EO in X; & therefore the curvilinear
area AEX A will be to the curvilinear area AEY A as AE to AC. And therefore since
the triangle ASE shall be in the same ratio to the triangle ASC as AE to AC, the total area
ASEX A will be to the total area ASCY A as AE to AC. But since, O shall be to SO as
3 to 1, & EO to XO shall be in the same ratio, SX will be parallel to EB : & therefore if BX
is joined, the triangle SEB will be equal to the triangle XEB. From which if the triangle
EXB is added to the area ASEX A , & from the sum the triangle SEB is taken, there will
remain the area ASBX A equal to the area ASEX A , & thus to the area ASCY A as AE
rd
Ed.

to AC. But the area ASBY A is approximately equal to the area ASBX A , & this area
ASBY A is to the area ASCY A , as the time of the arc described AE to the time of the
whole arc described AC. And thus AE is to AC in the approximate ratio of the times. Q. E.
D.

[Chandrasekhar had trouble with this proof on account of the now obscure theorem, (the
basis of which L & S attribute to Archimedes : de Parabola , see Heath, The Works of
Archimedes, Quadrature of the Parabola, Prop. XXIV & prior to this, available in
Dover), & the poor quality of the diagram, which he has taken the trouble to have re
drawn, & he has finally tracked down a more modern proof in Salmon's Treatise on Conic
Sections, p.372 in the 6
th
edition. I have added some colours to the diagram, which is
almost completely illegible in the original Principia, & which is hard to see even in
Cohen's redrawn version, though of course the idea behind it is readily understood, when
everything else is tidied up. Thus, in Newton's day, the works of Archimedes were
generally well-known, so he felt disinclined to elaborate on a result that presumably was
obvious to him.
However, here is the note produced by L. & J., showing that
: : ASBY A ASCY A AE AC = :
Since the chord AC has been bisected in I, the semi-segment A I IC = . Likewise
because X is a tangent to the parabola at , X will be parallel to the chord AC (by
Lem. IV, de Conics, Apoll., Book I.), & hence the triangle OIE is similar to the triangle
O X , & thus, on account of 3 IO O = ,
9
8
9 and trap. IOE OX IOE I XE = =
. Therefore the triangle
3
2
: IAO IA = , on omitting lines in the diagram to avoid
confusion, since likewise A shall be a vertex of each triangle, & the base OI shall be
3
2
I ; truly
3
4
semi-segment A I A I = , from Prop. XXIV of Archimedes quoted
above. Whereby
9
8
semi-segment AOI A I = , that is, in the ratio composed from
3 3
2 4
,
& hence
9
8
: semi-segment : trapezium AOI A I IOE XEI = = , just as in turn we have
the trapezium : semi-segment : XIE A I IE AI = , & hence on compounding, since the
curvilinear area half-segment trap A XE A I . XEI = + , then
thecurvilinear area : semi-segment : A XE A I AE AI = , & hence the
curvilinear area : total segment : A XE A C AE AC. = ]

Corol. When the point B falls upon the vertex of the parabola, AE is to AC in the
accurate ratio of the times.

Scholium.
If is joined cutting AC in , & on that there is taken n , which shall be to B as
27MI to 16M : with Bn drawn cutting the chord AC in the ratio of the times more
accurately than before. But the point n may be placed beyond the point , if the point B is
more distant from the principle vertex of the parabola than the point ; & closer, if the
point B is at a lesser distance from the same vertex.
rd
Ed.


LEMMA IX.
The right lines
4

AI IC
S
I , M, and the length

are equal to each other.

For 4S is the latus rectum of the parabola pertaining to the vertex .

LEMMA X.
If S is produced to N & P, so that N shall be the third part of I , & SP shall be
to SN as SN to S . A comet, in which time it will describe the arc A C , if it may be
progressing in that time with the velocity that it has at the altitude equal to SP, describes
a length equal to the chord AC.

For if the comet with the velocity that it has at , may be progressing in the same time
uniformly in a right line, which will be a tangent to the parabola at ; the area, that it will
describe by a radius drawn to the point S, shall be equal to the area of the parabola
ASC . & thus the product formed from the length described by the tangent & the length
S shall be to the product formed from the lengths AC & SM, as the area ASC to the
triangle ASC; that is, as SN to SM. Whereby AC is to the length of the tangent described,
as S to SN. But since the velocity of the comet at the altitude SP [i.e. distance from the
sun at S] shall be (by Corol. 6, Prop. XVI, Book I.) to its velocity at the altitude S
inversely in the square root ratio of SP to S , that is, in the ratio S to SN ; the length
described with this velocity in the same time will be to the length described in the tangent,
as S to SN . Therefore AC & the length described with this new velocity, since they
shall be in the same ratio to the length described by the tangent, are equal to each other.
Q.E.D.

Corol. Therefore a comet with that velocity, that it has at the altitude
2
3
S I + , will
describe the chord AC in approximately the same time.

rd
Ed.


LEMMA XI.
If a comet deprived of all its motion may be dropped from the altitude SN or
2
3
S I + , so shat it falls into the sun, & it is continued always to be acted on by force,
by which it was acted on from the beginning; the same in half the time, in which it
described the arc AC in its orbit, will describe a distance equal to the length I in its
descent.

For the comet, in the time during which it describes the arc of the parabola AC, will
describe the chord AC with that velocity which it did from the altitude SP (by the most
recent lemma), & thus (by corol. 7, Prop. XVI, Book I.) in the same time in a circle, its
diameter would be SP, & by the force of gravity by its revolving, would describe an arc,
the length of which would be to the parabolic chord of the arc AC, in the square root ratio
of 1 to 2. And therefore with that weight, which it had at the altitude SP to the sun, by
falling from that altitude into the sun, describe in half of that time (by corol. 9, Prop. IV,
Book I.) a distance equal to the square of half the chord applied to the square of the
altitude SP, that is, the distance
2
4
AI
SP
. From which since the weight of the comet towards
the sun at the altitude SN shall be to its weight towards the sun at the altitude SP, as SP to
S : the comet with the weight that is has at the altitude SN, by falling towards the sun in
the same time, describes the interval
2
4
AI
S
, that is, a distance equal to the length
or I M . Q.E.D.

PROPOSITION XLI. PROBLEM XXI.
To determine the trajectory of a comet moving in a parabola from three given
observations.

This most difficult problem has been attacked for a long time in many ways, & I have
set out certain problems in Book I, which are concerned with its solution. Afterwards I
have thought out the following simpler solution.
rd
Ed.

Three observations are selected with equal time intervals from the approximate
intervals one after the other. Moreover let that time interval of the time, when the comet
is moving the slowest, be a little greater than the other, thus so that it is apparent that the
difference of the times shall be to the sum of the times, as the sum of the times to around
600 days ; or so that the point E (in the figure of Lemma VIII.)
may fall nearly on the point M, & thence it wanders towards I rather than towards A. If
such observations shall not be on hand, the place of a new comet can be found by Lemma
VI.
Let S designate the sun, T , t , three places of the earth in its great orbit ; TA, tB,
C three observations of the longitudes of the comet ; V the time passing between the
observations of the first & the second, W the time passing between the second & the third
; X the longitude, that the comet in that whole time may be able to describe, with that
velocity that it has at the mean earth to sun position, & which (by Corol. 3, Prop. XL,
Book 11I) is required to be found, & tV the perpendicular to the chord T .
In the middle longitude observed tB , some point B is taken as the location of the comet
in the plane of the ecliptic, & thence the line BE is drawn towards the sun S, which shall
be to the sagittam tV, as the product
2
SB St to the cube of the hypotenuse of the right
angled triangle, the sides of this are SB & the tangent of the latitude of the comet in the
second observation for the radius tB. And the right line AEC is drawn through the point E
(by Lemma V11 of this section), the parts of which AE, EC terminated by the lines TA &
C , shall be in turn as the times V & W: & both A & C will be locations of the comet in
the plane of the ecliptic approximately in the first & third observations, but only if B shall
be the place correctly assumed in the second observation.
To AC bisected at I erect the perpendicular Ii. Through the point B draw the hidden line
Bi parallel to AC itself. Join the hidden line Si cutting AC in , & completer the
parallelogram iI p . Take I equal to 3I , & through the sun S draw the hidden line
equal to 3 3 S i + . And now with the letters A, E, C, & I deleted ; from the point B
rd
Ed.

towards the point draw a new hidden line BE, which shall be to the first BE in the
square ratio of the distance BS to the quantity
1
3
S i + . And through the point E again
draw the right line AEC from the same rule as before, that is, so that the parts of this AE &
EC shall be in turn, as the times between the observations V & W; both A & C will be
more accurate places of the comet.
The perpendiculars AM, CN, IO are erected to AC bisected at I, of which AM & CN
shall be the tangents of the latitudes in the first & third observations to the radii TA & TC
; MN is joined cutting IO in O ; the rectangle iI is put in place as before. In IA
produced ID is taken equal to
2
3
S i + . Then on MN , MP is taken towards N, which
shall be to the above longitude found X, in the square root ratio of the mean distance of
the earth from the sun (or the radius of the great orbit) to the distance OD. If the point P
falls on the point N; A, B & C will be three places of the comet, through which it must
describe its orbit in the plane of the ecliptic. But if the point P is not incident in the point
N; then on the right line AC there is taken CG equal to NP, thus so that the points G & P
may lie in the same direction as the right line NC.
By the same method, by which the points E, A, C, & G have been found from the
assumed point B, with whatever other assumed points b & G, new points e, a, c, g, &
, , , may be found. Then if through G, g, the circumference of the circle Gg may
be drawn, cutting the right line C in Z: Z will be the position of the comet in the plane
of the ecliptic. And if on AC, ac, , the right lines AF,af , are taken respectively
equal to CG,cg, , & through the points F, f , the circumference of the circle Ff is
drawn, cutting the right line AT in X ; X will be another position of the comet in the plane
of the ecliptic. To the points X & Z the tangents of the latitudes of the comet may be
erected to the radii TX & TZ; & two places of the comet will be found in its proper orbit.
Finally, (by Prop. XIX, Book I.) with the focus S, a parabola is described through two
places, & this will be the trajectory of the comet. Q. E. I.

The demonstration of this construction follows from the lemmas : certainly since the
right line AC may be cut at E in the ratio of the times, by Lemma V11, as required by
Lemma V11I ; & BE by Lemma XI would be the part of the right line BS or B in the
plane of the ecliptic, put in place between the arc ABC & the chord AEC ; & MP (by
Corol. Lem. X.) would be the length of the chord of the arc, that the comet in its proper
orbit would describe between its first & third observations, & thus it should be equal to
MN, but only if B were a true place of the comet in the plane of the ecliptic.
The remainder of the points B, b, are not taken as you wish, for it is agreed to
choose them near each other. If the angle AQt may be known roughly, in which projection
of the orbit described in the plane of the ecliptic cuts the line tB ; in that angle it will be
necessary to draw the hidden line AC, which shall be to
4
3
T in the square root ratio of
SQ to St. And with the right line SEB acting, the part of which EB is equal to the length
Vt, the point B will be determined that it was allowed to use in the first place. Then with
the right line AC deleted & with the following preceding construction drawn again, &
with the above length MP found ; on tB the point b is taken, by that rule, so that if TA, TC
shall mutually cut each other in T, the distance Tb shall be to the distance TB, in the ratio
rd
Ed.

composed from the ratio MP & MN & the ratio of the square root of SB to Sb. And by the
same method the third point can be found but only if there is a desire to repeat the
operation a third time. Moreover by this method the two operations at most will suffice.
For if the distance Bb becomes very small, after the points F, f & G, g have been found
the right lines Ff & Gg drawn will cut TA & C in the points sought X & Z.

Example.
The comet of the year 1680 may be proposed. The motion of this has been observed by
Flamsted , & from the observations the following table shows the computation, & with
the observations from the same corrected by Halley.

Apparent time
in hours.
True time
in hours.
Longitude
of the sun.
Longitude
of the comet.
Northern Latitude
of the comet.
1680.Dec. 12 4.46' 4.46'. 0'' _ 1
0
.51'. 23'' _ 6
0
.32'.30'' 8
0
. 28'.0''
21
1
2
6 32 .
6.36.59 11. 6. 44 5. 8 .12 21. 42.13
24 6.12 6.17.52 14. 9. 26 18.49. 23 25. 23. 5
26 5.14 5.20.44 16. 9. 22 28.24. 13 27. 0.52
29 7.55 8. 3. 2 19.19. 43 ) 13.10. 41 28. 9.58
30 8.02 8.10.26 20. 21. 9 17.38. 20 26. 15. 7
I681.Jan. 5 5.51 6. 1.38 26. 22.18 [ 8.48. 53 24. 11.56
9 6.49 7. 0.53 0. 29. 2 18.44. 4 23. 43.52
10 5.54 6. 6.10 1. 27.43 20.40. 50 16. 42.18
13 6.56 7. 8.55 4. 33.20 25.59. 48 16. 4. 1
25 7.44 7.58.42 16. 45.36 _ 9.35. 0 17. 56.30
30 8.07 8.21.53 21. 49.58 13.19. 51 16. 42.18
Feb. 2 6.20 6.34.51 24. 46.59 15.13. 53 16. 4. 1
5 6.50 7. 4.41 27. 49.51 16.59. 6 15. 27. 3

Longitude of sun. Longitude of comet. Latitude of Comet
1
M, E
1 2 3
E a E ,E =
1 1 2
M, E ,E a,E
3
E
1 2
M, E ,E
3
E
1680.Dec. 12 _ 1
0
.53'. 2'' _ 1
0
.51'.23''
_ 6
0
.33'.0''
1
M , E
6.31.21
1 2
E aE
_ 6
0
.32'.30'' 8
0
. 26'.0'' 8
0
. 28'.0''
21 11.8.10 [E
1
]
11.8.10
1
3
[M]
11. 6.44 5. 8 .12 5. 8 .12 21. 45.13 21. 42.13
24 14.10.49 14. 9.26 18.49. 10 18.49. 23 25. 23.24 25. 23. 5
26 16.10.38 16. 9.22 28.24. 6 28.24. 13 27. 0. 57 27. 0.52
29 19.20.56 19.19.43 ) 13.11. 45 ) 13.10. 41 28. 10.05 28. 9.58
30 20.22.20 20.21. 9 17.37. 5 17.38. 20 28. 11.12 28. 11.53

1682.Jan. 5 26.23.19 26.22.18 [ 8.49. 10 [ 8.48. 53 26. 15. 26 26. 15. 7
90.29.54 0.29. 4 18.43. 18 18.44. 4 24. 12.42 24. 11.56
10 1.28.34 1.27.43 20.40. 57 20.40. 50 23. 44. 0 23. 43.52
13 4.34. 6 4.33.20 25.59. 34 25.59. 48 22. 17. 36 22. 17. 28
25 16.45.58 16.45.36
_ 9.55. 48
1
M , E
_ 9.35. 0 17. 56. 54 17. 56.30
9.55. 48
1 2
E aE

30 21.50. 9 21.49.58 13.19. 36 13.19. 51 16. 40. 57 16. 42.18
Feb. 2 24.47. 4 24.46.59 15.13. 48 15.13. 53 16. 2. 2 16. 4. 1
5 27.49.51 27.49.51 16.59. 52 16.59. 6 15. 27. 23 15. 27. 3
rd
Ed.


To these observations add several made myself :

Apparent time. Longitude of comet. Northern latitude of comet
1682.Feb. 25 8
h
.30' _ 26
0
.18'.35'' 12
0
. 46'.46''
27 8. 15 27. 4 .30 12. 36. 12
Mar. 1 11. 0 27. 52. 42 12. 23. 40
2 8. 0 28. 12. 48 12. 19. 38
5 11.30 29. 18. 0 12. 3. 16
7 9.30 } 0. 4. 0 11. 57. 0
9 8.30 0. 43. 4 11. 45. 52

I have completed these observations with a seven foot telescope, & that I have carried
out with a micrometer with threads located at the focus of the telescope : with which
instruments we have determined the positions of the fixed stars amongst themselves & the
position of the comet to these fixed stars.

Longitude of comet Latitude of comet
1
M, E
2
E
3
E
1
M, E
2
E
3
E
1682.Feb. 25 _ 26
0
.19'. 22'' _ 26
0
.18'.17'' _ 26
0
.18'.35''
12
0
.46
7
8
12
0
.46'
7
8

12
0
. 46'.46''
27 27. 4. 28 27. 4.24 27. 4.30 12. 36
12. 36
1
5

12. 36.12
Mar. 1 27.53. 8 27.53. 6 27.52.42
12.24
3
7
12. 24
6
7

12. 23.40
2 28.12.29 28.12.27 28.12.48
12. 19
1
2

12. 20 12. 19.38
5 29.20.51 29.20.51 29.18. 0
12. 19
2
3
12. 3
1
2

12. 3.16
7 } 0. 4. 0 11. 57. 0
9 } 0. 43. 2 }0. 43. 4 } 0. 43. 4
11. 44
3
5
11. 45
7
8

11. 45.52

A shall describe the star of the fourth magnitude in the left heel of Perseus ( by Bayer
) B the following star of the third magnitude in the left foot ( Bayer ) & C a star of the
sixth magnitude ( Bayer n ) in the heel of the same foot, & D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O,
Z, , , , other lesser stars in the same foot. And p, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X shall be the
places of the comet in the observations described above : & with the distance present AB
of
7
12
80 , & there was :
5 5 6 7 1 2 4 1 11
4 6 12 11 3 7 2 12 12
7 5 5 7 1 2 1 4
6 12 12 3 9 4 7 8
5
12
of the parts 52 , 58 , 57 82 23 29 57 49 27
52 36 , 53 38 , 43 31 29, 23, 36 18 50 ,
46
AC BC AD , BD ,CD , AE , CE , DE , AI
BI , CI DI , AK BK , CK , FK FB FC , AH ,DH
BN ,
5 5 1
3 12 7
31 45 31 ; CN , BL ,NL
HO was to HI as 7 to 6 & produced passed between the stars D & E, thus so that the
distance of the star D from this right line was
1
6
CD. LM was to LN as 2 to 9, & produced
passed through the star H. From these the positions of the fixed stars were determined
among themselves.
Finally our countryman Pound in turn observed the positions of these fixed stars
between themselves, & produced the longitudes & latitudes of these in the following
table.

rd
Ed.

Fixed Stars Longitude. Latitude North. Fixed Stars Longitude. Latitude North.
A _ 26. 41. 50 12. 8.36 L _ 29.33.34 12. 7.48
B 28 .40. 23 11.17.54 M 29.18.54 12. 7.20
C 27.58.30 12.40.25 N 28.48.29 12.31.91
E 26.27. 17 12.52. 7 Z 29.44.48 11.57.13
F 28.28.37 11.52.22 a. 29.52. 3 11.55.48
G 26.56 . 8 12. 4.58

11 0. 8.23 11.48.56
H 27.11 .45 12. 2. 1

0.40.10 11.55.18
I 27.25. 2. 11.53.11

1. 3.20 11. 30.42
K 27.42. 7 11.53.26

Now I have observed the positions of the comet to these fixed stars as follows. On
Friday Feb. 25. (old calendar) at 8 30 . p.m. the distance of the comet present at p was a
little less from the star E than
3
13
AE, & greater than
1
5
AE, & thus approximately equal to
3
14
AE ; & the angle ApE was somewhat obtuse, but almost right. Certainly if a
perpendicular is sent from A to pE, the distance of the comet from that perpendicular was
1
5
pE.
In the same night at the hour of 9 30 . p.m., the distance of the comet present at P from
the star E was greater than
1
2
1
4
AE, & less than
1
4
1
5
AE, & thus equal to
7
8
1
4
AE, or
approximately
8
39
AE . But with a perpendicular sent from the star A to the right line PE ,
the distance of the comet was
4
5
PE.
On Sunday, Feb. 27 at 8 15 . p.m., the distance of the comet present at Q from the star
O was equal to the distance of the stars O & H, & the right line QO produced passed
between the stars K & B. The position of this right line on account of intervening clouds
could not be defined more accurately.
On Tuesday, March 1 at 11 p.m., the comet was present at R, accurately placed
between the stars K & C , & the part CR of the right line CRK a little greater than
2
3
CK,
& a little less than
1 1
3 8
CK CR + , & thus equal to
16 1 1
3 16 45
or CK CR CK + .
rd
Ed.

On Wednesday, March 2, at 8 p.m. , the distance of the comet present at S was
approximately
4
9
FC from the star C. The distance of the star F from the right line CS
produced was
1
24
SC; & the distance of the star B from the same right line, was five times
greater than the distance from the star F. Likewise the right line NS produced passed
between the stars H & I, being five or six times closer to the star H than to the star I.
On Saturday, March 5, at 11 30 . p.m., with the comet present at T, & with the right line
MT equal to
1
2
ML, & with the right line LT produced passing between B & F four or five
times closer to F than B, taking from BF a fifth or sixth part of that towards F. And MT
produced passed beyond the distance BF in the direction of the star B, being four times
closer to the star B than the star F. Star M was exceedingly close which scarcely could be
seen with the telescope, & L a star perhaps of magnitude greater than eight.
On Monday, March 7, at 9 30 . p.m., with the comet present at V, with the right line
V produced, it passes between B & F, bearing off from BF towards F
1
10
by BF, & it
was to the right line V as 5 to 4. And the separation of the comet from the right line
was
1
2
V .
On Wednesday, March 9, at 8 30 . p.m., with the comet present at X, the right line
X was equal to
1
4
, & a perpendicular sent from the star to the right line X was
2
5
.
On the same night at midnight, the comet was present at Y, the right line Y was equal
to
1
3
, or a little less, perhaps
5
16
, and a perpendicular sent from the star to the right
line Y was equal to around
1 1
6 7
or . But the comet on account of the vicinity of the
horizon was scarcely able to be seen, nor its place to be defined as distinctly as with the
preceding.
And from the observations of this kind by constructing figures & doing computations I
derived the longitudes & latitudes of the comet, & our countryman Pound from the
correct locations of the fixed stars corrected the places of the comet, & the corrected
places are given above. I used a micrometer constructed very poorly, but still the errors in
the latitude & longitude scarcely exceeded one minute (as far as they arose from our
observations). Moreover the comet (according to our observations) at the end of its
motion began to be noticeably deflected towards the North, from the parallel that it had
held at the end of February.
Now towards determining the orbit of the comet, I have selected three from the
observations just described, which Flamsted had determined on Dec. 21, Jan. 5, & Jan.
25. From these I have found St of 9842,1 parts & Vt of 455 parts, such that 10000 is the
radius of the great orbit. Then according to the first operation on assuming tB to be of
5657 parts, I have found 9747 SB = , BE at first in turn 412, 9503 S = , 413 i = : BE in
the second case becomes 421, while [ '=' signs have been introduced for convenience,]
10186 8528 4 8450 8475 25 OD , X , MP ,MN ,NP = = = = = . From which according to the
second operation I have deduced the distance 5640 tb = . And by this operation I have
found at last that the distances 4775 and 11322 TX Z = = . From which by defining the
orbit, I have found the descending node in C 1
0
. 53' & the ascending node in _ 1
0
. 53';
the inclination of its plane to the plane of the ecliptic to be 61
0
. 20'
1
3
; its vertex (or the
perihelion of the comet) to stand at 8
0
. 38' from the node, & to be in 27
0
. 43' with the
rd
Ed.

southern latitude 7
0
.34'; & its latus rectum to be 236,8, & the area described in single days
by the radius drawn to the sun to be 93585, on putting 100000000 for the square of the
radius of the great orbit ; truly the comet was progressing along the signs of the zodiac, &
on the 8
th
day of December at 4 minutes past midday was in the vertex of its orbit or
perihelion. All these things I have determined graphically from a scale of equal parts &
the chords of the angles taken from a table of natural sines ; by constructing a large
enough diagram, in which as it were the radius of the great orbit of 10000 parts was equal
to
1
3
16 English inches.

Comet to sun
distance .
Long. deduced. Lat. deduced. Long.obs. Lat.obs. Differ.
Long.
Differ.
Lat.
Dec.12 2792 _ 6
0
. 32' _
1
2
0
8 18' .

1
3
0
6 31' .
8
0
.26' +1'
1
2
7'
29 8403 )
2
3
13 13 .
28. 0 )
3
4
13 11 .
1
12
28 10 . +2
1
12
10
Feb. 5 16669 _ 17. 0
2
3
15 29 . _
7
8
16 59 .
2
5
15 27 .
+0
1
4
2 +
Mar. 5 21737

3
4
29 19 .

12. 4
6
7
29 20 .
1
2
12 3 . 1
1
2
+
Finally so that is could be agreed that the comet truly was moving in such an orbit
found, I deduced partially through arithmetical operations & partially graphically the
locations of the comet in its orbit according to the required times of observation : as can
be seen in the following table.
Certainly after our countryman Dr. Halley had determined the orbit more accurately by
arithmetical calculations than one could do graphically by described lines ; indeed the
position of the nodes was retained in C (Cancer) & _ (Capricornus) as 1
0
. 53', & the
inclination of the plane of the orbit to the ecliptic 61
0
. 53', & so that the time of the
perihelion of the comet was on the 8
th
day of December at 4 minutes past noon, truly the
distance of the perihelion from the ascending node of the comet measured in the orbit of
the comet was found to be 9
0
.20' , & the latus rectum or the parabola was of 2430 parts,
with the mean distance of the earth from the sun being 100000 parts. And from these
given, with an accurate arithmetical calculation put in place, the places of the comet
computed at the times of observation were as follows.

True time Comet sun
distance.
Long.computed Lat.computed Differ.
Long.
Differ.
Lat.
Dec. 12
d
4
h
.46' 28028 _ 6
0
.29'.25'' 8
0
.26'.0'' Bor. 3'.5'' 2'. 0''
21. 6.37 61076 5. 6.30 21.43.20 1.42 + 1. 7
24. 6.18 70008 18.48.20 25.22.40 1. 3 0.25
26. 5.21 75576 28.22.45 27. 1.36 1.28 + 0.44
29. 8. 3 l4021 ) 13.12.40 28.10.10 +1.59 + 0.12
30. 8.10 84021 17.40. 5 28.10.20 +1.45 0.33
Jan. 5. 6. 1
1
2

101440 [ 8.49.49 26.15.15 +0.56 + 0. 8
9. 7. 0 110959 18.44.36 24.12.54 +0.32 + 0. 8
10. 6. 6 113162 20.41.02 23.44.10 +0.10 +0.18
13. 7. 9 120000 26. 0.21 22.17.30 +033 +0.25
25. 7.59 145370 _ 9.33.40 17.57.55 1.20 + 1.25
30. 8.22 155303 13.17.41 16.42. 7 2.10 0.11
Feb. 2. 6.35 160951 15.11.11 16. 4.15 2.42 +0.14
5. 7. 4
1
2

166686 16.58.25 15.29.13 0.41 +2.10
25. 8.41 202570 26.15.46 12.48. 0 249 +1.14
Mar. 5.11.39 216205 29.18.35 12. 5. 40 + 035 + 2.24
rd
Ed.


Also this comet appeared in the preceding month of November in Coburg in Saxony, &
was observed by Mr. Gottfried Kirch in the days of the month I have shown, on the 4
th
,
the 6
th
& on the 11
th
, in the old style ; & from its position to nearby fixed stars observed
first with a two foot long telescope & then more accurately with a ten foot telescope, &
the difference of the longitudes of Coburg & London of 11
0
& with the places of the fixed
stars observed by our countryman Pound, our Halley has determined the locations of the
comet as follows.
On November 3
rd
at I7
h
.2', at the apparent time in London, comet was in p 29
0
.51' with
latitude North 1
0
.17'.45".
On November 5
th
at 15
h
.58', comet was in ] (Virgo) 3
0
. 23' with latitude North 1
0
.6'.
On November 10
th
at I6
h
.31', the comet was equally distant from the stars of Leo and
according to Bayer ; indeed it did not touch the right line joining these, but was a little
away from that. In Flamsteed's catalogue of stars then had the position ] 14
0
.15' with
almost the latitude North 1
0
.41', truly ]17
0
.39'
1
4
, with latitude North 0
0
.34'. And the
mean point between these stars was ]15
0
.39'
1
4
with latitude North 0
gr
. 33
1
2
. The distance
of the comet from that right line shall be around 10' or 12', & the difference of the
longitudes of the comet & the mean of these points was 7', & the difference of the
latitudes around 7'
1
2
. And thence comet was in ]15
0
.32' with latitude North around 26'.
The first observation from the position of the comet to some small fixed stars was
clearly accurate enough. The second also was accurate enough. In the third, which was
less accurate, the error was under 6 or 7 minutes, & scarcely greater. Truly the longitude
of the comet in the first observation, which was more accurate than the others, computed
in the predicted parabola, was in p (Leo) 29
0
.30'.22'' with a latitude of 1
0
. 25'.7" North, &
its distance from the sun 115546.
Again Halley, by observing that a conspicuous comet had appeared four times with an
interval of 575 years, evidently in the month of September after the death of Julius Caesar
; in the year of Christ 531 under the consulate of Lampadius & Orestes ; in the year of
Christ 1106 in the month of February, & during the end of the year 1680, & that with a
long & conspicuous tail (except that during the death of Caesar, the tail was less apparent
on account of the inconvenient position of the earth:) sought an elliptic orbit the major
axis of which would be of 1382957 parts, with a mean distance of the earth from the sun
being 10000 parts: certainly in which orbit the comet would be able to revolve in 575
years. And on putting the ascending node in C at 2
0
. 2'; the inclination of the plane of
the orbit to the plane of the ecliptic 61
0
. 6'.48"; the perihelion of the comet in this plane
(Sagittarius) 22
0
. 44'. 25'';the equal time of the perihelion December 7
d
. 23
h
. 9' ; the
distance of the perihelion from the ascending node in the plane of the ecliptic 9
0
. 17'. 35";
& the conjugate axis 184081,2: I have computed the motion of the comet in this elliptic
orbit. Moreover its places in this orbit both deduced from observations as well as by
computation are shown in the following table.

rd
Ed.


True time Long. observed Lat. N. obs. Long.computed. Lat.computed. Differ.
Long.
Differ.
Lat.
Nov. 3.16.47 p 29
0
.51'. 0'' 1
0
.17'. 45'' p 29
0
.51'. 22'' 1
0
.17'. 32'' + 0'.22'' 0'.13''
5.15.37 ] 3.23. 0 1. 6. 0 ] 3.24. 32 1. 6. 9 + 1.32 + 0. 9
10.16.18 15.32. 0 0.27. 0 15.33. 2 0.25. 7 + 1. 2 1.53
16.17. 0 [no readings] [no readings] - 8.16.45 0.52. 7 A
18.21.34 " " 18.52.15 1.26.54
20.17. 0 " " 28.10.36 1.53.35
23.17. 5 " " ] 13.22.42 2.29. 0
Dec. 12
d
4
h
.46' _ 6
0
.32'.30'' 8.28. 0 _ 6.32.20 8.29. 6 B 1.10 + 1. 6
21. 6.37 5. 8.11 21.42.13 5. 6.14 21.44.42 1.58 + 2.29
24. 6.18 18.49.23 25.23. 5 18.47.30 25.23.35 1.53 + 0.30
26. 5.21 28.24.13 27. 0.52 28.21.42 27. 2. 1 2.31 + 1. 9
29. 8. 3 ) 13.10.41 28. 9.58 ) 13.11.14 28.10.38 + 0.33 + 0.40
30. 8.10 17.38.20 28.11.53 17.38.27 28.11.38 + 0. 7 0.16
Jan. 5. 6. 1
1
2

[ 8.48.53 26.15. 7 [ 8.48.51 26.14.57 0. 2 0.10
9. 7. 1 18.44. 4 24.11.56 18.43.51 24.12.17 0.13 + 0.21
10. 6. 6 20.40.50 23.43.32 20.40.23 23.43.25 + 0.10 0. 7
13. 7. 9 25.59.48 22.17.28 26. 0. 8 22.16.32 + 020 0.56
25. 7.59 _ 9.35. 0 17.56.30 _ 9.34.11 17.56. 6 0.49 0.24
30. 8.22 13.19.51 16.42.18 13.18.28 16.40. 5 1.23 2.13
Feb. 2. 6.35 15.13.53 16. 4. 1 15.11.59 16. 2. 7 1.54 1.54
5. 7. 4
1
2

16.50. 6 15.27. 3 16.59.17 15. 27. 0 + 0.11 + 2.10
25. 8.41 26.18.35 12.46.46 26.16.59 12.45. 22 136 1.24
Mar. 1.11.10 27.52.42 12.23.40 27.51.47 12.22.28 055 1.12
5.11.39 29.18. 0 12. 3.16 29.20.11 12. 2.50 + 2.11 026
9. 8.38 0.43. 4 11.45.52 } 0.42.43 11.45.35 021 017

The observations of this comet from the beginning to the end are not in less agreement
with the motion of the comet in the orbit now described, since the motions of the planets
are accustomed to agree with their theories, & by agreeing they prove that the comet was
one & the same, which appeared in this whole time, & its orbit was correctly designated
here.
In the preceding table we have set aside the observations from the 16
th
, 18
th
, 20
th
&
23
rd
days of November as less accurate. For the comet was also observed in these times.
Certainly Ponteo & associates, on November 17
th
old time, at the hour of 6 in the
morning in Rome, that is, at 5 hours & 10 minutes London time, by threads pointing
towards fixed stars, had observed the comet in - (Libra) 8
0
.30' with the southern latitude
0
0
. 40'. These observations can be found in a tract that Ponteo published about this comet.
Cellio, who was present there & who sent his observations to Mr. Cassini in a letter, saw
the same comet at the same hour in - 8
0
.30' with a southern latitude of 0
0
. 30'. At the
same hour Gallet of Avenion (that is, at the hour of 5. 41 a.m. London time) saw the
comet in - 8
0
. without latitude; but the comet by the theory now was in - 8
0
. 16'. 45"
with the southern latitude of 0
0
.53'. 7",
On November 18
th
in the morning at 6. 30 a.m. Rome time (that is, at 5.40 a.m. London
time) Pontio saw the comet in - 13
0
. 30' with the southern latitude 1
0
. 20'. Cellio
observed it in - 13
0
.30', with the southern latitude 1
0
. 00'. But Gallet at the early morning
hour of 5
h
.30' in Avenion saw the comet in - 13
gr
. 00', with the southern latitude 1
0
. 00'.
rd
Ed.

And R.P. Ango in the university of La Fleche in France, at five o'clock in the morning
(that is, at 5
h
. 9' London time) saw the comet half-way between two small stars, of which
one is the middle star of three in line in the southern hand of Virgo, Bayer's , & the
other is the end of the wing, Bayer's . Thence the comet then was in - 12
0
.46' with the
latitude 50' South. In the same day in Boston in New England at a latitude of 42
1
2
0
, in the
hour of five in the morning, (that is at the London time of 9
h
.44' a.m.) the comet was seen
near - 14
0
, with the southern latitude 1
0
. 30', as I have been informed by the most
illustrious Halley.
On Nov. 19. at the morning hour of 4
1
2
in Cambridge, the comet (observed by a certain
young man) was separated from Spica in ] by about 2
0
towards the North-West [There is
some confusion here : Madame du Chatelet considers spica to be an ear as in ear of corn
or wheat, or a tuft of hair, in a constellation, while Cohen considers Spica to be the star of
this name, which he now writes with a capital S, belonging to Virgo; Motte makes the
best of both worlds, & sometimes calls it by one name, then by the other.] Or it was in -
19
gr
.23'. 47" with the southern latitude 2
0
. 1'. 59". In the same day at the hour of 5 in the
morning in Boston in New England, the comet was distant from Spica in ] by one degree,
a difference of the latitudes present of 40'. On the same day on the island of Jamaica, the
comet was distant from Spica by an interval of around one degree. On the same day Mr.
Arthur Storer at the river Patuxent, near Hunting Creek in Maryland, on the border of
Virginia at the latitude 38
1
2
0
, at the hour of five in the morning (that is, at 10
h
London
time) saw the comet above the star Spica in ] & almost coincident with Spica, with the
separation between the same around
1
4
0
. And from these observations collated among
themselves I deduced that at the hour 9
h
. 44' of London time that the comet was in -
18
0
. 50' with a latitude of around 1
0
.25'. Moreover the comet by theory now was in -
18
0
. 52'. 15" with a latitude of 1
0
. 26'. 54'' South.
Nov 20. Dr. Montanari, professor of astronomy at Padua, at 6 o'clock in the morning
in Venice (that is, at 5
h
.10' London time) saw the comet in - 18
0
with the latitude 1
0
.30'
South. On the same day in Boston, the comet separation from Spica ] was 4
0
longitude to
the East, & thus it was about 23
0
. 24' in -.
Nov 21. Ponteo & his companions on the morning at 7
1
4
hours observed the comet in
- 27
0
. 50' with a southern latitude of 1
0
. 16', Cellius in - 28
0
. Ango at 5 o'clock in the
morning in - at 27
0
. 45", Montanari in - at 27
0
.51'. On the same day on the island of
Jamaica saw the comet near the principle star of Scorpio, & that had around the same
latitude as Spica in Virgo, that is, 2
0
. 2'. On the same day at 5 o'clock in the morning, at
Balasore in India, (that is at the hour of the preceding night in London of 11
h
. 20') took
the distance of the comet from the ear in ] as 7
0
. 35' to the East. In the right line between
the ear & the scales, & thus it was present in - 26
0
. 58' with a southern latitude of
around 1
0
.11' ; & after 5
h
& 40' (which corresponds to the hour of around 5 a.m. in
London) it was in - 28
0
. 10' with a southern latitude of 1
0
. 16'. By the theory the comet
now truly was in - 28
0
.12' .36", with a southern latitude of 1
0
. 53'. 35".
Nov. 22. The comet was seen by Montanari in ](Scorpio) 2
0
. 33', but in Boston in
New-England it appeared in ] around 3
0
, with almost the same latitude as before, that is,
1
0
. 30'. In the same day at 5 o'clock in the morning at Balasore the comet was observed in
] 1
0
. 50'; & thus at the hour of five in the morning in London the comet was in ] around
rd
Ed.

3
0
. 5'. In the same day at 6
1
2
hours in the morning in London our countryman Hook saw
the comet in ] at around 3
0
. 30', & that in a right line which passed through the [corn] ear
of Virgo [i.e. Spica] & the heart of Leo, not exactly however, but in a line a little deflected
to the North. Montanari likewise noted that the line from the comet drawn through the
ear, on this day & in the following days passed through the southern side of the heart of
Leo, with a very small interval interposed between the heart of the lion & this line. A right
line passing through the heart of Leo & the ear of Virgo, cut the ecliptic in ] 3
0
. 46'; at an
angle 2
0
. 51'. And if the comet were located on this line in ] 3
0
its latitude would have
been 2
0
. 26'. But since the comet from the agreement of Hook & Montanari, to some
extent was separated from this line a little towards the North, its latitude was a little less.
On the 20
th
day, from the observation of Montanari, its latitude was almost equal to the
latitude of the ear in ], & that was around l
0
. 30', & by the agreement of Hook,
Montanari, & Father Alga it was always increasing, & now significantly greater than 1
0
.
30'. Now between these two limits found: 2
0
. 26' & 1
0
. 30', the magnitude of the average
latitude was around 1
0
.58'.
The comet's tail, from the agreement of Hook & Montanari, was directed towards the
ear in ], falling a little from that star, nearly to the south according to Hook, & nearly to
the north, according to Montanari ; & thus that decline was scarcely sensible, & the tail
to be present almost parallel to the equator, was being deflected a little by the opposition
of the sun towards the North.
Nov. 23. old time, at the hour of 5 in the morning in Noreberg (that is at 4
1
2
hours in
London) D. Zimmerman saw the comet in ] 8
0
. 8', with a latitude of 2
0
. 31' South,
evidently with its separation taken from the fixed stars.
Nov. 24. Before sunrise the comet was seen by Montanari in ] 12
0
. 52', towards the
northern side of the line drawn through the heart of Leo & the ear of Virgo, & thus it had a
latitude a little less than 2
0
. 38'. This latitude, as we have said, from the observations of
Montanari, Ango & Hook, was always increasing ; & now thus it was a little greater than
18
0
.58' & with a mean magnitude, without noticeable error, to be put in place at 2
0
.18'.
Ponteo & Galtetius now wished to decease the latitude, both Cellio & an observer in
New-England retained the same magnitude, evidently one degree or one & a half degrees.
The observations of Ponteo & Cellio were coarser, especially as those were taken by
means of azimuths & altitudes, & as those of Gallet ; those are better which are taken
through the positions of the comet relative to the fixed stars by Montanari, Hook, Ango &
by the observer in New-England, & some that Ponteo & Cellio have made. On the same
day at 5 o'clock in the morning the comet was seen in Balasore in ]11
0
. 45'; & thus at the
fifth hour of the early morning in London it was in ] at around l3
0
. Truly by the theory
the comet now was in ]13
0
. 22'. 42".
Nov. 25. Before sunrise Montanari observed the comet in ]17
3
4
0
approximately. And
Cellius observed at the same time that the comet was in a right line drawn between the
bright star in the right thigh of Virgo & the southern scale of Libra, & this right line cut
the path of the comet in ] 18
0
. 36'. Truly by the theory the comet was now approximately
in ]18
1
3
0
.
Therefore these observations agree with the theory just as they agree amongst
themselves, & by agreeing they prove it to be one & the same comet, which appeared in
rd
Ed.

the whole time from the fourth day of November as far as to the ninth of March. The
trajectory of this comet cut the plane of the ecliptic twice, & therefore was not a straight
line. It did not cut the ecliptic in opposite directions of the heavens, but at the end of
Virgo & at the beginning of Capricorn, through an interval of around 98 degrees; & thus
the course of the comet was deflected greatly from a great circle. For in the month of
November its course dropped by at least three degrees below the plane of the ecliptic to
the South, & after the month of December it moved away from the ecliptic to the North
by 29
0
, & the two parts of the orbit, the one with the comet approached the sun & the
other with it receded from the sun, appearing to have an angle between each other of more
than 30
0
, as Montanari had observed. This comet went through nine signs, clearly from
the last degree of Leo as far as to the first point of Gemini, besides the sign of Leo,
through which it had gone before it began to be seen; & no other theory is extant that by
which the comet traverses so much of the heavens with a regular motion. Its motion was
greatly uneven. For around the 20
th
day of November it described around 5
0
each day ;
then with the motion retarded between November 26
th
& December 12th, evidently in a
time of 15 & a half days, it described only 40
0
; truly again with an accelerated motion it
describes almost 5
0
per individual day, before the motion again began to be retarded. And
the theory, which corresponded properly to so much of the unequal motion through the
great part of the sky, & which observed the same laws as the theory of the planets, as
well as agreeing accurately with accurate astronomical observations, cannot be otherwise
than true.
The rest of the trajectory that the comet described, & indeed the tail that it projected at
individual places, has been shown traced out in the adjoining diagram in the plane of the
trajectory : where ABC denotes the trajectory of the comet, D the sun, DE the axis of the
trajectory, DF the line of the nodes, GH intersection of the sphere of the great orbit with
the plane of the trajectory, I, the position of the comet on Nov. 4
th
of the year 1680, K the
place of the same on Nov. 11
th
, L the place on Nov. 19
th
, M the place on Dec. 12
th
, N the
place on Dec. 21
st
, O the place on Dec. 29
th
, P the place on Jan. 5
th
, the following Q the
place on Jan. 25
th
, R the place on Feb. 5
th
, S the place on Feb. 25
th
, T the place on Mar.
5
th
, & V the place on Mar. 9
th
.
Now the following observations are used in determining the tail:
Nov. 4
th
& 6
th
. The tail had not yet appeared.
rd
Ed.

Nov. 11
th
. A tail now appeared of half a degree, not visible except with a telescope ten
feet long.
Nov. 17
th
. The tail appeared to Ponteo more than 15 degrees long.
Nov. 18
th
. The tail was 30
0
long, & was seen in New-England to be directly away from
the sun, & and was extended as far as to the planet [Mars] , which then was in ] 9
0
. 54'.
Nov. 19
th
. In Mary-land , the tail was seen to be 15
0
or 20
0
long.
Dec. 10
th
. The tail (from Flamsteed's observation) was passing through the middle of
the interval between the tail of the serpent of Ophiuchus & the star in the south wing of
Aquilae, & stopped close to the stars A, ,b in Bayer's tables. Therefore its end was in _
19
1
2
gr
, with a northern latitude of around 34
1
4
0
.
Dec. 11
th
. The tail increased to as far as the head of Sagittarius (Bayer , ) ending in
_ 26
0
. 43', with a latitude of 38
0
. 34' North.
Dec. 12
th
. The tail was passing through the middle of Sagittarius, not being extended
any longer, stopping in 4
0
, with a latitude North of around 42
1
2
0
. These are understood
to be concerned with the clearer part of the tail. For in the more obscure light, perhaps in
the heavens in a more clear weather, the tail on Dec.12
th
, at the hour of 5. 40' in Rome
(observed by Pontio) rose to 10
0
above the rump of the swan ; & from this star its edge
stopped at 45' to the North-West. But the tail was 3
0
wider in these days towards the upper
extremity, and thus its middle was 2
0
. 15' distant from that star towards the South, and the
upper end was in (Pisces) ) 22
0
, with the latitude of 6l
0
North. And hence the length of
the tail was around 70
0
.
Dec. 21
st
. The same increased almost to the chair of Cassiopeia, being equally distant
from and Schedir [the brightest star in this constellation], and its distance from each of
these two stars was equal to the distance between themselves, and thus stopping in [ 24
0
,
with the latitude of 47
1
2
0
.
Dec. 29
th
. The tail was touching Scheat placed on the left, and the interval of the two
stars in the northern foot of Andromeda was filled up completely, and the length of the tail
was 54
0
; and thus was defined in _ 19
0
, with the latitude 35
0
.
Jan. 5
th
. The tail touched the star in Andromeda's breast on its right side, and the star
in the girdle of this at the left side ; and (on a par with our observations) the length was
40
0
; but it was a curve and with the convex side seen towards the South. And on one side
it made an angle of 4
0
with a circle passing through the sun and the head of the comet; but
near to the other boundary is was inclined to that circle at an angle of 10
0
or 11
0
and the
chord of the tail contained an angle of 8
0
with the circle.
Jan. 13
th
. With enough light the tail appeared to be finished sensibly between Alamech
and Algol, and with a more tenuous light it was defined to the region of the star in the
side of Perseus. The distance of the end of the tail from the circle joining the sun and the
comet was 3
0
.50', and the inclination of the chord of the tail to that circle was 8
1
2
0
.
Jan. 25
th
and 26
th
. The tail shone with a rather feeble light to a length of 6
0
or 7
0
; and
with a night or two following when the sky was very clear, with the light most tenuous
and barely visible, it reached a length of 12 degrees and a little beyond. But its axis was
directed accurately to the bright star in the eastern shoulder of Auriga, and thus fell from
opposing the sun towards the North at an angle of 10
0
. And then on Feb. 10
th
with the
naked eye I viewed the tail two degrees long. For the aforesaid light was more tenuous
rd
Ed.

and not apparent through a glass. But Ponteo on Feb. 7
th
wrote that he had seen the tail at
a length of 12
0
.
Feb. 25
th
and after that the comet appeared without a tail.
On examining the orbit just described above, and on considering the other phenomena
of this comet, it will be agreed without difficulty, that the bodies of comets are solid,
compact, fixed [in shape] and durable in the image of the bodies of planets. For if they
were nothing other than vapours or exhalations of the earth, sun and planets, here a comet
in its passing in the vicinity of the sun ought to be dissipated at once. For the heat of the
sun is as the intensity of the rays, that is, reciprocally as the square of the distances of the
places from the sun. And thus since the distance of the comet from the centre of the sun
on December 8
th
, when it was passing through the perihelion, was to the distance of the
earth from the centre of the sun almost as 6 to 1000, the heat of the sun at the comet at
this time was to the heat of our summer sun as 1000000 to 36, or 28000 to 1. But the heat
of boiling water is around three times greater than the heat that the dry earth receives on
the summer sun, as I have found out : and the heat of incandescent iron (if I conjecture
rightly) will be around three or four times greater than the heat of the boiling water; and
thus the heat, that dry earth present on the comet passing through the perihelion, is able to
experience from the rays of the sun, is around 2000 times more than the heat of the
glowing iron. But with so much heat, vapours and exhalations and all volatile matter
ought to be at once consumed and dissipated.
Therefore the comet in its perihelion receives an immense amount of heat from the sun,
and that heat can be conserved for a very long time. For an incandescent iron globe one
inch wide present in air, can scarcely sent off all its heat in the space of an hour.
Moreover a greater globe will conserve the heat in the ratio of the diameters, because the
surface area (according to the measure of this cooled by the surrounding air) is less in that
ratio to the quantity of its included warm matter. And thus a glowing iron globe equal to
this earth, that is, more or less 40000000 feet wide, or in just as many days, and thus in
50000 years, will scarcely be cooled. Yet I suspect that the duration of the heat, on
account of hidden causes, will be increased in a smaller ratio than that of the diameter:
and I would choose to have the true ratio found by experiment.
Again it is to be observed that the comet in the month of December, but only when it
had been heated by the sun, sent off a much longer and splendid tail than in the month of
November before, when it had not yet reached the perihelion. And generally, all the
greatest and most brilliant tails arise suddenly from comets after their passage through the
region of the sun. Therefore the heating of the comet leads to the magnitude of the tail :
and thence I seem to deduce that the tail shall be nothing other than the most tenuous
vapour, that the head or nucleus of the comet emits by its heat.
Otherwise there are three opinions concerning the nature of the tails of comets ; either
to be the light of the sun passing through the transparent heads of comets, or to arise from
the refraction of light in passing from the head of the comet to the earth, or finally the
cloud to be either vapour from the head of the comet arising and passing away in
directions opposite to the sun.
The first opinion is that of those who have not yet imbued the science of optical
matters. For the light of the sun cannot be discerned in a darkened chamber, unless the
light is certainly reflected from the dust and smoke of particles always flying about in the
rd
Ed.

air : and thus in air filled with thicker smoke it is more brilliant, and strikes the senses
more strongly; in clearer air it is more tenuous and scarcely perceived: but in the heavens
nothing is able to be reflected without reflecting matter being present. The light certainly
cannot be discerned that is in a heavenly body, except that from thence it is reflected into
our eyes. For vision can only be from rays which impinge on the eyes. Therefore matter
of some kind is required reflecting in the tail region, lest the whole heavens be illuminated
uniformly in a brilliant light from the sun.
The second opinion is overwhelmed by many difficulties. The tails are never
variegated with colours : which yet are accustomed to be found whenever refraction
occurs. The light of the fixed stars and of the planets transmitted distinctly to us
demonstrates the medium of the heavens is not influenced by any refractive force. For as
it is said that the fixed stars sometimes were seen as comets by the Egyptians, but as that
happened most rarely, it can be ascribed to fortuitous refraction of the clouds.
[It may be of course be that they were viewing a cosmic event such as a supernova.]
The radiations and scintillation of the fixed stars [i.e. twinkling] also are accustomed to
refractions both within the eyes as well as trembling of the air : which certainly vanish
with the eye applied to a telescope. The rising of vapours in the air may cause a tremble,
so that the rays are easily turned away in turn from the narrow space of the pupil, but by
no means from the side of the wider glass in the aperture of the objective. Thus it is that
such a scintillation arises in the first case, and ceases in the second: and the cessation in
the second case demonstrates the regular transmission of light through the heavens
without any sensible refraction. It has been said, incorrectly, that one cannot always see
the tails of comets, because their light is not strong enough, as then the secondary rays do
not have enough strength to affect the eyes, and it is for this reason that we cannot see the
tails of fixed stars, as [likewise] they do not have enough strength to affect the eyes, and
therefore the tails of fixed stars are not seen: but it is known that the light of fixed stars
can be increased more than 100 times by means of telescopes, yet still tails are not
discerned. The light of planets is more plentiful too, truly without tails: but often comets
have the greatest tails, when the light of the head is feeble and very dull. Thus indeed the
comet of the year 1680, in the month of December, in which time the head by its light
was scarcely equal to a second order magnitude star, was sending out a magnificent tail as
far as to 40
0
, 50
0
, 60
0
or 70
0
of longitude and beyond : after January 17
th
and the18
th
the
head appeared as a star of only the 7 order magnitude, truly the tail by a certain weak light
was enough to be seen 6
0
or 7
0
long, and with the most obscure light, scarcely made it
possible to see, it was stretched out to as far as 12
0
or a little further: as has been said
above. But on both February 9
th
and 10
th
when one had abandoned looking at the head
with the naked eye, I considered the tail to be 2
0
in length with a telescope. Again if the
tail was arising from the refraction of celestial matter, and by virtue of the heavens the
figure as deflected in the opposite direction to the sun, that deflection must always be into
the same region of heavens and always to be made in the same direction. And the comet
of the year 1680 December 28, in the hour 8
1
2
p.m. London time, was present in ) 8
0
.41',
with a latitude North of 28
0
. 6', with the sun present in _ 18
0
.26'. And the comet of the
year 1577, on December 29 was moving through ) 8
0
. 41' with a latitude North of
28
0
.40', with the sun present in _ 18
0
.26' approximately. In each case the earth was
present at the same place, and the comet appeared in the same part of the heavens : yet in
rd
Ed.

the first case the tail of the comet (from my own and from the observations of others)
declined at an angle of 4
1
2
0
from the opposition of the sun towards the North ; truly in
second case (from the observations of Tycho) the declination was of 21
0
to the South.
Therefore the refraction of the heavens is rejected, and it remains that the phenomena of
tails is derived from some matter reflecting the light.
The laws which the tails observe confirm that they arise from the heads of comets, and
that they ascend into regions away from the sun. So that since the tails which the heads
leave behind as they progress in these orbits, are in the planes of the orbits of comets
passing the sun, these always deviate in directions opposite to the sun. Which appear to a
spectator established in these planes to be in directions directly away from the sun ;
moreover to an observer in these planes the deviation would appear to change little by
little, and in days would become greater and greater. Because the deviation, with all else
being equal, is less when the tail is more oblique to the orbit of the comet, as when the
head of the comet approaches closer to the sun; especially if the angle of deviation of the
tail is viewed near the head of the comet. Besides, since the non-deviating tails appear in
straight lines, and moreover those deviating are curved. So that the curvature is greater
where the deviation is greater, and more noticeable where the tail is longer, with all things
being equal : for with shorter tails the curvature is scarcely noticed.
In addition, the angle of deviation is less near the comet's head, and greater towards the
other extremity , and thus as a consequence the convex side of the tail is turned towards
the parts that have been carried away by its deviation, and which are in right lines from
the sun drawn through the head of the comet to infinity. And because the tails which are
more prolix and wider, and shine by light more vigorously, shall be a little more brilliant
on the convex side and terminate less indistinctly than at the concave side. Therefore the
phenomena of the tail depends on the motion of the head, but not in the region of the
heavens in which the head is seen ; and therefore they do not come into being through
refraction of the heavens, but arise from the material supplied by the head. And indeed
just as in our air the top of any body on fire tries to become higher, and that either
perpendicularly if the body is at rest, or obliquely if the body is moving to the side: thus in
the heavens, where bodies gravitate towards the sun, smoke and vapours must rise from
the sun (as has now been said) and reaches higher and straight up if the body is at rest, or
obliquely, if the body by progressing always leaves behind places from which the higher
parts of the vapour rise. And that obliquity will be less when the ascent of the vapour is
faster : without doubt in the vicinity of the sun and near smoking bodies. But from the
differences of the obliquity the column of vapour appears curved : and because the vapour
in the preceding side of the column is a little more recent, thus also it likewise will be a
little denser, and the light reflected on that account more abundant, and it will be
terminated more distinctly. Concerning the sudden and uncertain agitations of the tails
and with regard to the irregular figures of these, which some have described occasionally,
here I add nothing; therefore as either from the changes in our air, and from the motions
of clouds sometimes the parts of tails arise from obscurity ; or perhaps from parts of the
milky way, which disregarded may be confused with the tails, and only parts of that are
seen.
But it is possible to understand from the rarity of our air, how vapours from which the
atmospheres of comets are able to arise, which are sufficient to fill such immense spaces.
rd
Ed.

For the air adjacent to the surface of the earth occupies around 850 more parts of space
than water of the same weight, and thus a cylindrical column of air 850 feet high is of the
same weight as a column of water of the same width measuring a foot in height. Moreover
a column of air rising to the top of the atmosphere equals by its weight a column of water
around 33 feet high; and therefore if the lower part of the whole column of air 850 feet
high is taken away, the part remaining above will equal by its weight a column of water
to of height 32 feet. Thus truly (by a rule confirmed by many experiments, that the
compression of air shall be as the weight of the incumbent atmosphere, and that the
gravity shall be inversely as the square of the distance of places from the centre of the
earth), by putting in place the computation according to the Corollary, Prop. XX11, Book
II, I have found that the air, if it may rise from the surface of the earth to a height of one
radius of the earth, shall be rarer than with us in a ratio greater by far than the distance
greater than all of the distance between the orbit of Saturn and a globe of diameter one
inch. And thus a globe of our air one inch wide, that with the rarity which it would have at
a height of one radius of the earth, would fill all the planetary regions as far as to Saturn's
sphere and more beyond. Hence since the air higher besides is rarefied indefinitely ; and
the hair or atmosphere of a comet, by ascending from its centre, almost ten times higher
shall be than the surface of the nucleus, then the tail may ascend higher than this altitude,
and it must become the even more rarefied. And since on account of the great thickness of
the atmosphere of the comet, and the great size of the gravitation of the bodies towards
the sun, and the gravitation of the particles of the air and vapour between themselves, it
can happen that the air in the celestial distances and in the tails of comets themselves thus
may not be rarefied ; but yet the exceedingly small quantity of air and vapour suffices in
abundance for all that phenomena of the tails, and is evident from this computation. For
the signs of rarity of the tails is deduced from the stars by their translucence. With the
brilliant light of the sun through the earth's atmosphere, with its thickness of a few miles,
and the stars and the moon itself obscured and thoroughly extinguished : equally
illuminated by the light of the sun, through the immense thickness of the tails, the stars
are known to shine through without detriment and with minimum loss of clarity. Nor is
the splendour of many tails usually greater than the air in our darkened chamber with the
light from the sun in a space of one or two inches reflecting in the sunshine.
The interval of time in which the vapour ascends from the head to the tail, can almost
be known by drawing a line from the end of the tail to the sun, and by noting the place
where that line cuts the trajectory. For the vapour at the end of the tail, if it ascends
straight from the sun, starts to ascend from the head, at which time the head was at the
point of the intersection. But the vapour does not ascend straight from the sun, for by
retaining the motion of the comet, that it had before it had its ascent, and by adding the
motion of the ascent to the motion of the same, it ascends obliquely. From which the
solution of the problem will be more realistic, so that the straight line, which cuts the
orbit, shall be parallel to the length of the tail, or rather (on account of the curved motion
of the comet) as the same may diverge from the line of the tail. With this agreed upon I
found that the vapour, which was at the end of the tail on January 25
th
, had began to rise
from the head before December 11
th
, and thus in its whole ascent it took more than 45
days. But all that tail which appeared on December 10
th
, ascended in an interval of these
two days, which had elapsed from the time of the perihelion of the comet. Therefore the
rd
Ed.

vapour from the beginning in the vicinity of the sun rose most quickly, and afterwards
from the motion retarded by its own gravitation proceeded always to ascend more slowly ;
and in ascending increased the length of the tail : but the tail, as soon as it appeared, was
made nearly completely from vapour, which arose from the time of the perihelion ; nor
did that first part vanish, the vapor which first ascended, and of which the end of the tail
was composed, until on account of its excess distance even though being illuminated by
the sun, it is ceased to be seen by our eyes. Also the tails of other comets, which are
shorter and do not ascent with a rapid continual motion from the heads and soon vanish,
but instead the tails are permanent columns of vapours and exhalations, propagated from
the heads most slowly over many days with a motion which, by sharing that motion with
the head that it had at the start, together with the head they are able to move through the
heavens. And hence again it is gathered that the space of the heavens is free of resistance ;
just as in which not only the solid bodies of the planets and of comets, but also the rarest
vapours of the tails go forwards most freely, and conserve the most rapid velocities of
their motion for a long time.
Kepler ascribed the ascent of the tails from the atmospheres of the heads of comets,
and their progression in directions away from the sun, to the action of the rays of light
dragging the material of the tail along with it. And it is not absurd to reason that the finest
vapours are able to be carried along in spaces free from all resistance by the action of the
rays, and it cannot therefore be by any other reason, although dense vapours on being
impeded are unable to be propelled sensibly by the rays of the sun in our regions. Another
astronomer has considered that it is possible to be given both light as well as heavy
particles, and the matter of the tails to be light, and by their lightness to ascend from the
sun. But since the weight of terrestrial bodies shall be as the matter in the bodies, and thus
as the quantity of matter remains the same [thus, particles that levitate do not exist], the
weight cannot be made greater or less. I suspect that ascent to arise rather from the
rarefaction of the matter in the tail. Smoke ascends in a furnace by the force of the air on
which it floats. That air rarefied by heat ascends, on account of the diminution of the
specific gravity, and the mixed-up smoke rises with it. Indeed, why may the tail of the
comet not rise from the sun in the same way? For the sun's rays do not disturb the
medium, through which they pass, except by reflection and refraction. The reflecting
particles are heated by this action and in turn will heat the aether wind with which they
are mixed up. It in turn is rarefied by that communicated heat, and from that rarefaction
on account of the diminished specific gravity by which it is drawn towards the sun, it
rises and takes the reflecting particles with it from which the tail is composed. The
vapours which compose the tails of comets turn around the sun, and tend as a
consequence to travel away from that star, which again contributes to their ascension, for
the atmosphere of the sun and the material of the heavens either clearly remains at rest, or
turns more slowly than the matter in the tails, and because it turns by that motion which it
receives from the rotation of the sun.
These are the causes for the ascent of the vapours which form the tails of comets when
they are in the vicinity of the sun's atmosphere, or where their orbits are more curved, and
where the comets are present within the denser and for that reason thicker part of the sun's
atmosphere, and as a consequence the more heavy, and they will send out the longest
tails. For the tails, which then begin to appear conserve their motion and yet gravitate
rd
Ed.

towards the sun, moving around the sun in ellipses in the manner of the heads, and by
that motion they will always accompany the heads although they adhere most freely to
these. For the gravity of these vapours acting towards the sun can no more make the tail
longer by falling later, any more than the weight of the head can effect an increase in the
length of the tail by falling towards the sun. Thus falling at the same time with the
common [acceleration of ] gravity either into the sun, or being retarded in their ascent in
the same manner ; and thus gravity hardly impedes the heads and tails of comets ; so that
they easily take and afterward most freely observe some position of the head and of the
tail in turn from the causes described, or from any others.
Therefore the tails, which arise in the perihelions of comets, will go off with their
heads into remote regions, and either thence after a long series of years will return to us
with the same, or perhaps there little by little they vanish by rarefaction. For later in the
descent of the heads to the sun new and very short tails must be propagated from the
heads in a slow motion, and immediately in the perihelions of these comets, which
descent as far as the atmosphere of the sun, are increased into an immensity. For the
vapour will be perpetually rarefied and dilated in these free spaces. From which account it
comes about that every tail shall be wider at the upper extremity than next to the head of
the comet. But from that rarefaction the vapour perpetually spreads out wider and is
scattered through the whole heavens, then little by little it is attracted to the planets by
their gravity, and it seems likely to think that it may become mixed with their
atmospheres. For just as the seas are required for the entire constitution of this earth, and
so that from these by the heat of the sun enough vapours may be excited, which either
begins to fall as rain from clouds, and all the earth may be watered and nourished for the
growing of vegetables ; or to be condensed onto the freezing tops of mountains (as some
conjecture with reason) running off in springs and rivers : thus comets may seem to be
required for the preservation of the seas and of the moisture on the planets, and from the
exhalations and condensed vapours of which, whatever is consumed by vegetation and
decay from the condensed vapours and is changed into dry ground, will be continually
supplied and replaced. For all vegetation generally grows by means of humidity, then that
in the large part is return to dry ground by rotting, and slime always falls to the bottom of
fluids that are putrefying. Hence the mass of the dry earth thence is increased, and the
liquids, unless they are supposed to be increased from elsewhere, must always decrease,
and at last cease to be. Again I suppose that the spirit, which is the smallest but the most
subtle and the most excellent part of our air, and that is necessary to give life to all things,
comes especially from comets.
The atmospheres of comets are diminished in their descent towards the sun by the tails
extending out, and (that certainly in the direction facing the sun) are rendered narrower :
and in turn in the recession of these from the sun, when now extends less in tails, they
may be made bigger ; but only if Hevelius noted these phenomena correctly. But they
appear smallest, when the heads now heated by the sun and which send off the longest
and brightest tails ; and the nuclei are surrounded by smoke perhaps thicker and darker in
the lower parts of the atmosphere. For all the smoke generated by the great heat is usually
thicker and darker. Thus the head of the comet, that we are discussing (i.e., the one of
1680), at equal distances from the sun and from the earth appeared more obscure after it
perihelion rather than before. For in the month of December when it was accustomed to
rd
Ed.

be compared to a star of the third order magnitude, but in the month of November with
stars of the first and second orders. And those who saw both, described the first as the
greater comet. For on November 19
th
, to a certain young man of Cambridge, this comet
with its light appearing dull and somewhat obtuse, was equal to the light of Spica Virgo,
and was shining clearer than later. And to Montanari on November 20
th
in the old style,
the comet appeared greater than a star of the first magnitude, with a tail of two degrees
length. And from letters of Mr. Storer, that have come into our hands, he remarked that its
head in the month of December was very small, when the maximum and most brilliant tail
was sent off, and that it departed in grandeur from that who had seen the comet in the
month of November, before the rising of the sun. It was conjectured that the reason for
this was because in the head at the start was more plentiful, and it was being used up little
by little.
In the same way it seemed to be seen, that the heads of other comets, which had
emitted great and most brilliant tails, had appeared somewhat obscure and very small. For
in the year 1668 on March 5
th
in the new style, in the seventh hour in the evening, the R.
P. Valentinus Estancius, viewing in Brazil, saw the comet almost horizontal at sunset on a
wintry day, with a very small head and barely conspicuous, but truly with the tail above
shining in such a manner, that standing on the shore an image of this could be easily
discerned reflected from the sea. The image truly produced was that of a splendid beam
23
0
in length, going towards the south west, and almost parallel to the horizontal.
But yet the splendour lasted only three days, suddenly perceptibly decreasing ; and
meanwhile with the decrease in splendour with an increase in the magnitude of the tail.
From which also in Portugal it was said to have occupied almost a quarter of the sky (that
is, 45
0
) from the west to the east with a most significant extension: for still the whole
appeared, with the head always hidden in these regions below the horizon. From the
increase of the tail and the decrease of the splendour it was evident that the head was
receding from the sun, and it was nearest to it at the beginning of its appearance, in the
manner of the comet of the year 1680.
One reads in the Saxon Chronicle that a similar comet appeared in the year 1106, the
star of which was small and obscure (like that in the year 1680) but the tail of which had
a great brilliance, and which extended from that like a giant tree trunk towards the North-
East, as Hevelius had also from the monk Simeon of Durham. Initially it appeared in the
month of February, and then around the evening, at the setting of the winter sun. Then
truly from the position of the tail it is gathered that the head was in the vicinity of the sun.
Matthew of Paris said, that it was about a single cubit from the sun, from the third hour
[more correctly six (the square brackets here are Newton's comments] until the ninth hour
it was sending out a long ray from itself. Such also was the most outstanding light from
that comet described by Aristotle in Book I. Meteor, 6. The head of which in the first day
was not conspicuous, because that had set before the sun or perhaps appearing in the
sun's rays, but in the following day so much of it was to be seen as possible. As it was able
to leave the sun by a small distance, and soon set also. On account of the excessive
brightness [evidently of the tail] the head did not appear covered in fire, but with time
proceeding (according to Aristotle) with the tail now less ablaze, the head of the comet
returned to its shape. And the splendour of the tail extended to a third part of the sky [i.e.,
to 60
0
]. But it appeared in winter time [in the fourth year of the 101
st
Olympiad] and
rd
Ed.

ascending as high as the belt of Orion, when it vanished. With that comet of the year
1618, which appeared from the rays of the sun with the most splendid tail, was seen to be
a star of the first magnitude or greater, but many larger comets appear, which have shorter
tails. Of these, some are said to have been the equal of Jupiter, others of Venus, or even of
the moon.
We have said that comets are a kind of planets revolving in very eccentric orbits
around the sun: And just as with the planets which are not accustomed to have small tails,
which are revolving closer to and around the sun in smaller orbits, but thus also comets,
which fall closer to the sun at their perihelions, it may be seen to be agreed upon for this
reason, are to be very much smaller, lest they disturb the sun too much by their attraction.
Now the transverse diameters of the orbits and the periodic times of the revolutions,
remain to be determined from the gathering together of comets returning in the same
orbits after long time intervals. Meanwhile the following proposition may shed some light
on this business.

PROPOSITION XLLI. PROBLEM XX11.
To correct the trajectory found of a comet.

[Chandrasekhar gives explanations of these operations from p.530 onwards.]
Operation 1. The position of the plane of the trajectory is assumed, by the above
proposition found ; and three places are selected from the observations of the comet
designated the most accurate, and which are as far apart from each other as possible ; and
let A be the time between the first and the second, and B the time between the second and
the third. Moreover it is agreed that the comet has turned through its perigee at one of
these places, or at least not to be far away from the perigee. From these apparent
positions, three true locations of the comet are found by trigonometrical operations in that
assumed plane of the trajectory. Then with these locations found, around the centre of the
sun or the focus, by arithmetical operations, put in place with the aid of Prop. XXI. Book
I, a conic section is described: and the areas of this, terminated by the rays drawn from
the sun to the places found shall be D and E; clearly D shall be the area between the first
and second observations, and E area between the second and the third. And T shall be the
whole time, in which the whole area D E + it must describe with the velocity found by
Prop. XVI. Book 1.
Operation. 2. The longitude of the nodes of the plane of the trajectory is increased,
with 20' or 30' added to that longitude, which are called P; and the inclination of that to
the plane of the ecliptic is maintained. Then from the three aforementioned observed
places of the comet, three true points may be found in this new place, as above : then also
with the orbit passing through these places, and the two areas of the same described
between the observations, which shall be d and e, so that the total time in which the whole
area d e + must be describe shall be t.
Operation 3. The longitude of the nodes is used in the first operation, and the
inclination of the plane of the trajectory is augmented to the plane of the ecliptic, with 20'
or 30' added to that inclination, which is called Q. Then from the aforesaid observations
with the three apparent places of the comet found in this new plane with the three true
places, and with the orbit passing through these places, and so that the two areas of the
rd
Ed.

same described between the observations, which shall be & , and the whole time , in
which the whole area + must be described.
Now let
1 1 1 1
= = and =
g
C G d A D
B E e
, , ,

= ; and let S be the true time between the first and

third observations ; and with the signs + and properly observed the numbers m and n
are sought from the observations, from this rule, that there shall be
2 2 G C mG mg nG n = + , and 2 2 T S mT mt nT n = + . And if in the first
operation I designates the inclination of the plane of the trajectory to the plane of the
ecliptic, and K the longitude of one or the node, I nQ + will be the true inclination of the
plane of the trajectory to the plane of the ecliptic, and K mP + the true longitude of the
node. And finally if in the first operation, and in the second, and third, the quantities R, r
and designate the latera recta of the trajectory, and the quantities
1 1 1
L l
, ,
the transverse
widths [or diameters] of the same respectively : R mr mR n nR + + will be the true
latus rectum, and
1
L ml mL n nL + +
the true width of the trajectory that the comet will
describe. But with the transverse diameter given also the periodic time of the comet is
given. Q.E.I.

Otherwise the periodic times of revolution of comets, and the transverse diameters of
the orbits, cannot be determined with enough accuracy, except by collating the comets
among themselves, which appear at different times. If more comets, after equal intervals
of time, are found to describe the same orbit, it will be concluded that all these are one
and the same comet, revolving in the same orbit. And then at last from the given times of
revolution the transverse diameters will be given, and from the diameters the orbits of the
ellipses will be determined.
To this end therefore the trajectories of several comets are required to be computed,
from the hypothesis that they shall be parabolas. For trajectories of this kind always agree
approximately with the phenomena. That made clear, not only from the parabolic
trajectory of the comet of the year 1680, as well as with the observations brought together
above, but also from the particular features of that comet, which appeared in the years
1664 and 1665, and had been observed by Hevelius. This he had worked out from the
observations of the longitude and latitude of this comet, but less accurately. From the
same observations our countryman Halley computed the places of this comet anew, and
then finally from such positions found determined the trajectory of the comet. Moreover
he found its ascending node in } 21
0
.13'. 55", the inclination of the orbit to the plane of
the ecliptic 21
0
. 18'. 40'', the distance of the perihelion from the node in the orbit 49
0
.17'.
30". The perihelion in p 8
0
.40'. 30" with the latitude south from the centre of the sun
16
0
.1'.45". The comet in perihelion on November 24
th
at 11
h
. 52'. p.m. London time, or
London, or 13
h
.8' Danzig [Gdansk], in the old style, and latus rectum of the parabola
410286, with the mean distance of the earth from the sun being at the distance 100000.
Since the proper places of the comet in this orbit agree with the computation, it will be
apparent from the following table computed by Halley.

rd
Ed.


Apparent time
in Gdansk, old
style.
Observed distances of comet. Positions observed. Positions
computed in
Orbit.
December.
3
d
.18
h
.29'
1
2

from heart of Leo 46
gr
.24'.20''
'' Spica Virginis 22.52.10
Long.- 7
gr
. 1'. 0''
Lat. south. 21.39. 0
- 7
gr
.1' .29''
21.38.50
4.18.1
1
2

'' heart of Leo 46. 2.45
Long.- 16.15. 0
- 0.16. 5
22.24. 0
7.17.48 '' heart of Leo 44.48. 0
Long.- 3. 6. 0
- 3. 7. 33
25.21.40
17.14.43 '' heart of Leo 53.15.15
'' right arm of Orion 45.43.30
Long.- 2.50. 0
p 2.50. 0
49.25. 0
19.9.25 '' Procyone 35.13.15
'' Bright star jaw Cetus 52.56. 0
Long.} 28.40.30
} 28.43. 0
45.46. 0
20.9.53
1
2

'' Procyone 40.49. 0
'' Bright star jaw Cetus 40. 4. 0
Long.} 13. 3. 0
} 3. 5. 0
39.53. 0
21.9.9
1
2

'' right arm of Orion 26.21.25
'' Bright star jaw Cetus 29.28. 0
Long.} 2.16. 0
} 2.18.30
33.39.40
22.9. 0 '' right arm of Orion 29.47. 0
'' Bright star jaw Cetus 30.29.30
Long._ 24.24. 0
Lat. aust. 27.45. 0
_ 24.27. 0
27.46. 0
26.7.58 '' Bright star Aries 23.20. 0
'' Aldebaran 26.44. 0
Long._ 9. 0. 0
_ 9. 2.28
12.34.13
'' Aldebaran 28.10. 0
Long._ 7. 5.40
_ 7. 8.45
10.23.13
'' Hyades 29.37. 0
Long._ 5.24.45
Lat. south. 8.22.50
_ 5.27.52
8.23.37
31.6.45 '' Girdle Androm. 30.48.10
'' Hyades 32.53.30
Long._ 2. 7.40
Lat. south. 4.13. 0
_ 2. 8.20
4.16.25
Jan. 1665
7.7. 37
1
2

'' Girdle Androm. 25.11. 0
'' Hyades 37.12.25
Long.[ 28.24.47
Lat. bor. 0.54. 0
[ 28.24. 0
0.53. 0
13.7. 0 '' Girdle Androm. 28. 7.10
'' Hyades 38.55.20
Long.[ 27. 6.54
Lat. north. 3. 6.50
[ 27. 6.39
3. 7.40
24.7. 29 '' Girdle Androm. 20.32.15
'' Hyades 40. 5. 0
Long.[ 26.29.15
Lat. north. 5.25.50
[ 26.28.50
5. 26. 0
Feb.
7.8. 37
Long.[ 27. 4.46
Lat. north. 7. 3.29
[ 27.24.55
7. 3.15
22.8.46 Long.[ 28.29.46
Lat. north. 8.12.36
[ 28.29.58
8.10.25
Mar.
1.8. 16
Long.[ 29.18.15
Lat. north. 8.36.26
[ 29.18.20
8.36.26
7.8.37 Long.[ _ 0. 2.48
Lat. north. 8.56.30
_ 0. 2.42
8.56.56

In the month of February at the start of the year 665, the first star of Aries, that in
what follows I will call , was at [ 18
0
. 30'. 15" with the latitude to the North 7
0
. 8'. 58".
The second star of Aeries was at [ 29
0
. 17'.18" with the latitude to the North 8
0
. 18'.16''.
And a certain other star of the seventh magnitude, that I will call A, was at [ 28
0
.14'.45"
with the latitude to the North 8
0
.28'. 33". Now the comet on Feb. 7
d
.7
h
. 30' Paris time
(that is Feb. 7
d
. 8
h
. 37 Gdansk) old style, made a triangle with the stars and A right-
angled at . And the distance of the comet from the star was equal to the distance of the
stars and A, that is 1
0
.19'. 46" on a great circle, and therefore that was 1
0
. 20'.26'' in the
parallel of the latitude of the star . Whereby if from the longitude of the star the
longitude 1
0
.20'. 26" were taken away, the longitude of the comet [ 27
0
. 9'. 49'' will
remain. Auzout from his observation put this comet in [ 27
0
. 0' roughly. And from the
diagram, from which Hook had traced out its motion, that now was in [ 26
0
.59'. 24".
From the mean ratio I have put the same in [ 27
0
. 4'. 46". From the same observation
rd
Ed.

Auzout now put the latitude of the comet to be 7
0
and 4' or 5' towards the North. The
same would be more correctly 7
0
. 3'.29", clearly with the difference of the latitude of the
comet and the star , being equal to the difference of the longitudes of the stars and A.
Feb. 22
d
. 7
h
. 30' London, that is Feb. 22
d
. 8
h
. 46' Gdansk, the distance of the comet
from the star A, according to the observation of Hook from his own delineated scheme,
and according to the figure of Petit traced after the observations of Auzout, it was the fifth
part of the distance between the star A and the first of Aries, or 15" 57''. And the distance
of the comet from the line joining the star A and the first of Aries was the fourth part of
the same fifth part, that is 4'. And thus the comet was in [ 28
0
.29'. 46", with the latitude
North 8
0
. 12'. 36".
March 1
d
. 7
h
. 0' London time, that is March 1
d
. 8
h
. 16' Gdansk, the comet was observed
near the second star of Aries, with the distance between the same being to the distance
between the first and the second of Aries, that is to 1
0
. 33', as 4 to 45 according to Hook,
or as 2 to 23 following Gottignies. From which the distance of the comet from the
second star of Aries was 8'. 16" following Hook, or 8' 5" following Gottignies, or in the
ratio of the mean 8'. 10". Now the comet according to Gottignies had just progressed
beyond the second star of Aries around a distance of a quarter or a fifth part of the journey
completed in a single day, that is, around 1'. 35" (with which Auzout agreed well enough)
or a little less following Hook, thing of 1'. Whereby if to the first longitude of Aries there
is added 1', and to its latitude 8'. 10", the longitude of the comet will be found [ 29
0
.
18', and the latitude to the North 8
0
. 36'. 26".
March 7
d
. 7
h
.30' Paris time (that is March 7
d
.8
h
. 37' Gdansk) from the observations of
Anzout the distance of the comet from the second star of Aries was equal to the distance of
the second star of Aries from the star A, that is 52'.29''. And the difference of the
longitudes of the comet and of the second star of Aries was 45' or 46', or in the mean ratio
of 45'. 30". And thus the comet was in _ 0
0
. 2'.48". From the diagram of observations of
Auzout, that Petit constructed, Hevelius deduced the latitude of the comet to be 8
0
.54'.
But the engraver curved the path of the comet irregularly at the end of the motion, and
Hevelius in the diagram of Auzout's observations by himself corrected the irregular
curvature, and thus the latitude of the comet was made to be 8
0
. 55'. 30''. And by
correcting the irregularity a little more, the latitude emerged to be 8
0
. 56', or 8
0
. 57'.
Here the comet was also seen on the 9
th
day of March, and then it must have been
located in _ 0
0
.18', with a latitude North of about 9
0
.3'
1
2
.
This comet appeared for three months, and to have described almost six signs, and in
one day it completed almost 20
0
. Its course was deflected a great deal from a great circle,
curved in the North ; and its backwards motion at the end was made direct. And not
standing in the way of such an unusual course, the theory agreed with the observations no
less accurately from start to finish, as the theory of the planets is accustomed to agree with
the observations of these, as will be apparent on inspecting the table. Yet around two
minutes are required to be taken away at first, when the comet was the travelling the
fastest; that which can be done by taking away 12' from the angle between the ascending
node and the perihelion, or by putting that angle in place to be 49
0
. 27'. 18". The annual
parallax of each comet has been most noticeable (both of this and of the above), and thus
the annual motion of the earth in a great circle.
rd
Ed.

Also the theory is confirmed by the motion of the comet, which appeared in the year
l683. This was backwards in orbit, its plane with the plane of the ecliptic contained almost
a right angle. The ascending node (from Halley's computation) was in ] 23
0
.23'; the
inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic 83
0
.11'; the perihelion in } 25
0
. 29'. 30"; the
distance of the perihelia from the sun, 56020, with the radius of the great orbit being of
magnitude 100000, and with the time of the perihelion July 2
d
.3
h
.50'. Moreover the
locations of the comet in this orbit computed by Halley, and collated with the places
observed by Flamsted, are shown in the following table.

1683
Observed
mean time.
Place of Sun. Comp. Long. of
comet
Comp.Lat.
North.
Long.obs. of
comet
Lat. North
Observ.
Differ.
Long.
Differ.
Lat.
d. h. gr. ' '' gr. ' '' gr. ' '' gr. ' '' gr. ' ''
Jul. 13.12. 5' p 1. 2.30 C 13. 5.42 29.28.13 C 13. 6.42 29.28.20 +1'.0'' +0'.7''
15.11.15 2.5312 11.37. 4 29.34. 0 11.39.43 29.34.50 +1.55 +0.50
17.10.20 4.45.45 10. 7. 6 29.33.33 10. 8.40 29.34. 0 +1.34 +0.30
23.13.40 1038.21 5.10.27 28.51.41 5.11.30 28.50.28 +1. 3 1.14
25.14. 5 12.35.28 3.27.53 24.24.47 3.27. 0 28.23.40 0.53 1. 7
31. 9.42 18. 9.22 } 27.55. 3 26.22.52 } 27.54.24 26.22.25 0.39 0.27
31.14.55 18.21.53 27.41. 7 16.16.57 27.41. 8 26.14.50 +0. 1 2. 7
Aug. 2.14.56 20.17.16 25.29.32 25.16.19 25.28.46 25.17.28 0.46 +1.9
4.10.49 22. 2.50 23.18.20 24.10.49 23.16.55 24.12.19 1.25 +1.30
6.10. 9 23.56.45 20.42.23 22.47. 5 20.40.32 22.49. 5 1.51 +2. 0
9.10.26 26.50.52 16. 7.57 20. 6.37 16. 5.55 20. 6.10 2. 2 0.27
15.14. 1 ] 2.47.13 3.30.48 11.37.33 3.26.18 11.32. 1 4.30 5.31
16.15.10 3.48. 2 0.43. 7 9.34.16 0.41.55 9.34.13 1.12 0. 3
18.15.44 5.45.33 _2452.53 5.11.15 _ 24.49. 5 5. 9.11 3.48 2. 4
South. South.
22.14.44 9.35.49 11. 7.14 5.16.58 11. 7.12 5.16.58 0. 2 0. 3
23.15.52 10.36.48 7. 2.18 8.17. 9 7. 1.17 8.16.41 1. 1 0.28
26.16. 2 1331.10 [ 24.45.31 16.38. 0 [ 24.44. 0 16.38.20 1.31 +0.20

Also the theory is confirmed for the retrograde motion of the comet, which appeared in
the year 1682. The ascending node of this (from the computation of Halley) was in _
2l
0
.16'. 30''. The inclination of the orbit to the plane of the ecliptic 17
gr
. 6'. 0". The
perihelion in 2
0
. 52'. 50". The distance from the perihelion to the sun
58328, with the radius of the great orbit proving to be 100000. And the time equal to the
perihelion September 4
d
.7
h
. 39'. Truly the places computed from the observations of
Flamsted, and collated with the places computed by the theory, are shown in the
following table.
1682. Observed
mean time.
Position of
the sun.
Long.Comp.
of comet.
Comp.
Northern
Lat.
Obs. Long.
of comet.
Observ.
Northern
Lat.
Differ.
Long.
Differ. Lat.
d. h. gr. ' '' gr. ' '' gr. ' '' gr. ' '' gr. ' '' ' '' ' ''
Aug. 19.16.38 ] 7. 0. 7 18.14.28 25.50. 7 18.14.40 25.49.55 0.12 +0.12
20.15.38 7.55.52 24.46.23 26.14.42 24.46.22 26.12.52 +0. 1 +1.50
21. 8.21 8.36.14 29.37.15 26.20. 3 29.38. 2 26.17.37 0.47 +2.26
22. 8. 8 9.33.55 ] 6.29.53 26. 8.42 ] 6.30. 3 26. 7.12 0.10 +1.30
29. 8.20 16.22.40 12.37.54 18.37.47 12.3749 18.34. 5 +0. 5 +3.42
30. 7.45 17.19.41 15.36. 1 17.26.43 15.36.18 17.27.17 +0.43 0.34
Sept. 1. 7.33 19.16. 9 203053 15.13. 0 2027 4 15. 9.49 +3.49 +3.11
4. 7.22 22.11.28 25.42. 0 12.23.48 25.40.58 12.22. 0 +1. 2 +1.48
5. 7.32 23.10.29 27. 0.46 11.33. 8 26.59.24 11.33.51 +1.22 0.43
8. 7.16 26. 5.58 29.58.44 9.26.46 29.58.45 9.26.43 0. 1 +0. 3
9. 7.26 27. 5. 9 ] 0.44.10 8.49.10 ] 0.44. 4 8.48.25 +0. 6 +0.45

rd
Ed.

Also the theory for the retrograde motion of the comet is confirmed, which appeared in
the year 1723. The ascending node of this (being computed by Mr. Bradley, Savilian
professor of astronomy at Oxford) was in [ 14
0
.16'. The inclination of the orbit to the
plane of the ecliptic 49
0
. 59'. The perihelion in _ 12
0
. l5'. 20". The distance of the
perihelion from the sun 998651, with the radius of the great orbit taken to be 1000000,
and the corrected time of the perihelion to be September. 16
d
. 16
h
. 10'. Indeed the places
calculated in this orbit by Bradley, and the places collated with the observations by our
compatriots Dr. Pound and Dr. Halley are shown in the following table.

1723 Observed
mean time.
Observed. Long. of
comet.
Observ.Lat.North.

Comput. Long. of
comet.
Comput. Lat. of
comet..
Differ.
Long.
Differ.
Latit.:
Octob. 9
d
. 8
h
. 5' 7
0
.22'.15'' 5
0
. 2'. 0'' 7
0
.21'.26'' 5
0
. 2'.47'' +49'' 47''
10. 6 .21 6.41.12 7.44.13 6.41.42 7.43.18 50 + 55
12. 7.22 5.39.58 11.55. 0 5.40.19 11.54.55 21 + 5
14. 8.57 4.59.49 14.43.50 5. 0.37 14.44. 1 48 11
15. 6.35 4.47.41 15.40.51 4.47.45 15.40.55 4 4
21. 6.22 4. 2.32 19.41.49 4. 2.21 19.42. 3 + 11 14
22. 6.24 3.59. 2 20. 8.12 3.59.10 20. 8.17 8 5
24. 8. 2 3.55.29 20.55.18 3.55.11 20.55. 9 + 18 + 9
29. 8.56 3.56.17 22.20.27 3.56.42 22.20.10 25 + 17
30. 6.20 3.58. 9 22.32.28 3.58.17 22.32.12 8 + 16
Nov. 5. 5.53 4.16.30 23.38.33 4.16.23 23.38. 7 + 7 + 26
8. 7. 6 4.29.36 24. 4.30 4.29.34 24. 4.40 18 10
14. 6.20 5. 2.16 24.48.46 5. 2.51 24.48.16 35 + 30
20. 7.45 5.42.20 25.24.45 5.43.13 25.25.17 53 32
Dec. 7.6.45 8. 4.13 26.54.18 8. 3.55 26.53.42 + 18 + 36

From these examples it is made abundantly clear that the motion of comets set out by
our theory are shown no less accurately, than the motion of the planets are accustomed to
be shown by the same theories. And therefore the orbits of comets can be enumerated by
this theory, and the periodic time of the comet revolving in some orbit finally becomes
known, and then at last the transverse width of the elliptic orbits and the altitudes of the
aphelions become known.
The retrograde comet, which appeared in the years 1607, described an orbit, the
ascending node of which (from Halley's computation) was in _12
0
. 21' ; the inclination of
the plane of the orbit to the plane of the ecliptic was 17
0
. 2 ' ; the perihelion was in
2
0
.l6'; and the distance of the perihelion from the sun was 58680, with the radius of the
great circle taken to be 100000. And the comet was in perihelion in October 16
d
.3
h
.50'.
This agreed approximately with the orbit of the comet which appeared in the year 1682. If
these two were one and the same, this comet was revolving in a time of 75 years, and the
major axis of its orbit will be to the major axis of the great orbit of the earth, as
3
75 75 to 1 , or around 1778 to 100. And because the distance of the aphelion of this
comet from the sun, will be to the mean distance of the earth from the sun, almost as 35 to
1. With which understood, it would not be difficult to determine the elliptic orbit of this
comet. And thus this will itself come about if the comet, in the interval of 75 years, may
be returned hereafter in this orbit. The remaining comets are seen to be revolving with a
greater time and to ascend higher.
The remaining comets, on account of the great magnitude of their numbers, and the
great distance of the aphelion from the sun, and the long delay at the aphelions, by gravity
must disturb each other , and both the eccentricities and times of revolution at some times
rd
Ed.

are increased a little, at other times diminished. Hence it cannot be expected that the same
comet will return accurately in the same orbit, and with the same periodic time. It will
suffice if no greater changes come about, than may arise from the aforesaid causes.
And hence the reason is provided, why comets are not restrained to the Zodiac in the
manner of planets, but depart thence and by various motions be carried to all regions of
the heavens. Evidently to that end, so that at their aphelions, where they are moving the
slowest, as they shall be at great distances from each other so that their mutual attraction
will not be experienced. It is by that reason why the comets which descend from the
highest, and which as a consequence moving the most slowly at their aphelions, must
return to the highest places.
The comet which appeared in the year 1680, was at a shorter distance from the sun at
its perihelion than a sixth part of the diameter of the suns ; and therefore because of the
maximum velocity in that vicinity, and some density of the sun's atmosphere, it must
have experienced some resistance, and be retarded by a small amount, and to approach
closer to the sun : and by getting closer to the sun in the individual revolutions, finally it
will fall into the body of the sun. But at the aphelions where it is moving the slowest, by
the attraction of other comets it can be retarded, and suddenly fall into the sun [at its next
approach]. Thus also the fixed stars, which exhaust themselves little by little from light
and vapours, are able to renew themselves by the comets that fall into them, and rekindled
by new fuel arise as new stars. Fixed stars are of this kind, which suddenly appear, and at
the start with maximum brilliance, and subsequently vanish little by little. Such was the
star that Cornelius Gemma barely saw on the quiet night of 8
th
of November 1572 in the
chair of Cassiopeia, illuminating that part of the heavens ; but the following night
(November 9
th
) it was seen most brilliant among all the fixed stars, and with its light
scarcely conceding to the light from Venus. Tycho Brahe saw this on the eleventh day of
the same month when it was maximally brilliant ; and from that time decreasing little by
little and in the space of the sixteen months it was observed to be vanishing. In the month
of November, when it first appeared, it was equal to the light from Venus. In the month of
December diminished a certain amount it was seen to equal the light of Jupiter. In the year
1573, in the month of January it was less than Jupiter and greater than Sirius, to which at
the end of February and the beginning of March it emerged equal. In the month of April
and in May it was a star of the second magnitude, in June, July and August it was equal to
stars of the third magnitude, September, October and November to stars of the fourth
magnitude, December and in the month of January of the year 1574, to stars of the fifth
magnitude, and in the month of February it was seen equal to stars of the sixth
magnitude, in the month of March it vanished from sight. In the beginning the colour was
clear, white and very bright, afterwards yellow, and in the month of March in the year
1573 reddish in the image of Mars or of the star Aldebaran; but in May it took on a
bluish- white appearance, such as we see in Saturn, which colour it maintained until the
end, when it was made more obscure, yet always becoming more obscure.
Such also was the star in the right foot of the Serpent, that students of Kepler saw to
appear initially on the 30
th
day of September in the year 1604, in the old style, and by its
light surpassed Jupiter, when in the preceding night it had been barely apparent.
From that truly in a little time it decreased, and in the space of fifteen or sixteen months it
had vanished from view. It was a new star of this kind which appeared so brilliant to the
rd
Ed.

fixed stars, in the time of Hipparchus, that persuaded him, it is said [as reported by Pliny],
to observe the fixed stars, and to give them in a catalogue. But the fixed stars, which in
turn appear and vanish, and which increase in brightness little by little, and by their light
scarcely surpass any fixed stars of the third magnitude, are seen to be stars of another kind
and are seen in turn revolving with one part bright and another part obscure. But vapours,
which arise from the sun and from the fixed stars and from the tails of comets, can fall by
their gravity into the atmospheres of planets and there to be condensed and converted into
water and humid spirit, and in the end by a slow heat to be changed little by little into
salts and sulphur, tinctures, slime and mud, clay and sand, stones and coral, and other
terrestrial substances.

GENERALE SCHOLIUM .

The hypothesis of vortices is beset with many difficulties. Since each and every planet
by a ray drawn to the sun describes areas proportional to the times, the periodic times of
the parts of the vortex must be in the square ratio of the distances from the sun. In order
that the periodic times of the planets shall be in the three on two proportion of the
distances from the sun, the periodic times of the parts of the vortices must be in the three
on two proportion of the distances. In order that the smaller vortices around Saturn,
Jupiter, and the other planets are able to be kept rotating and quietly swimming in the
vortex of the sun, the periodic times of the parts of the vortex of the sun must be equal.
The revolutions of the sun and planets about their axes, which must agree with the
motions of the vortices, disagree with all these proportions. The motions of comets are the
most regular, and they observe the same laws of motion as the planets, and are unable to
be explained by vortices. Comets are carried in extremely eccentric motions into all parts
of the heavens, which cannot happen, unless vortices are renounced.
Projectiles, in our air, only experience the resistance of the air. In the most subtle air,
as it becomes in a Boyle vacuum, the resistance stops, accordingly a fine feather and a
gold solid fall together with the equal velocity in this vacuum. And equal is the account of
celestial spaces, which are above the atmosphere of the earth. All bodies must be able to
move most freely in these spaces ; and therefore planets and comets to be revolving
perpetually in orbits, given in kind and position, following the laws set out above. Indeed
they will persevere in their orbits by the laws of gravity, but the original situation of the
orbits cannot be accounted for by these laws.
The six principal planets are revolving around the sun in concentric circles, moving in
the same direction, approximately in the same plane. Ten moons are revolving around the
earth, Jupiter, and Saturn in concentric circles, moving in the same direction, in
approximately the planes of the planets. And all these regular motions do not have their
origins from the causes of mechanics ; if indeed the comets are in very eccentric orbits,
and are sent freely into all parts of the heavens. By which motions comets generally cross
the orbits of the planets quickly and easily, and into their aphelions where they are slower
and they remain there for a long time ; since they are most distant from each other, so that
they attract each other minimally. This most elegant structure of the sun, planets and
comets could only arise from the planning and in the dominion of an intelligent and
rd
Ed.

powerful being. And if the fixed stars shall be the centres of similar systems, all these
likewise constructed under the same plan in the dominion of One: especially since the
light of the fixed stars shall be of the same nature as the light from the sun, and all the
light is sent from all the systems into every system in turn. And so that the systems of
fixed stars do not fall into each other by gravitation, here in turn the same immense
distance has been put in place.
This universal presence rules not as the soul of the world, but as the master of
everything. And therefore he is usually called the master of all his
dominion. For deus [god] is a relative word and is referring to servants: and the deity is
the master of the gods, not of a special body, as they believe in which deus is the soul of
the world, but only of servants. The Master is an eternal, infinite, absolutely perfect being:
but some perfect being is not the master god without a dominion. For we may say my
deus [god], your deus [god], the god of Israel, god of the gods, and master of the masters :
but we cannot say my eternal one, your eternal one, the eternal one of Israel, the eternal
one of the gods ; nor can we say my infinite one, your perfect one. These names do not
have a relation to servants. The word deus actually signifies master [dominum]: but every
master is not a god. [I have omitted Newton's note on the origin of this: see Cohen p.941
if interested.] The dominion of a spiritual being constitutes god; indeed the true god come
from true gods, the greatest god from the greatest, an imaginary god from the imaginary.
And from the true domination it follows that the true god is alive, intelligent and powerful
; and from his remaining perfections to be the greatest, or the peak of perfection. He is
eternal, infinite, omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient, that is, enduring from infinity
to infinity, and present from the infinite to the infinite : ruling all; and knowing
everything, which can arise or not able to arise. Not eternity and infinite but eternal and
infinite ; not duration or space, but enduring and present. He always, and is present
everywhere, and by existing always and everywhere, constitutes duration and space. Since
any small particle of space shall be always, and any indivisible instant everywhere,
certainly the maker and master of all things cannot be missing at any time or place. Every
perceiving soul who experiences in different times, with different senses, and by the
motion of several organs, is still always the same indivisible person. There are these
successive parts in the duration [of a person's experiences of his existence], and these
parts coexisting in space : there is nothing [in ordinary space and time] that has any
resemblance to that which constitutes the person that is the man, nor in his thinking
principle [I have relied here on Madame du Chatelet's translation]; and there will be much
less than in the thinking substance of god. Every man, whatever thing he is thinking
about, is one and the same man during his life from all the individual sense organs. God is
one and the same god always and everywhere. Omnipresence is not by virtue alone, but
also by substance : for virtue without substance cannot exist. Everything is moved
generally and containing the person himself, but not without the some action from other to
be experienced by him. God suffers nothing from the motions of bodies : they experience
no resistance from the omnipresence of god. It has been confessed that it is necessary that
the supreme god must exist : and by the same necessity it is always and everywhere. From
which also the whole being the same to him, all eyes, all ears, all mind, all arms, all the
strength of feeling, of intelligence, and of action, but in a manner not human, still less
than with a body, and in a manner completely unknown to us. As a blind man has no idea
rd
Ed.

of colours, thus we have no ideas of the ways in which the wisest god experiences and
knows all things. Without any body and bodily shape, and thus unable to be seen, nor to
be heard, touched, or worshipped under any kind of thing related to the body. We have
ideas of his attributes, but that shall be of other substances unknown to us. We can see
only the figures and colours of bodies, we hear only their sounds, we touch only their
external surfaces, we smell only their odours, and we taste only their flavours: but as for
the insides of substances, we know them not by any sense, nor by any reflection ; and we
have far less idea about the substance of god. This we know only by his properties and
attributes, and by the wisest and most optimal structures of things, and by their final
causes, these we admire on account of their perfections ; moreover they are venerated and
worshipped on account of his dominion. For we adore as servants, and god without a
dominium, providence, final causes, is nothing else but fate and nature. From blind
necessity metaphysics, which certainly is the same always and everywhere, no variation
of things arises. The diversity which reigns over everything, whatever the times and the
places , by necessity can come only from the ideas and will of an existing being. But it is
said that god allegorically can see, hear, and that he can laugh, love, hate, desire, give,
take, enjoy, be angry, fight, fabricate. For everything that one can say about god is taken
from some comparison with human things; but these comparisons, although they are very
imperfect, yet have some likeness. And thus concerning god, from which certainly from
the difference of phenomena, pertain to natural philosophy.
At this point I have established the phenomena of the heavens and of our seas through
the force of gravity, but I have not assigned the cause of gravity. Certainly this force
arises from some cause, which penetrates as far as to the centre of the sun and of the
planets without diminution of strength; and which acts not only on the quantity of
particles on the surface, on which it acts, (as they are the customary mechanical causes)
but also on the quantity of the solid material ; and the action of this is extended thence
over immense distances, always by decreasing in the inverse square of the distances.
Gravity in the sun is composed from the gravity of the individual particles of the sun, and
by receding from the sun it decreases accurately in the square ratio of the distances as far
as to the orbit of Saturn, as that is evident from the quiet of the aphelion of the planets,
and as far as to the final aphelions of comets, but only if these aphelions are at rest.
Indeed I have not yet been able to deduce an account of these pleasing properties from the
nature of the phenomena, and I devise no hypothesis. For whatever cannot be deduced
from phenomena, it is required to call hypothesis ; and hypothesis, whether it be of some
metaphysical, physical, occult, or mechanical qualities, have no place in experimental
philosophy. In this philosophy the propositions are deduced from the phenomena, and
rendered general by induction. Thus the impenetrabilities, mobilities, and the impetus of
bodies and the laws of the motions and of gravity have become known. And it is enough
that gravity actually exists, and acts according to the laws set forth by us, and it is
sufficient to explain all the motions of heavenly bodies and those of our seas.
Now this will be the place to add something on this most subtle kind of spirit that
penetrates through all solid bodies, and which is hidden in their substance ; it is by this
force and the action of this spirit that the particles of bodies attract each other mutually to
the smallest distances, and are made to stick together ; and it is by this same means that
electrified bodies are acted on at greater distances, both by repelling as well as attracting
rd
Ed.

small bodies in the vicinity ; and the light is emitted , reflected, refracted, inflected [i.e.
internally reflected], and the bodies heated; all the sensations are excited, and the
members of animals are moved according to its will, evidently by the vibrations of this
spirit through the solid filaments of the nerves from the external sense organs to the brain
and propagated to the muscles. But these are things that cannot be explained in a few
words; nor do we have a sufficient supply of experiments, by which the laws of action of
this spirit must be accurately determined and shown.

The End.

Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.

; but only if the magnitude of this volume is always taken as that,

as required. We may also note that

,] shall be inversely as the volume

, that is, on account of AV given,

, or (on account of the

, that is (with the ratio determined

which varies inversely as the centripetal

; that is (on account of the given

. Therefore (by Corol.1 & 5, Prop.VI.) the

. Therefore (by Corol.I & V, Prop.VI.) the centripetal force is

. We indicate here the ellipse drawn for these five points :

. Now if the point G touches a right line,

for AD in this equation, and

for DG, a new equation will be

= = , where we note that the circle is an ellipse with equal semi-

. Now with the width CP of the figure

. Clearly Newton was familiar

; the limits of integration are chosen to

with suitable limits chosen.]

; and which now we call the energy integral, corresponding

, where F(r) is the attracting force on the body. This

. From which since YX XC shall be toA KN as CX

= , which is the ratio

. But since the triangles pCk and pCn

= = , and the result

: and this force (by Corol. I.

will prevail at any height A.

; and the total force may be put together

+ emerges. And with the terms of this collected together

+ And with the final

may be found between the apses. Nor

; there will be (in the third example) b equals 1, m

= in our definition of the angle; and

is equal to the forceSK

; if the distance SP < SK ,

is less than the average.]

] attracts P towards T, and arises from the mutual attraction of the

= = But on account of the similar triangles MLS, TPS :

, and hence the force SM is as

), gives rise on resolution,

may be put in place, the forces NM, ML will be approximately as

; the total force, by which the

; the force, by which the

; and the force, by

, which following the fourth

will generate the area

+ . Truly these emerge,

will emerge. Put the centripetal forces

is a component, proportional to its mass or

, which Newton now sets out for

; Chandrasekhar shows how an integral similar to this one is

= + . And then, with the terms of the first equation

= + , in which new equation the second term shall itself be the

= + , all of which terms are given, therefore with this

= , and since there shall be

, for some constant Q, which vanishes when

= and the area GLMH, becomes as

, or on account of the given 3 n , inversely

+ + &c. and the term of this, in which O is of two

= = ; thus, if for some k other than 1,

= arises from the same time to traverse the

is the whole motion at

= , and the terminal velocity is given by