Or#anic Geochemistrr, Vol. 2, pp.

33 43
Pergamon Press Lid 1980. Printed in Great Britain
Primary migration theory of petroleum and its
application to petroleum exploration
KOICHI AOYAGI and TADASHI ASAKAWA*
Central Technical Laboratory, Japan Petroleum Exploration Co. Ltd.
3-5-5 Midorigaoka, Hamura-machi, Nishitama-gun, Tokyo, Japan
(Received 10 July 1978; accepted in revised form 30 March 1979)
Abstract--Current concepts of oil and gas generation by thermal decomposition of kerogen are
reviewed. Primary oil migration mechanisms requiring large quantities of water to serve as a carrier
for the movement of oil from source rock to reservoir are discussed. Previous investigators regarded
the expulsion of interlayer water from montmorillonite and montmorillonite-illite mixed-layer minerals
by transformation during diagenesis as the most important source of the carrier water.
The process of diagenesis is subdivided into three stages based on the results of experimental compac-
tion studies on montmorillonite clay, on studies of the expulsion mechanism of interlayer and interstitial
waters, and on the observed changes in pores and mineral grains in argillaceous sediments during
these stages. As a result, we concluded that the migration of oil chiefly occurs during the late compaction
stage when the sediment's porosity ranges from 30 to 10%.
This conclusion implies that a large amount of oil can move during the period when the active
generation of oil corresponds with the primary migration of carrier water. For instance, in the oil-bear-
ing Miocene sediments of the Akita area of northern Japan, the oil generation temperature ranged
from 100 to 150C and the average migration depth was between 1300 and 2600m. Therefore, the
possibility of large oil pool formation will be high in the basin where the paleo-geothermal gradient
is about 5.0C/100m, In fact, it is expected that the paleo-geothermal gradients in the vicinities of
large oil fields will be very close to this value.
Prediction of the type and amount of hydrocarbons in the exploration area will be possible by
an examination of the paleo-geothermal gradient in the area and by a study of the relation between
absolute porosity and burial depth of argillaceous rocks.
INTRODUCTION
The task of expl ai ni ng the pet rol eum generation,
mi grat i on and accumul at i on mechani sms has been an
i mpor t ant and st i mul at i ng probl em for pet rol eum
geologists and geochemists.
Porfi r' ev (1974) r epor t ed t hat some geologists and
geochemists from U.S.S.R. and eastern Eur ope have
suppor t ed the i norgani c t heory of pet rol eum; they
believe t hat pet rol eum hydr ocar bons were formed
under the t her modynami c condi t i ons of the upper
mantle. However, many researchers favor the organi c
origin t heory of pet rol eum which implies t hat the
source mat eri al s of hydr ocar bons ori gi nat ed from
buried organi c mat t er in argi l l aceous sediments.
There are two aspects of the organi c origin theory,
the pr ot o- pet r ol eum (Brooks, 1936) and the kerogen
(Abelson, 1963) theories. In this paper, concepts will
be based on the kerogen theory which is presently
accepted by many researchers.
Under the influence of increasing overburden pres-
sure and geot hermal t emperat ure, kerogen in argilla-
ceous sediments will generate pet rol eum hydro-
carbons by t hermal decomposi t i on. Many geologists
believe that carri er water is necessary for the pr i mar y
mi grat i on of pet rol eum from source to reservoir
rocks, especially in the case of oil (Hedberg, 1964).
* Present address: Technology Research Centre, Japan
National Oil Corp., 2-3-13 Toranomon, Minato-ku,
Tokyo, Japan.
Some geochemists, however, have obj ect ed to this
concept on the basis t hat oil is onl y very slightly sol-
uble in water (McAuliffe, 1965). Ot her investigators
have dispelled this obj ect i on by showing t hat pet ro-
l eum sol ubi l i t y in water can be appreci abl e at ele-
vated t emperat ures (Price, 1976). Many Ameri can
pet rol eum geologists (Powers, 1967; Burst, 1969; and
Perry and Hower, 1972) believe t hat the interlayer
water of mont mori l l oni t e released by t ransformat i on
duri ng the late stage of diagenesis becomes the carrier
water essential for pr i mar y mi grat i on. Recently, the
writers of the present paper suggested t hat in addi t i on
to i nt erl ayer water, i nt erst i t i al water expelled from
sedi ment s duri ng the mi ddl e stage of diagenesis also
p l a y s an i mpor t ant role in the pr i mar y mi grat i on of
oil (Aoyagi and Asakawa, 1977).
In the present paper, the process of diagenesis is
discussed from the st andpoi nt of changes in mi neral
grains and pores in argillaceous sediments, a n d these
concepts will be appl i ed to the t emperat ure and dept h
of pet rol eum generat i on in several Japanese and ot her
basins. This pri mary mi grat i on theory will be
explained in detail and we will illustrate how this
t heory can be appl i ed to pet rol eum expl orat i on.
PROCESS OF DIAGENESIS IN
ARGILLACEOUS SEDIMENTS
Diagenesis is defined as the process i nvol vi ng
physical and chemical changes in sediment after depo-
sition t hat converts it t o consolidate4, rock (A.G.I.,
33
34
K. AOYAGI and T. ASAKAWA
Table 1. Relationships between absolute porosity and burial depth of the Neogene argillaceous sediments
in several Japanese basins and elsewhere
_ e l l s
M i t i M i t i A k i t a T a k a g i M i t i Okl ahoma
Porosity(*/,-;T-,~.~ Hamayuchi Ni i k a p p u Oi l Fi el ds R - 3 K u b i k i U S A ' Venezuel a
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
5
m
6 5 0
1 0 2 0
1 4 9 0
2 2 2 0
3 9 0 0
m
2 0 0
1 1 2 0
1 5 0 0
1 8 5 0
4 4 0 m
7 9 0
1 2 7 0
1 8 5 0
2 6 2 0
8 8 0 m
1 2 5 0
1 6 8 0
2 8 0 m
6 0 0
9 0 0
1 2 8 0
1 7 8 0
3 1 5 0
1 2 0
3 3 0
6 0 0
1 0 7 0
1 6 0 0
m
m
420
9 4 0
1 6 8 0
A g e Mi o c e n e Mi o c e n e Mi o - P l i o Pl i oc ene Mi o - P l i o Pennsyl . E o c - Mi o
- Per m.
1960). Larsen and Chilingar (1967), Rieke and Chil-
ingarian (1974) and many others have written about
the various phases of diagenesis in argillaceous sedi-
ments. These publications indicate that pressure, tem-
perature and reaction time are the physical factors,
and pH, Eh and chemical composition of sediment
fluids are the chemical factors controlling diagenesis.
All of these factors should be considered in monitor-
ing the process of diagenesis.
Practically, however, it is very difficult to identify
the stage of diagenesis by using all of the above fac-
tors. Thus, many researchers used the change of abso-
lute porosity i n sediment to moni t or the progress of
diagenesis, since the porosity of argillaceous sedi-
ments is inversely proportional to the increase of bur-
ial depth.
Porosity changes in sediments
The change in absolute porosity of argillaceous
sediments is controlled by overburden pressure,
water-expulsion mechanisms, rates of deposition, and
nature of sediment grains. Therefore, in the strict
sense, relationships between porosity and burial depth
of sediments in a specific basin must be established
from data for that specific site of deposition. In gen-
eral, however, it is also true that the relations between
porosity and depth in different basins with similar
geological histories closely resemble each other.
Table 1 indicates the relationships between the
absolute porosity and burial depth of Neogene argil-
laceous sediments in Miti Hamayuchi and Miti Niik-
appu of H0kkaido, several oil fields of Akita (Miya-
zaki, 1966), and Takagi R-3 (Matsuzawa, 1961, 1962)
and Miti Kubiki of Niigata in Japan. In the Neogene
of Japan, the average burial depth of the sediment
with 50% porosity corresponds to about 500 m; 40%
porosity corresponds to 1000 m, 30% to 1400m, 20%
to 1800 m, 10% to 2800m and 5% t o 3200 m. Porosity
changes in Carboniferous t o Permian argillaceous
rocks of Okl ahoma in U.S.A. (Athy, 1930) and the
Eocene to Miocene argillaceous sediments in Vene-
zuela (Hedberg, 1936) are also shown in the table.
Mineral transformation in sediments
In Fig. 1, the physical conditions (pressure, tem-
perature, and reaction time) controlling transforma-
tion of v~rious minerals in argillaceous sediments
during diagenesis are summarized according to
Aoyagi et al. (1975) and Aoyagi and Kazama (1977,
1978). For clay minerals in the Tertiary sediments of
Japan, a pressure of 900 kg/cm z and a temperature
of 104C are required for the transformation from
montmoriilonite to montmorillonite-illite mixed-layer
mineral and 920 kg/cm 2 and 137C for transformation
from mixed-layer mineral to illite. For zeolites,
370kg/cm 2 and 56C are necessary for the transfor-
mation from volcanic glass to clinoptilolite,
860 kg/cm 2 and 116C for the conversion of clinopti-
lolite to analcite and/ or heulandite, and 930 kg/cm 2
and 138C for the transformation from analcite
and/ or heulandite to laumontite and/or albite. For
silica minerals, 250 kg/cm 2 and 45C are required for
the transformation from amorphous silica to low-cris-
tobalite, and 660 kg/cm 2 and 69C for the change
from low-cristobalite to low-quartz.
The average calculated geothermal gradient in
Japanese oil fields is 2.89C/100m (Aoyagi and
Kazama, 1978). Therefore, in the Tertiary sediments
of Japan, a burial depth of about 1000 m is necessary
for the transformation from amorphous silica to low-
cristobalite, 1400 m for the volcanic glass-clinoptilo-
lite conversion, 1900m for the low-cristobalite-low-
quartz conversion, 3100 m for the montmorillonite--
mixed-layer mineral conversion, 3500m for the
clinoptilolite-analcite and/ or hetllandite conversion,
4200 m for the mixed-layer mineral-illite conversion,
and 4300 m for the conversion of analcite and/ or heu-
landite to laumontite and/ or albite.
Primary migration theory of petroleum 35
%
v
J 500-
1000-
g
o
Cl ay
Mi ner al s
_ M o n
Z e o l i t e s
Gl ass
Cl i
Lau o r ~ b
Si l i ca
Mi ner al s
Amor
- Low- e r i
L o w - O t z
50
100
_)
0
( 1
E
E
z2
o
Abbr . Mon = Mont mor i l l oni t e
Mi x = Mon- l l l Mi xed- l ayer Mi ner al
] I I = l l l i t e
Gl ass : Vol cani c Gl ass
CI i = Cl i nopt i l ol i t e
Ana = Anal ci t e
Heu = Heul andi t e
Lau = Laumont i t e
AI b = Al bi t e
Amor = Amor phous Si l i ca
Cr i = Cr i st obat i t e
Ot z = Quar t z
Fig. 1, Overburden pressures and geothermal temperatures required for the diagenetic transformations
of clay minerals, zeolites and silica minerals in Tertiary argillaceous sediments of Japan (modified
after Aoyagi and Kazama, 1977).
Process of diagenesis in sediment
In Hedberg' s (1936) porosity study, as shown in
Fig. 2, the process of compaction in argillaceous sedi-
ments can be classified into the following four stages;
mechanical rearrangement (90-75Y/o porosity), de-
watering (75-35~o), mechanical deformation (35--10~o)
and recrystallization (10-O~) stages. Subsequently,
Weller (1959) and Burst (1969) reported similar com-
paction models.
Recently, many reports on the experimental com-
paction of argillaceous sediments have been pub-
lished. Inami and Hoshino (1974) studied the
mechanical properties of sedimentary rocks in Japan,
and 3 yr later, they classified the compaction process
into viscous, plastic and elastic stages (Hoshino and
Inami, 1977). Based on results of experimental com-
paction of montmorillonite clay by Aoyagi et al.
(1976), Aoyagi and Asakawa (1977) proposed the fol-
lowing three stages of diagenesis; early compaction,
late compaction and recrystallization (or transforma-
tion) stages.
Average relationships proposed by Aoyagi and
Asakawa (1977)among the changes in particles, pores
and liquids, and the average burial depth and geo-
thermal temperature during each stage of diagenesis
in the Tertiary argillaceous sediments of Japan are
summarized in Fig. 3.
The first stage of diagenesis is identified as the
' early compact i on' stage. As the number of grain con-
tacts in the sediment are relatively low at this stage,
the physical property of the sediment will be viscous.
The physical process controlling this stage is compac-
tion by overburden pressure and it will cause the
mechanical rearrangement of grains. Sediment poro-
sity at this stage ranges from 80 to 30~o. A large
amount of oxidizing interstitial water resembling sea
water will be expelled during the early part of this
stage and reducing interstitial and interlayer water
from swelling clay minerals will be expelled rapidly
from the sediments during the late part of t he stage.
Mineral neoformations, which could reduce the sedi-
ment' s porosity, are generally inactive at this time.
However, the transformation from amorphous silica
to low-cristobalite at the middle part of the stage and
the conversion of volcanic glass to clinoptilolite at
the latest part of the stage will occur.
The second stage of diagenesis is termed the 'late
compact i on' stage. A stable framework of sediment
grains will be formed by mechanical deformation and
an increase in number of grain contacts will result
from the increase of overburden pressure. Thus, the
physical characteristic of the sediment will change
from viscous to plastic. Geological factors affecting
the sediment during this stage are compaction,
cementation and transformation. This stage is charac-
terized by porosities ranging from 30 to 10~o, the gra-
36 K. AOYAGI and T. ASAKAWA
Por osi t y
( . i . )
- - 9 0
- - 8 0 - -
- - 7 0 - -
- - 6 0 - -
- - 5 0 - -
- - 4 0 - -
- - 3 0 - -
- - 2 0 - -
- - 1 0 -
Hedberg
( 1 9 3 6 )
Mechani cal
Rearrangement
Dewat er i ng
Mechanical
Def or mat i on
RecrySlallization
We l l e r
( 1 9 5 9 )
( P l a s t i c )
( Grain Contact )
Gr a i n )
Di s t o r t i o n /
( Cr ushi ng )
B u r s t
( 1 9 6 9 )
i n
Ho s h i n o &
l n a mi ( 1977)
V i s c o u s
Compact i on
P l a s t i c
Compact i on
Ao y a g i 8.
Asakawa ( 1977 )
Early
Compact i on
L a t e
Compact i on
E l a s t i c
Recrystallization
Compact i on
Fig. 2, Various concepts of the process of diagenesis in argillaceous sediments as proposed by different
investigators.
a o
Mechani cal Re a r r a -
ngement of Par t i cl es
Mechani cal Def or ma-
t i on of Pa r t i c l e s
O Tr ansf or mat i on of
u') Mi n e r a l s
Neof or mat i on of
Mi n e r a l s
E x p u l s i o n o f ~ J J J J ~
Q O I n t e r s t i t i a l Wat er
E E x p u l s i o n of
I n t e r l a y e r Wat er
3
o"
.J P o r o s i t y ( O/o ) 8 0 3 0
Aver age Bur i al Dept h ( m)
Aver age Temper at ur e ( "C )
St a g e o f Oi agenes l s
0 - 1 4 0 0
1 5 - 5 5
Ea r l y Compact i on
3 0 1 0
1400 2 8 0 0
5 5 9 6
L a t e Compact i on
< 1 0
> 2 8 0 0
> 9 6
Rec r y s t at l i z at i on
( T r a n s f o r ma t i o n )
Fig. 3. Changes in pores, liquids and grains and ranges of average burial depths and geothermal
temperatures during each stage of diagenesis in the Tertiary argillacous sediments of Japan.
Primary migration theory of petroleum 37
dual expulsion of small amounts of interlayer and in-
terstitial waters, and the neoformation of various
minerals in pore spaces. The transformation from
Iow-cristobalite to low-quartz occurs at the middle
part of the stage.
The third stage of diagenesis is called the ' recrystal-
lization' or ' transformation' stage. Various authigenic
minerals such as montmorillonite-illite mixed-layer
mineral, illite, analcite, heulandite, laumontite, and
albite, which are transformed from other mineral
grains, will produce a strong rock framework. The
effect of compaction is extremely low at this time
because the rock framework can support the over-
burden pressure. Thus, the most important geological
factors acting during this stage will be the increased
geothermal temperature and reaction time and also
the migration of chemical components. Porosity of
the rock at this stage is less than 10%. Interlayer and
interstitial waters cannot be easily expelled and will
be trapped for a long period as fossil water.
TEMPERATURE AND DEPTH OF
HYDROCARBON GENERATION
As a result of advances in analytical technology
since the mid-1960s, geochemical studies of organic
matter in argillaceous sediments are available for
various basins in Japan and elsewhere (Philippi, 1967;
Vassoevich e t a l . , 1967; Albrecht and Ourisson, 1969;
Tissot e t a l . , 1971; Nixon, 1973; Asakawa, 1975).
These studies established that the generation of hy-
drocarbons in argillaceous sediments occurs at a cer-
tain depth of burial, and that the compositions of
hydrocarbons in Recent sediments differ from those
of ancient sediments and crude oils. Ancient sedi-
ments and crude oils contain relatively high concen-
t r at i ons of light hydrocarbons (C2-C9), whereas
Recent sediments contain very small amounts of these
hydrocarbons. In addition, it was found that odd car-
bon-numbered normal paraffins are predominant in
Recent sediments while the contents of even and odd
carbon-numbered normal paraffins are almost equal
in crude oils (Bray and Evans, 1961). These geochemi-
cal facts indicate that petroleum is generated by the
maturation of hydrocarbons in sediments at a certain
depth. By such studies geologists and geochemists
have confirmed the generation theory of petroleum
during diagenesis and have identified the kerogen
component of sediments as the principal source of
petroleum.
Hitchon (1974) explains the process of kerogen for-
mation in sediments as follows. Organic matter de-
posited with inorganic matter in an anaerobic en-
vironment will change directly to kerogen and/or
humic matter. This change is brought about at shal-
low depths (20-30 m) by extensive biochemical alter-
ation. The generated humic matter will be polymer-
ized to high-molecular weight kerogen as a result of
hydrolysis, deamination, denitrogenation and decar-
boxylation reactions during the early stage of dia-
genesis.
As overburden pressure and geothermal tempera-
ture increase, generat ed kerogen will undergo meta-
morphic changes similar t o coalification. The most
important geological factor controlling the process is
temperature; the second most important factor is
reaction time. Pressure is responsible only for physi-
cal changes such as the volumetric decrease of water
and pores in the organic matter (Teichmiiller and
Teichmiiller, 1966). These ideas have been confirmed
by experimental studies on carbonization of pollen
grains and spores (Gutjar, 1966).
Weite (1972) has proposed the following sequence
of events to explain the petroleum generation process
by thermal decomposition of kerogen. After expulsion
of inorganic and organic gases such as H20, COz,
HzS, N2 and CH4, kerogen will form soluble organic
products (bitumen) and a newly generated insoluble
kerogen. These newly generated liquid products and
kerogen will again produce gases, kerogen, and liquid
products including hydrocarbons. The process will
continue repeatedly for a long time, producing in-
creasing yields of hydrocarbons, in which aromatic
compounds gradually become more prominent. As a
result of these continuing physico-chemical reactions,
the kerogen will gradually be changed to graphite.
Tissot e t a l . (1975) presented the relationships
between hydrocarbon maturation and burial depth
and geothermal temperature of sediments in various
basins of the world (see Fig. 4). As shown in the
figure, it is generally recognized that the geothermal
temperature necessary for the maturation of hydro-
carbons will decrease as reaction time increases.
Recently, Asakawa and Fujita (1979) reported that
the generation of hydrocarbons in the Miocene sedi-
ments of several Japanese oil fields occurred at ap-
proximately 100C and reached its peak at about
150C.
PRIMARY MIGRATION OF PETROLEUM
HYDROCARBONS
As stated earlier, the sediments must be buried to
a certain minimal depth to provide the temperature
necessary for the generation of petroleum hydro-
carbons from kerogen. Therefore, many investigators
have been concerned about the mechanism of primary
migration of generated petroleum from source rocks
t o reservoirs. One of the principal questions involved
the origin of carrier water for the oil, since many
geologists believed that most of e nterstitial water
in argillaceous sediments would have been expelled
before the generation of petroleum hydrocarbons
from kerogen and occurred (Athy, 1930; Hedberg,
1936, and Levorson, 1954).
Powers (1967) studied the mechanism of compac-
tion in argillaceous sediments and suggested that the
interlayer water released by the montmorillonite-illite
transformation would be important as a carrier
because the generation depth of hydrocarbons gener-
ally corresponds to the time of the mineral transfor-
3~ K. AOYAGI and T. ASAKAWA
E
durassJque I n f . (180Ma)
Devonlen Sup. (3SOMa)
1O13O
2OO0
~ ~ a h a r a
Tertlolre Sup. (IOMo)
T e r t l o l r e I n f . ( 3 5 M a )
B a s s i n d e P a r i s A f r l q u e Ouest B a s s i n d e
Los Angeles
(Philippi, 1965)
115"C
~
e n t
Oriental
I t I I
I 0 0 2O0 I 0 0 2O0
t I I I
I 0 0 2 0 0 I 0 0 2 0 0
mg/g C o r g a n i q u e
Fig. 4. Relationships between the maturation of hydrocarbons and the burial depth and geothermal
temperature of sediments in various basins of the world (after Tissot e t a / . . 1975).
marion stage. Later, Burst (1969) and Perry and
Hower (1972) investigated in detail the relation
between the depth of the montmorillonite-illite trans-
formation and the mechanism of expulsion of water
from clayey sediments in the Gulf Coast and sup-
ported Power' s theory (see Fig. 5). Their conclusions
should be regarded as the theory of primary migra-
tion of petroleum during the late stage of diagenesis.
Burst (1969) suggested that the interlayer water
released from sediments with porosities between 30
and 16% was the principal vehicle for oil migration.
Recently, Aoyagi and Asakawa (1977) studied the
average geothermal gradient (2.89C/100 m) and verti-
cal porosity changes in argillaceous sediments of
various Japanese basins and examined the mode of
hydrocarbon generation and the transformations of
various minerals during each stage of diagenesis
(Fig. 6). In addition, based on the assumption that
the original porosity of argillaceous sediment was
80~o and that half of the remaining 20~o grain volume
was composed of swelling montmorillonite, they cal-
culated the volume change of grains and pore space
in sediments during each stage of diagenesis (Fig. 7).
They concluded that the active primary migration of
oil in argillaceous sediments of Japan occurred at the
late compaction stage when the sediment porosity
ranged between 30 and 10~/,. This concept should be
called as the theory of primary migration of petro-
leum during the middle stage of diagenesis.
They indicated that a large amount of the interlayer
and interstitial water expelled from the sediments dur-
ing the early compaction stage could not be involved
POWERS (1967)
E3
( ~ 0 Montntc=ril Ionite
- ~ Level
O3
m
O3
WATER ESCAPE CURVES
BURST ( 1969)
STAGE I
L
STAGEll._B
STAGE "nrt
1
High Geothermal
Gradient
~.94"C/100'
~ ~ ~ S T A G E 1
STAGE 11T
T
STAGE 117
l
WATER AVAILABLE FOR MIGRATION
PERRY and HOWER
LowGeothermal
Gradient
~ 74C/tO0'
STAGE I
S ~ G E ~
-4
STAGE ~ I
STAGE I V
Fig. 5. Expulsion of water available for oil migration during each stage of diagenesis (after Perry
and Hower, 1972).
Temperature ( *C )
75 100 125 150
I I I
Dept h A v e r a g e Po r o s i t y ( %) Aver age
( m) 25 50 75 25 50
t I , 1 ~
/
/
0 /
/
1 0 0 0 -
2000
3000
' 1
, I
Ge n e r a t i o n
of Hy d r o c a r b o n s
V
Bi ochemi cal
Ga s
O i I Ther mo-
chemical
I Gas
2 8 9 " C / 1 0 0 m
Primary migration theory of petroleum 39
i t t
T r a n s f o r ma t i o n
St age
of Mi n e r a l s
Gl ass t [
Mo n L o w - C r i
Ci l
L o w - O t z
Mi x
An a
or
He u
" ~
k a u
I l l or
I AI b
I
A b b r : Mo n = Mo n t mo r i l l o r l i t e
Mi x = Mo n - l l l Mi x e d - l a y e r Mi n e r a l
I I I = I l l i t e
Gl ass = V o l c a n i c Gl a s s
C I i = C l i n o p t i l o l i t e
A n a = A n a l c i t e
H e u = H e u ( a n d i t e
L a u = L a u mo n t i t e
A I b = Ai b i t e
A mo r = A mo r p h o u s S i l i c a
C r i = Cr i s t o b a l i t e
Ot z = Qua r t z
Fig. 6. Relationships among the average geothermal gradient, average porosity, generation of hydro-
carbons, and transformation of various minerals during each stage of diagenesis in the Tertiary argilla-
ceous sediments of Japan (modified after Aoyagi and Asakawa, 1977).
in oil mi grat i on since the geot hermal t emperat ure of
the stage was 15-55C and was below t hat required
for oil generation. Duri ng the recrystailization (or
t ransformat i on) stage, the geot hermal t emperat ure
would rise above 96C, which would result in active
generation of oil and t hermochemi cal methane. How-
ever, the interlayer and i nt erst i t i al water could not
cont ri but e to oil mi grat i on because the water cont ent
at this stage would be very low and coul d not be
expelled because of the sediment' s low permeabi l i t y
(Magara, 1975).
Duri ng the late compact i on stage, however, oil gen-
erat i on in Japanese Miocene sediments coul d not
have been significant because the geot hermal tem-
perat ure was onl y between 55 and 96C. Nevertheless,
any generated oil coul d easily have mi grat ed out war d
t hrough the pores because a large amount of carri er
water, composed of i nt erl ayer water from mont mori l -
lonite, crystalline water from zeolites, and interstitial
water from pores, would be expelled from the sedi-
ments. As i ndi cat ed in Fig. 7, al most equal quant i t i es
of interlayer and interstitial water woul d be expelled
from the sediments. This cont radi ct s Power' s (1967)
assumpt i on t hat interlayer water is solely responsi bl e
for oil migration.
On the ot her hand, porous reservoirs such as sand-
stones and tufts will experience a decrease in porosi t y
with increasing burial dept h due to compact i on and
cement at i on (Aoyagi, 1974). These rocks, however,
should remai n sufficiently por ous to retain the petro-
leum hydrocarbons expelled with carrier water. Inami
and Hoshi no (1974) report ed that porosities greater
t han 15~ in arenaceous rocks generally correspond
with the early compact i on stage in argillaceous rocks.
They considered t hat the arenaceous rocks with por-
osities bel ow 15% had al ready reached the recrystal-
l i zat i on stage, during which the active neoformat i on
of authigenic minerals occurs and that condi t i ons re-
sponsible for the late compact i on stage in argi l l aceous
rocks do not appl y to arenaceous rocks. As the Mi o-
cene reservoirs of the Japanese oil fields generally
cont ai ned much volcanic glass, large quantities of
minerals such as zeolites and carbonat es would be
formed during diagenesis. This woul d result in an
abr upt decrease in porosi t y and permeabi l i t y of reser-
voirs, so that it may be concl uded t hat pri mary oil
mi grat i on coul d not occur after the recrystallization
stage in reservoirs has started. Gas migration, how-
ever, is possible during the recryst al l i zat i on stage.
In the preceding discussion, we established the por-
osity and mineral changes, the interlayer and inter-
stitial water expulsion mechanisms, and the gener-
40 K. AOYAGI and T. ASAKAWA
Sedimentation
(:)n= 1.3 3
)%
1 0%
=.:-..~..:..::.:~
Compaction
] Pore Water
I nt er l ay er Wat er
Swel l i ng Cl ay Sol i ds
No n - s we l l i n g Sol i ds
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n
~)n = 2.15 . - "o
i s'1. ~ n = 2 . 4 8 Q n = 2 5 7 _~
i ! i l ; i : ! i '
s .i. ~ s % ..~....:......!:; -o
m
19 5%
Fig. 7. Volumetric changes of grains and pores in argillaceous sediments during each stage of diagenesis
(after Aoyagi and Asakawa, 1977).
ation of petroleum hydrocarbons in Japanese Tertiary
sediments whose average calculated paled-geothermal
gradient was 2.89C/100m. For different paled-
geothermal gradients, however, the pattern of changes
will be considerably modified. For instance, assuming
a gradient of 6.0C/100 m, the transformations from
montmoriUonite to mixed-layer mineral and from vol-
canic glass to clinoptilolite would occur at burial
depths of about 1500 and 700m, respectively. This
implies that the neoformation of such minerals as
mixed-layer mineral and clinoptilolite would start at
an earlier stage of diagenesis (mainly at the early com-
paction stage). On the other hand, if the gradient was
2.0C/100m, the neoformation of these minerals
would begin at depths of approx 4500 and 2100m,
respectively. Under these conditions the transforma-
tion of these minerals would occur at a later stage
of diagenesis (mainly at the recrystallization stage).
Therefore, the paled-geothermal temperature must be
properly established for each basin studied.
APPLICATION OF MIGRATION THEORY
TO PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
As stated before, Aoyagi and Asakawa (1977) pro-
posed that the primary migration of oil occurs during
the late compaction stage when the porosity of argil-
laceous sediments ranges from 30 t o 10%. Since com-
paction is the most important factor controlling this
stage, the burial depth required for primary oil migra-
tion will be governed by the vertical change of por-
osity of argillaceous sediments in each basin. On the
other hand, the most important factor influencing the
generation of hydrocarbons from kerogen is geother-
mal temperature. Recently, Asakawa and Fujita
(1979) reported that the generation of oil in Miocene
sediments of Japan began at approx 100C and
reached its peak at about 150C. Therefore, the possi-
bility of formation of hydrocarbon pools in a given
exploration area can be evaluated from paleo-g_eo-
thermal temperature dat a at burial depths where the
porosity of argillaceous sediments range from 30 to
1o%.
For example, from a porosity-burial depth study
of Miocene argillaceous sediments in the Akita area
of northern Japan (Miyazaki, 1966), it was concluded
that the primary migration of oil in this area occurred
at burial depths between 1300 and 2600 m (see Fig. 8).
Figure 9 indicates how the range of oil generation
temperatures at the migration depth will vary accord-
ing to changes in the paled-geothermal gradient in
the area.
As shown in Fig. 9, if the paled-geothermal gradient
was 7.0C/100m, the geothermal temperature during
primary migration of oil would range from 119 to
223C. Since this temperature range is higher than
that expected for oil generation, the potential for
forming large oil pools in the area will be low. The
formation of gas pools, however, is still possible
because the generation of thermochemical methane
can take place at these temperatures. Assuming a gra-
dient of 3.0C/100 m, the temperature at the required
Primary migration theory of petroleum 41
70
5O
A,
3O
I \
16
~0
1.8
~ 2 0
2 2
2 4
2.6
T s u c h l z a k i S K I
T s u c N z a k i R 7
T s u c h l z a k i R 5
o T o n e h l r o S K I
0 I 1
10071 2 0 0 0
D e p t h o f b u r l o l , m
I 0
0 9
0 8
0 7
0. 6
0 5
0 4
i
o 3
Fig. 8. Relationships between absolute porosity and burial depth in the Miocene argillaceous sediments
of Akita oil fields, Japan (after Miyazaki, 1966).
poros i t y woul d range f rom 54 t o 93C, whi ch is t oo
l ow for the generati on o f oi l and t hermochemi cal
methane. Bi ochemi cal met hane can be generated ac-
ti vel y at these temperatures, thus the f ormat i on of
gas pool s will be possi bl e. If the gradient was
5. 0 C/ 100m, the temperature during pri mary mi gra-
ti on o f oi l woul d be in the 80- 145C range. In this
case, the possi bi l i ty o f formi ng large oi l pool s in the
area is hi gh si nce oi l generati on f rom kerogen is very
acti ve at these temperatures.
In the Aki t a area, there are many oi l fields such
as the Yabase, Toyokawa, Sarukawa, Fukubezawa,
Ts uchi zaki - oki , Hac hi mor i and others. Cumul at i ve
product i ons o f crude oi l and natural gas through the
end of 1969 in these fields are listed in Tabl e 2. Si nce
the pal eo- geot hermal gradients in the area have not
yet been studied, the present geot hermal gradi ents for
each oi l field are gi ven in the table. These geot hermal
gradients were obtai ned from the studi es o f Ohguchi
et al . (1970), Ai ba (1977), and Tanaka and Sato (1977).
The maxi mum temperature measured during el ectri c
l oggi ng general l y does not indicate true subsurface
temperatures because thermal equi l i bri um between
bore hol e mud and formati on was not attai ned prior
to these measurement s. Therefore, the geot hermal
temperatures reported by Ohguchi et al . (1970) were
recal cul ated for each wel l by the formul a establ i shed
by Tanako and Sat o (1977),
As shown in the table, the present geot hermal gra-
dients in these oi l fields range from 3.2 t o
G e o t h e r m a l T e m p e r a t u r e ( " C )
1 5 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0
- t = I
i i i i
Ge n e r a t i o n ' "
~ . T e m p e r a t u r e E a r l y C o m p ~ . c t i o n Z o n e
, 0 o o :: o , o .
v
o
_ .. , :.:&:.:,
'~ " 2 6 2 0
4 0 0 0
I 0 0 1 5 0
Fig. 9. Changes in oil generation temperature ranges at migration depth for various paleo-geothermal
gradients in the Miocene sediments of Akita oil fields, Japan.
42 K. AOYAGI and T. ASAKAWA
Table 2. Cumulative productions of crude oil and natural gas through the end of 1969 and present
geothermal gradients in various oil fields of Akita, Japan
0 i I P i I d Y a b a s e K u r o k a w a K a m i h a m a T o y o k a w a S a r u k a w a F u k u b e z a w a T s u c h i z a k i . o k i i H a c h i r n o r i
O i l P r o d u c t i o n /* 7 8 0 ~ Z Z O 1 ~ 9 0 9 6 0 7 2 0 1 7 0 1 5 0 I 1 0
( x i 0 3 K L )
G a s P r o d u c l i o n I 0 " / 0 I 0 0 ~ 0 t , 0 I 0 0 2 0 2 0 1 0
( x 1 0 ~ M 3 )
G G S O 0 t ) - - - - / * . l 8 2 ) 3 1 . 2 3 ) / * 3 5 3 ) 3 1 9 3 ) 5 7 / * 3 )
( " C t I 0 0 m ) t
I ) A i b a ( 1 9 7 7 )
2 ) T a n a k a a n d S a l o ( I 9 7 7 )
3 ) R e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m O h g u c h i e t a l . (
1 9 7 0 )
5.7C/100m. The geothermal gradient in Yabase oil
field, which is the most productive in the area, is
5.0C/100m. Therefore, assuming that the paleo,
geothermal gradients during the primary migration
of oil in the area were similar to the present geother-
mal gradients, it appears that oil generation at the
required migration depths in these oil fields was not
at a maximum level with the exception of the Yabase
oil field.
The possibility of forming large oil pools will be
high in the basin where the maximum generation of
oil corresponds with the stage of primary migration
indicated by burial depth. In other words, a suitable
paleo-temperature is essential for the formation of oi l
pools in the area. Therefore, for exploration purposes,
it is indispensable to determine the paleo-geothermal
gradient as well as the relationship between absolute
porosity and burial depth of argillaceous sediments
in each basin. From these studies, the prediction of
oil pool occurrences in the exploration area will be
possible,
CONCLUSION
In the present paper, the writers studied in detail
the process of diagenesis as indicated by the changes
of pores and grains in argillaceous sediments and
classified the process into early compaction, late com-
paction and recrystallization (transformation) stages.
We also explained the process of hydrocarbon gener-
ation from kerogen and discussed the relations
between generation temperature and depth of petro-
leum occurrences in argillaceous sediments of Japan
and elsewhere.
As a result, we concluded that the primary migra-
tion of oil would occur during the late compaction
stage when the porosity of argillaceous sediments
ranged from 30 to 10~.
From this theory of primary migration, we con-
cluded that the correspondence of the stages of pri-
mary migration and generation of oil were indispens-
able for the formation of large oil pools in the explor-
ation area. To establish these stages of generation and
migration, it is important to study the relationship
between porosity and burial depth of argillaceous
sediments and to determine the paleo-geothermal gra-
dients in each basin.
Acknowled#ements--The writers would like to thank Japan
Petroleum Exploration Company (JAPEX) for permission
to publish the paper. Dr. T. ONITSUKA of our laboratory,
Dr. K. HOSmNO of the Geological Survey of Japan, Dr.
Y. FUJITA of Teikoku Oil Company, and Dr. S. R. SILVER-
MANof Chevron Oil Field Research Company read the
manuscript and offered important comments to improve
the manuscript. Misses T. TAKAMASA and S, KANEKO of
our laboratory drafted the figures and tables. We thank
them very much.
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