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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
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DOI: 10.1243/0954408981529402
183
1998 212: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering
G C M Chan, A S Tooth and J Spence
An experimental study of the collapse of horizontal saddle-supported storage vessels
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183
An experimental study of the collapse of horizontal
saddle-supported storage vessels
G C M Chan, A S Tooth and J Spence
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland
Abstract: The use of plastic analysis in the design of horizontal vessels, used for liquid or gas storage, and
supported on twin saddles, allows better utilization of the vessels material and avoids the problems of
categorizing the elastic stresses when designing the component. To understand how the vessel collapses
onto the saddle, experiments were conducted on a range of model vessels (40 in all) with different
radiusthickness ratios (R/t) and supported on saddles which were either loosely tted or welded to the
vessel. The experimental results show that different collapse mechanisms occurred for loose and welded
saddles and also that the modes of failure were dependent upon the value of R/t for the vessel. In general,
progressive plastic collapse occurred in those vessels with low values of R/t and elasticplastic buckling for
vessels when higher R/t ratios were employed. This paper presents the detailed experimental results, which
are used as the basis of a theoretical design approach; the latter will appear in future papers considering both
plastic collapse and buckling failure.
Keywords: pressure/storage vessels, collapse, saddle supports
NOTATION
b
1
width of saddle (mm)
f design stress, as in reference [2] (N/mm
2
)
L barrel length of the vessel (mm)
R mean radius of the vessel (mm)
t shell thickness of the vessel (mm)
P experimental collapse load (kN)
2a total saddle embracing angle
j
y
yield strength (N/mm
2
)
1 INTRODUCTION
When a horizontal vessel, used for storing uid, is supported
on twin saddle supports a variety of modes of failure may
need to be considered to maintain the integrity of the vessel.
Four such modes are discussed below:
1. If the vessel is subject to a large number of cyclic load-
ings consisting of lling and pressurization followed
by depressurization and emptying, then failure could
occur by fatigue. Cracks may propagate from the highly
stressed weld region, which secures the saddle to the
vessel, and then into the vessel wall with catastrophic
results if the vessel is pressurized.
2. If cyclic loading causes large strains and plastic action
occurs in the highly stressed regions, during both the
loading and the unloading cycles, failure could occur,
after a relatively small number of cycles, by reversed
plasticity or by ratchetting. Failure in this case should
be distinguished from low-cycle fatigue failure. In this
mode we are concerned with overall structural behaviour
due to cyclic loading.
3. If the vessel is lled with uid (especially if the uid
has a specic weight higher than that considered in the
design), then a plastic mechanism could be set up in
the region of the saddle support during the rst lling
of the vessel. This mechanism allows the vessel to
collapse in a plastic manner, in which case it is necessary
to ensure a sufcient margin between the design condi-
tion and the plastic collapse condition.
4. If a thin-walled vessel with a high value of the radius
thickness ratio R/t, greater than approximately 200, is
used for storage, the compressive stresses which occur
in the vessel may reach a critical value and cause vessel
failure by buckling. Invariably these stresses are in the
axial direction in the vessel mid-span or in the saddle
centre prole. In addition, when a loose saddle is
employed, compressive circumferential stresses, in the
nadir region (the bottom of the vessel) of the saddle sup-
port area, may be of a critical value and produce local-
ized corrugated buckles in the vessel under the saddle.
To design the vessel adequately, all four modes should
be considered and assessed to establish the integrity of the
E00898 IMechE 1998 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 212 Part E
The MS was received on 24 February 1998 and was accepted for
publication on 27 May 1998.
vessel for use in the required operating and environment
conditions.
Using the information obtained from a rigorous shell
analysis of the vesselsaddle conguration, it is possible
to address the life assessment of the vessel under fatigue
loading, and thus to satisfy the mode 1 type of failure.
The way that this can be carried out has been detailed
elsewhere [1]. In addition, these stress data can also be
used in a design by analysis approach, as outlined for
example in Annex A of BS 5500 [2], where the maximum
value of the primary plus secondary stress intensities are
limited to twice the yield stress or three times the design
stress, 3f , at the design temperature. This procedure is
intended, in a rather simplistic way, to provide an approach
in which the vessel is designed for a shakedown condition
in order to avoid ratchetting, which can cause incremental
collapse and the mode 2 type of failure.
The maximum stress in these vessels usually occurs in
the support region at the uppermost position of saddle,
known as the saddle horn. It is essentially a circumferential
bending stress, with a compressive maximum on the outer
surface, caused by the localized high value of the interface
forces between the saddle and the vessel near the saddle
horn. Present design rules, e.g. as given in BS 5500 [2], limit
the total stress in this region to 1.25f. However, this rule
greatly underestimates the carrying capacity of the vessel,
since the maximum stresses are very localized and occur
in the region of the horns, and in the rst instance do not
constitute a plastic mechanism. An attractive alternative
method would be to base the design of the vessel on plastic
analysis, i.e. the avoidance of a mode 3 failure.
BS 5500 [2] also addresses the avoidance of buckling
in the vessel, that is the mode 4 type of failure, by limiting
the allowable compressive membrane stresses. However,
two problems arise in this respect:
1. The vessel stresses derived from the design procedure
set out in reference [2] are based on a rather simplistic
approach and are therefore not entirely accurate.
2. The allowable values for the critical buckling stresses
are somewhat conservative; however, an alternative
approach, based on the ECCS rules [3], is proposed in
the British Standard as an Enquiry Case (EC 5500/
105), which should provide a more realistic method of
assessment.
In view of the above it would appear that a design
approach to address failure by modes 3 and 4 would be a
worthwhile addition to the design methodology for these
components. As an aid to developing an appropriate analy-
sis, which accurately models the actual vessel behaviour,
it was considered important to examine experimentally the
plastic collapse and buckling phenomena referred to above
(modes 3 and 4) with particular reference to the range of
R/t values over which they occur. On the basis of this
work a theoretical approach has been developed and will
be presented in references [4] to [6].
Previous experimental work on relatively thick vessels
(23 < R=t < 217) by Wilson and Olsen [7], Tooth and Jones
[8], White [9] and Krupka [10, 11] showed that the saddles
collapsed into the vessel in a progressive plastic manner.
Work on thinner vessels (with R/t up to 650) by Krupka
[12, 13] showed the collapse to be in a sudden elastic
buckling manner.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Ideally, the testing of a model vessel should be carried out,
as in the actual storage vessel, by lling it progressively
with uid. However, to cause collapse of the model vessel
this procedure is rather difcult to employ, as the vessel
would have to be very thin or the uid would require to
have a very high specic gravity. Furthermore, if the pur-
pose is to examine the vessel condition when it is full of
uid, there is no easy means of varying the density of the
uid to achieve the exact collapse load for a particular
vessel conguration. However, attempts have been made
by one of the present authors, Tooth, and co-workers
[14, 15], using model vessels made from polyester lm,
which were both thin and of a low material modulus value.
In this, the vessels were supported at their ends and progres-
sively lled with water. The work provided information
on the vessel mid-span buckling collapse behaviour of
partially and totally lled vessels. Similar polyester models
were used to examine the buckling behaviour of the vessels
when placed on twin saddles and progressively lled with
uid. Interesting as these studies were, they were conned
to an investigation of the elastic buckling phenomenon
and could not simulate the behaviour of steel (or metallic)
vessels in which plastic collapse or plastic buckling was a
likely mode of failure.
In view of this, the decision was made to examine the
failure modes 3 and 4 using steel vessels with particular
reference to the critical saddle support region. To do this a
portion of the vessel was isolated at a distance 2R from
either side of the saddle, i.e. a vessel of length 4R. This
truncated vessel was inverted and the saddle reaction force
was applied through a saddle acting centrally on the isolated
cylindrical vessel, supported at the ends. This method of
testing was adopted by Wilson and Olsen [7], Tooth and
Jones [8], White [9] and Krupka [1013]. The procedure
is illustrated in Fig. 1. The length 4R was probably origin-
ally adopted from the earlier work of Zick [16], who pro-
vided the design method widely used in pressure vessel
standards, such as BS 5500 [2]. Zick assumed that the bend-
ing moment at the horn of each saddle is carried by a length
of vessel equal to 4R, for vessels with a total barrel length
greater than or equal to 8R.
The model vessels used in the present investigations
were fabricated from steel sheets with nominal thicknesses
of 0.4, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0 mm. The thinnest sheet
(0.4 mm) was supplied with a coating of protective paint.
The sheets were rolled into an open cylinder and the seams
184 G C M CHAN, A S TOOTH AND J SPENCE
lapped, crimped and riveted. The vessels were made in
two different radii, i.e. 130 and 200 mm. The lengths of
the fabricated vessels were 555 and 835 mm for the smaller-
and larger-diameter vessels respectively. In all this work, it
is assumed that, if the barrel length L is greater than four
times the radius, then the effect of the stiffness of the ends
does not inuence the type of collapse failure or the magni-
tude of the collapse load.
End plates were provided in the form of an annular ange
with a reduced-diameter spigot, of 25 mm length, to t
neatly into the rolled vessel inner diameter. The vessel
was xed to the spigot region by a series of closely pitched
set-screws. These anges provided stiffness at the ends and
prevented radial movement of the vessel, in a way similar
to the use of dished end closures. It was appreciated that
the method of construction of the model vessels, by means
of the lap joint along the vessel generator on the opposite
diameter to the saddle, did not lend itself to an ideally circu-
lar vessel. However, the ends of the vessel were maintained
circular by means of the rigid end plates and also at the
saddle centre prole, in view of the tting of the saddle.
The maximum diametral error was found to be of the
order of 5 per cent and occurred in regions remote from
where the plastic deformation and the buckling took place.
Two different saddle embracing angles were employed,
120 and 150 , to cover the range normally used in practice
and specied by BS 5500 [2]. All the saddles were 10 mm
wide. Saddles that were radially rigid at the horn, compared
with the vessel, were used in the investigation as they repre-
sent the extreme condition of rigidity and, therefore, the
highest interface force at the saddle horn. To achieve this
the saddle radial depth at the horn was 40 mm for the
smaller-radii vessels and 50 mm for the larger. In this
respect it is interesting to note that the experimental results
reported by Tooth and Jones [8] showed that the collapse
load was almost the same whether exible or rigid saddles
were used. In the case of the exible saddles (i.e. when
the radial depth at the horn is reduced to that of a feathered
edge), plastic deformation of the saddle itself occurred dur-
ing the increase in the load, but this fact did not inuence
greatly the nal collapse load of the vessel.
2.1 Attachment of saddles
Two forms of saddle attachment were considered; saddles
were either loosely tted or welded to the vessel. The
loosely attached saddles were simply placed on the cylinder
with a coating of grease applied between the saddle and
vessel interface to minimize friction. The welded saddles
were either spot or stitch welded onto the vessel. The stitch
weld was approximately 15 mm long and spaced symmetri-
cally at 2030 mm intervals between welds on both sides
of the saddle and along the horns, i.e. round the outer con-
tact periphery of the saddle and vessel. Stitch welding was
employed, rather than a continuous weld, to avoid undue
distortions of the vessel. Spot welding was used for vessels
with a shell thickness of less than 1.5 mm. The spot welds
were located, on the outside, along the circumferential sides
of the saddle and axially at the horns. They were also spaced
at 2030 mm intervals between welds along these lines.
Both types of weld were kept small to minimize the effect
of extra material on the stiffness of the vessel. The tungsten
inert-gas (TIG) welding process was used throughout, to
minimize distortion of the plate material. In the case of
the thinnest sheet (t 0:4 mm), methacrylate adhesive
was used to adhere the vessel to the saddle as welding
was not possible. This two-part adhesive was applied to
the vessel using a dispenser through a mixing nozzle. Under
test conditions this adhesive was found to be entirely ade-
quate, since there was no separation of the bonded surfaces
after collapse of the vessels.
Fig. 1 Layout of the test vessel
185 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE COLLAPSE OF HORIZONTAL SADDLE-SUPPORTED STORAGE VESSELS
2.2 Testing of the cyclindrical vessels
The model vessels were tested on a Tinius Olsen screw-
driven testing machine. They were supported at the ends
on saddles as shown in Fig. 1. The method of supporting
the ends of the vessel provided the freedom for the ends
to rotate about the horizontal axis normal to the cylindrical
vessel. As indicated earlier, loading was by a vertical com-
pressive force applied to the saddle acting centrally on the
vessel. During the loading, the vertical displacement of
the central saddle, relative to the base, was measured using
a displacement transducer. This was recorded by a data
logger and processed by a computer. The applied load was
also recorded and, with the displacement, was directly
plotted on an XY plotter.
The loading was progressively increased in small
increments until the maximum load was achieved, at which
point the recorded load value reduced in value. In certain
cases this reduction was small while in others the drop
was dramatic. In both cases the vertical displacement was
such that the vessel could not sustain an increase in the
applied load value, and a permanent pattern of collapse
was established when further load was applied. The magni-
tude of this drop-off in load is more accurately assessed in
a displacement-controlled testing machine, as used in
these experiments, than in a hydraulic testing machine,
since the hydraulic machine cannot follow the response
sufciently accurately.
In an effort to follow closely the stages of deformation
of the model vessels, as recorded in the loaddisplacement
curves, two synchronized video cameras were set up. The
one was focused on the progressive displacement of
the vessel and the other on the XY plotter chart. The
results from these were helpful in identifying the various
points on the loadvertical displacement curves, with the
actual phenomena which occurred on the vessel.
A tensile test program was carried out to ascertain the
correct tensile yield stress for each sheet of plate material.
Six coupons were cut from the excess material of each of
the sheets. Three coupons were taken along one axis and
three at 90 to the rst set. These coupons were tested
and the yield stress was obtained by the 0.2 per cent offset
strainload method. The yield stress was taken as the aver-
age of the six tests and associated with the model vessels,
as appropriate. The yield stress for each coupon was normal-
ized with respect to the average for the sheet selected. Using
these values the standard deviation for the population of
90 results was found to be 3.50 per cent. This value gave
some condence in using the average yield stress for the
groups of six tests on the respective plates. In general,
the form of the strainload curves indicated that the
material was elasticideally plastic in the region up to at
least 2 per cent strain.
3 COLLAPSE MODES
Atotal of 40 model cylindrical vessels were fabricated using
the technique described above, with R/t varying from 62.5 to
457.7 and supported with loose and welded saddles of 120
and 150 saddle embracing angles, where 20 had welded
saddles and 20 loose saddles. The geometric and material
properties of these are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The modes
of failure were either by plastic collapse, i.e. through the
progressive formation of plastic hinges located in those
regions where the local bending stress was high, followed
by plastic buckling, or by elasticplastic buckling where
the in-plane (i.e. membrane) axial or circumferential
Table 1 Experimental results for end supported vessels: welded saddle (saddle width b
1
10 mm)
Vessel Radius Thickness Length Saddle angle Yield stress Collapse load
number R (mm) t (mm) L (mm) R=t 2a (deg) j
y
(N/mm
2
) P (kN) Collapse mode
1 130 0.44 555 295 120 332 7.20 Crumpled buckle
2 130 0.60 555 217 120 153 8.45 Diamond buckle
3 130 0.75 555 173 120 176 13.79 Plastic action, then buckling
4 130 0.97 555 134 120 160 16.61 Plastic
5 130 1.22 555 107 120 222 29.85 Plastic
6 130 1.57 555 83 120 222 44.50 Plastic
7 130 2.08 555 62 120 214 64.52 Plastic
8 130 0.44 555 295 150 332 10.35 Crumpled buckle
9 130 0.61 555 213 150 276 18.00 Diamond buckle
11 130 0.97 555 134 150 160 24.00 Plastic
12 130 1.25 555 104 150 175 35.00 Plastic
13 130 1.47 555 88 150 251 55.80 Plastic
14 130 2.08 555 62 150 214 69.81 Plastic
15 200 0.44 835 455 120 332 5.85 Crumpled buckle
16 200 0.61 835 328 120 276 12.15 Diamond buckle
17 200 0.79 835 253 120 187 16.52 Diamond buckle
stresses were high and compressive. The elasticplastic
buckling mode is evident for the very-thin-walled vessels
(t 0:6 and 0.4 mm) with high R/t (200). This is like a
conventional axial compression type of buckling mode
and only occurred when the saddles were welded to the
vessels. It would appear that, for the very-thin-walled
vessels (high values of R/t) where buckling occurs, the
initial failure is by elastic buckling, followed almost imme-
diately by plastic buckling. In other cases, localized plastic
collapse was followed by plastic buckling elsewhere. In
order to identify the location of the saddle collapse regions,
it is convenient to dene the nadir as the region at the base
of the saddle, and the zenith as the corresponding uppermost
location of the actual vessel. These denitions are used
throughout even though the model vessel is inverted.
The results of the tests are tabulated in Tables 1 and 2. In
these, four collapse modes were identied as follows:
1. Plastic collapse. For loose saddles plastic hinges form
around the periphery of the saddlevessel interface; this
ultimately results in a localized indentation on the shell
surface under the saddle, referred to by Krupka [13] as
a footprint, and is followed by plastic buckling in a
region immediately above the horn. For welded saddles
a plastic hinge rst forms at the horn; this is followed
by a fold on one side of the saddle at the nadir and around
the saddle towards the horn. This secondary action is
considered to be plastic buckling, the formation of
which is particularly dramatic when R/t is high, in which
case the load-carrying capacity of the vessel suffers an
immediate drop. Although these secondary effects do
occur with the loose and welded saddles, it is considered
that the primary mode of failure for these cases is by
plastic collapse, although it should be remembered
that plastic buckling is potentially catastrophic. This
form of collapse will be discussed later in detail, but typi-
cal examples are shown later in Fig. 2 for a loose saddle
and Fig. 7 for a welded saddle.
2. Diamond-shaped buckle. When the in-plane axial com-
pressive stress reaches a critical value the shell buckles
into a symmetric or regular diamond buckled pattern.
This invariably occurs at the nadir in the region close
to the saddle support and has only been observed in
welded saddle attachments. It will be discussed later
(see, for example, Fig. 8).
3. Crumpled buckle. In those cases where R/t is high and
the compressive in-plane axial stress reaches a critical
value, the shell deforms dramatically into a random
large-amplitude diamond-like pattern, producing a
crumpled shape, again in the general region of the
nadir. Again this phenomenon has only been observed
where welded saddles are employed and can be
observed, for example, later in Fig. 11.
4. Corrugated buckles. When loose saddles are employed
and R/t is high, the compressive circumferential stress
in the vessel immediately under the saddle, reaches a
critical value and corrugated buckles occur in the foot-
print region. This behaviour is invariably followed by
a plastic buckle in the vessel immediately above the
horn with a resulting shape of a kidney, as shown, for
example, later in Fig. 4.
In comparing the collapse loads for loose and welded
saddles on vessels supported at their ends, given in
Tables 1 and 2, it is noticed that, for vessels with similar
R/t ratios, the load-carrying capacity of welded saddles is
about twice that of loose saddles.
The detailed behaviour of the vessels is further claried
by studying the experimentally obtained loadvertical dis-
placement graphs obtained for the vessels supported on
Table 2 Experimental results for end supported vessels: loose saddles (saddle width b
1
10 mm)
Vessel Radius Thickness Length Saddle angle Yield stress Collapse load
number R (mm) t (mm) L (mm) R=t 2a (deg) j
y
(N/mm
2
) P (kN) Collapse mode
21 130 0.44 555 295 120 332 4.05 Corrugated buckle, then plastic
22 130 0.60 555 217 120 275 6.45 Plastic
23 130 0.85 555 153 120 275 10.23 Plastic
24 130 0.97 555 134 120 160 7.55 Plastic
25 130 1.13 555 115 120 275 17.00 Plastic
26 130 1.55 555 84 120 275 24.47 Plastic
27 130 2.08 555 62 120 214 32.73 Plastic
30 130 0.79 555 165 150 187 9.00 Plastic
31 130 0.97 555 134 150 160 11.00 Plastic
32 130 1.25 555 104 150 175 13.00 Plastic
33 130 1.47 555 88 150 251 25.38 Plastic
34 130 2.08 555 62 150 214 37.50 Plastic
37 200 0.79 835 253 120 187 7.85 Plastic
38 200 0.97 835 206 120 160 8.23 Plastic
39 200 1.25 835 160 120 175 14.62 Plastic
40 200 1.47 835 136 120 251 22.46 Plastic
both the loosely tted and welded saddles. These are
discussed below.
3.1 Plastic collapse for loose saddles
For the majority of loose saddle cases (R=t < 200) the
primary mode of failure is by plastic collapse, where
the main plastic hinges occur at the horns and around the
periphery of the saddle and vessel interface, resulting in
the footprint deformation, referred to earlier. This phe-
nomenon is shown in Fig. 2 and is typical of the behaviour
of moderately thick vessels when supported by a loose
saddle. The vessel shown in Fig. 2 is vessel 32 (R=t
104). The gure also shows the diametral expansion of
the vessel on the horizontal axis under this loading action.
A typical loaddisplacement curve for such a vessel is
provided in Fig. 3. The results shown here are for vessel
33 (R=t 88). With reference to this gure, the following
stages of deformation can be identied. From point 1 to
point 2, as the loading increases, the graph follows an almost
linear path; any slight non-linearity arises as the saddle
settles into the cylinder. From point 2 to point 3 there is a
non-linearity in the curve as the region of the cylinder
near the saddle horn begins to deform owing to the redistri-
bution and increased magnitude in the radial forces in this
region. Point 3 is the highest load that the vessel can with-
stand. From this point, symmetric hinges at both sides of
the saddle are formed. The vessel then begins to collapse.
From point 3 to point 4, there is a deformation of the hinges
as they rotate on both sides of the saddle. The deformation
at the horn region also increases so much that it causes a
gap just below the horns, i.e. within the saddle contact
arc. This results in a reduction in the load-carrying capacity
as the arc of contact is subsequently reduced. Total failure
occurs when the vessel ruptures at the horns. The behaviour,
shown for this case, is common to other loose cylinders in
the intermediate R/t range. As indicated earlier, the primary
mode of failure in this case is the plastic collapse load.
3.2 Elasticplastic buckling for loose saddles
When the vessels are considerably thinner than the above
cases, for example in vessel 35 (R=t 455), two actions
occur. In the rst instance, plastic action takes place and a
footprint type of deformation occurs, as discussed in
Section 3.1 above. This is followed by a buckling behaviour,
in the form of longitudinal corrugations conned to the
base region of the footprint (i.e. under the saddle). These
Fig. 2 Typical plastic collapse of a moderately thick vessel on a loose saddle (vessel 32; R=t 104)
Fig. 3 Typical loadvertical displacement graph of a moderately
thick vessel on a loose saddle, plastic collapse (vessel 33;
R=t 88)
actions are shown in Fig. 4a, taken after the removal of
the saddle. The buckling is caused by compressive circum-
ferential membrane forces generated by the radial interface
pressure between the saddle and the vessel. This phenome-
non is noted in vessels 21, 28, 29, 35 and 36 (see Table 2)
where the R/t ratios range from 455 to 213. It is interesting
to note that in the case of vessel 29, supported on a saddle
of 150 , the corrugated buckle occurs at a lower value of
R/t than in the corresponding vessel on a saddle of 120 .
It is also noted that in these thin vessels the region of
vessel close to the horn undergoes large radial displace-
ments owing to the high value of the radial interface force
at the saddle horn. The deformation on the vessel surface
is described by Krupka [13] as kidney shaped, as seen
particularly in Fig. 4b but also in Fig. 4a. The corrugation
buckling in the footprint region also occurred in the case
of vessel 35, shown in Fig. 4b, but it is more difcult to
see in the photograph. The associated loss of load-carrying
capacity, from point 3 to point 4, is noted in the correspond-
ing loadvertical displacement curve provided in Fig. 5.
Comparing this gure with that for the thicker-vessel
loose-saddle case, in Fig. 3, it is clear that a substantial
loss of load-carrying capacity occurs after the maximum
load point 3 is reached. This is associated with the circum-
ferential elasticplastic buckling in the footprint and the
kidney-shaped plastic buckling in the horn region.
Fig. 4 Collapse of thin-walled vessels on loose saddles: (a) corrugated buckle collapse (vessel 28; R=t 295;
(b) plastic collapse followed by kidney-shaped buckling (vessel 35; R=t 455)
3.3 Plastic collapse for welded saddles
A typical loadvertical displacement graph for the thicker
vessel 13 (with R=t 88) supported by a welded saddle is
shown in Fig. 6. The initial loading, point 1 to point 2,
results in a basically linear loadvertical displacement
graph. This is to be expected since, for the welded saddle,
the longitudinal and circumferential movements of the
saddle are constrained and, therefore, no settling-in process
is required as with the loose saddle. From point 2 to point 3,
a V-shaped hinge forms across both saddle horns, causing a
bulge in the cylinder. Figure 7 shows this behaviour which
is typical for this range of vessels. The bulging in the region
just above the horn is caused by the high value of the
traction interaction force in the circumferential direction,
which is developed at the horn by the rigid saddle, and is
applied to the unsupported region of the cylinder imme-
diately above the horn.
Point 3 on the loadvertical displacement curve in Fig. 6
is the highest load sustainable by the vessel. At this point
in the loading sequence, a slight rotation of the saddle about
its own plane was noted. This asymmetric behaviour was
no doubt due to a small geometric imperfection in the
vesselsaddle contact zone, resulting in a slightly mis-
aligned applied vertical load. During the progressive
application of the load, both longitudinal bending and
membrane stresses are developed in the vessel, close to
the saddle. The membrane stresses are compressive on the
side of the initial imperfection and tensile on the other
side. When the membrane compressive stress reached a
critical value, a plastic buckle formed in the region from
the nadir round the vessel towards the saddle horns. The
form of this buckle, or fold, is similar to those produced
in a tube subject to axial loading, where the tube buckles
into a corrugated form like a bellows unit. As anticipated
from the above, the buckle only forms on one side of the
saddle and this is shown in Fig. 7. During the formation
of this buckle the load-carrying capacity falls sharply
from point 3 to point 4. This drop is similar to that which
occurs in the case of the thin-walled vessel with a loose sad-
dle, shown in Fig. 5, but in the loose saddle case the type of
buckle is quite different. In all the cases examined in this
group the buckle only occurred on one side of the saddle
with the saddles all showing a sympathetic rotation in that
direction. As with the loose saddles the primary mode of
failure for these cases is considered to be plastic collapse
load.
3.4 Elasticplastic buckling for welded saddles
It was found in this study that conventional axial membrane
stress buckling failures were associated with vessels
supported on welded saddles, where R/t is greater than
approximately 200. In these cases it was found that, in the
rst instance, an elastic buckling failure occurred,
followed almost immediately by a permanent plastic
buckle. These were of two types:
1. When R/t was in the range from approximately 200 to
300, a diamond-shaped buckle occurred at the nadir,
close to and extending some distance away from the
saddle. This type of buckle is indicative of an axial mem-
brane compressive stress in the vessel. It is worth noting
that this type of buckling did not occur when loose
saddles were used.
2. When the cylinders were thinner and R/t exceeded 300,
a crumpled elastic buckling mode was observed, again
in the nadir region close to and extending some distance
away from the saddle.
Fig. 5 Loadvertical displacement graph for a thin-walled vessel
on a loose saddle (vessel 35; R=t 455)
Fig. 6 Typical loadvertical displacement graph of a moderately
thick vessel on a welded saddle, plastic collapse followed
by plastic buckling (vessel 13; R=t 88)
A typical diamond failure buckle pattern is shown in
Fig. 8. This is for vessel 2 with R=t 217. It is worth noting
that this pattern is quite different from that which occurs
when failure is by plastic collapse, as shown in Fig. 7
for the thicker vessels and discussed in Section 3.3. In the
diamond case, multiple buckles occur in the nadir region
and the drop in the load-carrying capacity is sudden. A
typical loaddisplacement graph for the diamond case is
given in Fig. 9. It is noted that, as the load is increased
from point 1 to point 2, the relationship between the load
and displacement is, as before, basically linear. From point
2 to point 3 the vessel bulges in the horn region. This is
caused by the large traction interaction forces in the circum-
ferential direction applied by the saddle to the unsupported
cylinder immediately above the horns. From point 3 to point
4, a diamond-shaped buckle starts to appear in the nadir
region of the vessel, but only on one side. This is shown
in Fig. 8. The fact that this buckle appears only on the one
side is no doubt due to the slight imperfections which
occur in the saddlevessel zone. The way in which this
takes place is the same as discussed earlier in Section 3.3.
In this case, however, the vessel wall is thinner and therefore
the critical axial membrane stress produces the traditional
diamond pattern in the vessel.
For cases where R/t exceeds approximately 300, a
crumpling elastic buckling mode was observed. In this
case the formation of the bulge at the horn does not occur
but buckles form in the nadir region in a sudden and unex-
pected manner. The loaddisplacement graph for this
case is represented in Fig. 10, for vessel 8, which has
Fig. 7 Plastic collapse of a moderately thick vessel on a welded saddle (vessel 7; R=t 62)
Fig. 8 Diamond-shaped buckle of welded saddle case (vessel 2; R=t 217)
R=t 295. The form of this plot is quite different from
the other loaddisplacement graphs (Figs 3, 5, 6 and 9)
presented earlier. It is, in fact, similar to plots obtained by
Kr upka [13] for thin vessels subject to saddle loading. In
this graph it is noted that, from point 1 to point 2, the dis-
placement is linear as the load is increased. At point 2, there
is a sudden drop in the load-carrying capacity from point 2
to point 3. This was due to the formation of a buckle on the
cylinder at the nadir but away from the saddle. This was
accompanied by a sound similar to a rie crack.
From point 3 to point 4, an attempt was made to increase
the loading on the testing machine. This was partially suc-
cessful in that some recovery occurred up a loadvertical
displacement line similar to that of the rst loading line.
However, the formation of subsequent buckles prevented
this increased load from being sustained and a further
drop in the load-carrying capacity occurred. When this
procedure was repeated, it was associated with a drop in
load, the formation of a buckle and the accompanying rie
crack. All the buckles occurred in the nadir region in a
random fashion, on only one side of the saddle owing again,
no doubt, to a slight imperfection in the vessel geometry
referred to earlier. The form of the buckle is a large-
amplitude random diamond shape which indicates failure
by axial compression. It has to be said that this behaviour
occurred in vessels where the yield stress of the material
was slightly higher (j
y
332 N=mm
2
) than the other
cases (e.g. j
y
276 N=mm
2
). Figure 11 shows the nal
buckled shape of such a vessel (vessel 15 where
R=t 455). This vessel had the saddle attached using the
methacrylate adhesive and shows the effectiveness of the
adhesive. In this case the distinctive V-shaped buckle at
the horns occurred only after the buckle at the top of the
vessel had occurred. This welded saddle case (Fig. 11) is
a partner to the loose saddle case shown in Fig. 4b.
4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The collapse load results P of the tested cylinders (given in
Tables 1 and 2) were normalized with respect to the vessel
thickness and the yield stress of the vessel material, i.e.
P=j
y
t
2
, and plotted against R/t. The plotted graphs are
shown in Figs 12 and 13, for the welded and loose saddles
respectively. Three distinct curves are identied for the
different vessels (R 130 and 200 mm) and the two differ-
ent saddle embracing angles (2a 120 and 150 ).
The results, for each radius and saddle angle, have two
distinct parts. For the lower values of R/t the results are asso-
ciated with plastic collapse and for higher values of R/t with
buckling. In the plastic collapse region, as the R/t value
increases, the curves follow an upward trend of load-
carrying capacity. In the region 165 < R=t < 250 the plastic
collapse curves meet those associated with buckling
failures; thereafter the curves show a gentle decline as the
R/t increases further. In those cases where experimental
points are plotted in the region of the mode change, plastic
collapse was invariably followed by the onset of buckling.
The curves for the welded and loose saddles are similar;
however, the points for the loose saddle (Fig. 13) show
more scatter than the welded cases (Fig. 12) because, no
doubt, of the variableness of the saddle t. The experimental
evidence of elastic buckling for the loose saddle case is less
pronounced, owing to the local nature of the deformations
which occur in the case of the loose saddle.
5 CONCLUSION
The experimental results of 40 vessels show the differences
in collapse mechanisms for loose and welded saddles. In
the main, the loose saddles collapse in a plastic manner
with the formation of plastic hinges at the horns and around
Fig. 9 Typical loadvertical displacement graph for welded
saddle, diamond-shaped buckle (vessel 9; R=t 213)
Fig. 10 Typical loadvertical displacement graph of a thin-
walled vessel on a welded saddle, crumpled shaped
buckle (vessel 8; R=t 295)
the periphery of the saddle and vessel interface, forming
a footprint. Welded saddles have two modes of collapse:
a progressive plastic collapse or alternatively a sudden
elasticplastic buckling form. Plastic collapse occurs in
those vessels which are relatively thick or have a low R/t,
less than 150. The form of the collapse is characterized by
the formation initially of plastic hinges at the horns and
nally the formation of a single plastic-buckle-like hinge,
or fold, on one side of the saddle. When R/t exceeds 150,
there are two types of elasticplastic buckling collapse
mode for welded saddles, a diamond-shaped buckle and
a crumpling buckle. Diamond-shaped buckles are charac-
terized by the formation of symmetric buckles occurring
at the nadir of the vessel, and on one side of the saddle.
The crumpling buckling mode occurs in a more sudden
manner than the diamond-shaped buckle. It occurs for the
thinnest vessels (R=t > 300) with the highest yield strength.
It is characterized by arbitrarily shaped buckles of large
amplitude occurring at the nadir of the vessel.
Although the number of tests carried out is limited and
only covers the range of saddle angles from 150 to 120 ,
Figs 12 and 13 do indicate the following:
1. There is a clear transition from one type of failure beha-
viour to another type.
2. The collapse loads for the welded saddle are substan-
tially higher than for the loose saddle for vessels with
the same R/t ratio.
3. The collapse loads are marginally higher for the larger
saddle angles.
Fig. 11 Crumpled buckling of a thin-walled vessel on a welded saddle (vessel 15; R=t 455)
Fig. 12 Plots of normalized collapse load against R=t for welded saddles
4. As the saddle angle is reduced, from 150 to 120 , for
the same radius of cylinder, the range of R/t values
associated with plastic collapse increases.
5. As the radius of the cylinder is increased, for the same
saddle angle, the range of R/t values associated with
plastic collapse, increases.
It is worth noting that the normalized non-dimension-
alized plot of the load P=j
y
t
2
against R/t in Figs 12 and
13 gives a rst impression that the plastic collapse load
is greater for higher values of R/t. The use of specic
numerical values conrms that this is not the case and pro-
vides the way in which the collapse load changes with the
vessel parameters.
The observations recorded in these experimental studies
are essential data to validate the analytically based design
papers [46], which will provide a design methodology
that is appropriate for the actual vessels used in practice.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the UK Government Over-
seas Research Students (ORS) Award Scheme and the Uni-
versity of Strathclyde for the nancial support given to
Moses Chan during the course of his study.
REFERENCES
1 Tooth, A. S. and Nash, D.H. Stress analysis and fatigue
assessment of twin saddle supported pressure vessels.
In Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping
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Diego, California, 2327 June 1991, Vol. PVP-217,
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2 BS 5500: 1997 Specication for Unred Fusion Pressure
Vessels, 1997 (British Standards Institution, London).
3 European Recommendations ECCS Buckling of Steel Shells,
4th edition, No. 56, 1988.
4 Chan, G. C. M., Tooth, A. S. and Spence, J. Theoretical
studies on the plastic collapse of saddle supported horizontal
cylindrical vessels (to be published).
5 Chan, G. C. M., Tooth, A. S. and Spence, J. A parametric
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8 Tooth, A. S. and Jones, N. Plastic collapse loads of cylindrical
pressure vessels supported by rigid saddles. J. Strain Analysis,
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9 White, D. H. Experimental determination of plastic collapse
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