Pergamon

Chemical En#ineering Science, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 223 230, 1995
Copyright 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0009 2509/95 $9.50 + 0.00
0009-2509(94)00230-4
RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION FOR UNSTEADY- STATE
SYSTEMS
J. FERN.ANDEZ-SEMPERE,* R. FONT-MONTESINOS and O. ESPEJO-ALCARAZ
Departamento de Ingenieria Quimica, Universidad de Alicante, Apartado 99, Alicante, Espafia
( Received 1 March 1994; accept ed in revised f o rm 4 Au gu s t 1994)
Abstract--The concept of residence time distribution (RTD) can also be applied to incompressible fluids in
closed-closed systems under nonsteady conditions, when the residence time distribution expressed as
a function of a residence time, defined in this paper, is independent of the volume and/or the flow rate. In
this paper, an analysis of the hydrodynamics of the plug flow reactor (PFR), the continuous stirred tank
reactor (CSTR), the plug flow reactor with axial dispersion (DFR) and a series of n-CSTR under
unsteady-state conditions is made. A generalized residence time distribution is proposed for analyzing the
behavior of the system. The proposed RTD is applied to the experimental data obtained when a tracer is
introduced as a pulse in a sewage system. Three runs, with different outlet flow ranges, were carried out. By
means of the generalized RTD, a disperse flow reactor model for correlating the experimental data was
proposed. In this way, the variation deduced in the tracer outlet concentration can be explained, despite the
fact that the outlet flow range is different from one run to another.
I NTRODUCTI ON
The use of residence time distribution (RTD) curves to
characterize the behavior of reaction systems, espe-
cially continuous reactors at steady state, is well
known and accepted. A large amount of experimental
information is available in some basic books (Leven-
spiel, 1962; Froment and Bischoff, 1979; Smith, 1981;
Denbigh and Turner, 1984; Fogler, 1992; Westerterp
et al. , 1993). The measurement of RTD is based on the
injection of a tracer material in the system and sub-
sequent determination of the tracer concentration in
the fluid leaving the system. Three different methods
are used: (a) injection of the tracer in a very short time
interval at the entrance of the system (pulse injection);
(b) introduction of a concentration change in the
form of a step function and (c) introduction of a peri-
odic concentration fluctuation in the inflow. From the
information obtained from any of these methods, the
behavior of a certain element of fluid can be known.
This is normally when steady-state conditions are
considered: the inlet flow to the system is always the
same and the system volume remains constant. This is
usually the case when a continuous reactor is studied.
Nevertheless, little information has been obtained
for systems under unsteady-state conditions. Nauman
(1969) studied the RTD for a stirred tank reactor. Fan
et al. (1979) proposed a stochastic model of the un-
steady-state age distribution in a flow system.
Schwartz (1979) applied the basic concepts of turn-
over time, mean age and mean transit time to the
atmospheric SO2 and sulfate aerosol. Vaccari et al.
(1985) considered the growth of micro-organisms in
unsteady-state activated sludge system. Calu and
Lameloise (1986) studied the RTD in systems of vari-
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
223
able volumic mass flow and applied it to evaporators
in sugar plants. Dickens et al. (1989) studied the RTD
for unsteady flows in a baffled tube.
When environmental problems are studied (con-
taminating spills is a sewage system, lagoon-purifying
plants, etc.), in many occasions the flow is not con-
stant and in some cases the volume is variable. In this
case, two phenomena can affect the model flow: (a) the
changes due to the inlet flow and/or to the system
volume, and (b) the changes due to the nonsteady
conditions. Therefore, when a tracer injection is used
in this type of system, the RTD will be modified by
random flow and/or volume changes. Nevertheless, in
spite of these phenomena, the system flow can be
approximately characterized as indicated in this pa-
per, when a reduced time (defined in the following
sections) is independent of the volume and/or the flow
rate.
RTD IN CLOSED~2LOSED SYSTEMS
The analysis presented in this paper is applied to
closed-closed systems with incompressible fluids.
Nevertheless, it is possible that some conclusions can
be applied in other circumstances also. Two different
situations can occur when the inlet flow and the outlet
flow vary:
- - The inlet flow is the same as the outlet flow, for
any time, although the flow varies with time.
Therefore, the volume of the system is constant.
- - As the inlet flow is different from the outlet flow,
the volume of the system also changes.
These two cases are analyzed in this paper. In both
cases, and for a particular mass of fluid, residence time
distribution function (E) similar to that used when the
224
flow is const ant and the system is in steady state is
defined.
Consider a system as in Fig. l(a), with variable inlet
and outlet flows which are not necessarily equal. At
a certain time, a flow of fluid enters the system. Be-
tween t and t + dr, the fraction of this flow that leaves
the system can be defined by E dt. Logically, the
di st ri but i on function E will be different in other situ-
ations. In some cases, however, it could be possible to
know E and characterize the system (for a system of
const ant flow and under steady state, the function E is
the same for all the fractions of fluid elements flowing
t hrough the system).
Funct i on E can be obt ai ned by means of a pulse
test: At t = 0, a certain amount of tracer M is inserted
into the system and the tracer concent rat i on in the
outlet section is t hen analyzed. Figure l(b) shows the
variation of the tracer concent rat i on C and the inlet
and outlet flow vs time. The tracer is distributed
completely into the inlet fluid, so the outlet flow
concent rat i on is an i ndi cat i on of the presence of fluid
elements stained with the tracer, as occurs in steady
state.
The tracer total amount (M) can be calculated from
the expression:
M = d M = C d V = C Qo dt (1)
0 0 0
M being the sum of all the tracer mass elements
present at each moment in the fluid leaving the sys-
tem, C the tracer concent rat i on and Qo the outlet flow.
Equat i on (1) can be written as
f
o~ ( CQo/M) = (2)
dt 1
0
where
( CQo/M) dt = A M / M . (3)
The expression CQo/ M represents the fraction of
fluid elements remai ni ng in the system at a time be-
tween t and t + dt, and so
( CQo/M) dt = E dt (4)
J. FERNANDEZ- SEMPERE et al.
and
CQo/M = E. (5)
The mean residence time for the mass of fluid con-
sidered can be calculated by
f
oo E t dt
f = o o~ E t dt.
(6)
0
~ E dt
0
The two cases previously ment i oned are analyzed
as follows.
Sys t ems wit h const ant volume
In the case of systems with variable flow but with
a const ant system vol ume (inlet flow = outlet flow),
t
the values of E/Qo can be plotted vs So Qo dt . The
following can be deduced:
(E/Qo) d [ ; o Qo d t ] =( E/ Qo ) Qo d t =Ed t (7)
and therefore
represents the fraction of fluid elements that enters the
reactor at t = 0 and leaves the reactor between t and
t +d t .
On the other hand, from eq. (5)
E/Qo = C/ M. (8)
Now consider the following cases.
Plu# f lo w through a s ys t em o f const ant volume (V)
wit h variable f lo w (Qo). The di st ri but i on function will
always be the same: a Dirac delta function that ap-
pears when the pulse injection is in the exit section.
This occurs, t aki ng i nt o account that the fluid is
incompressible, when the fluid vol ume that has left the
system from the inlet of the pulse injection is the same
as the system volume.
L
a ) - - . va ria ble volume
V
b )
Q i
Qo
t=O t
Fig. 1. (a) System with inlet flow, outlet flow and volume
changing with time. (b) Variation of the outlet flow Qo and
the tracer concentration with time.
Ideal st irred t ank react or o f const ant volume (V) wit h
variable f lo w (Qo). If a pulse injection is introduced in
the system with a tracer amount , M, and therefore
with an initial concentration:
Co = M / V (9)
the tracer balance will be
QoC = - d ( V C) / d t = - Vd C/ d t (10)
and, therefore;
- d C/ C = ( Qo/V)dt .
Int egrat i ng between C = Co for t = 0 and C = C
for t = t, the following can be obtained:
[ f o l
C= Coe xp - ( l / V) Qo d t . (11)
Residence time distribution for unsteady-state systems
From eqs (5), (9) and (11)
E = CQo/M =Coex p [( - 1 / V) f o' Qodt ]Qo/M
=(Qo/V)exp[(-l/V)fo'Qodt ] (12)
and, therefore,
E/Qo =( l / V) exp [ ( - 1/ V) f o' Qodt ]. (13)
This expression is equivalent to that presented by
Nauman (1969).
If the system volume (V) is fixed and known, E/Qo
depends only on the integral value and is not affected
by the variation of Qo with time.
Cascade o f N equal ideally stirred tanks o f constant
volume (V) with variable f low (Qo). The previous case
can be extended to a cascade of N tanks. The resulting
equation would be
( E/ Qo ) =( N / V) ( N / V) Qodt [ I/ (N - 1)!]
x ex p [ ( - - N / V) f f Qo d t ] (14)
and, again, E/Qo depends only on the integral value
S; Qo dt.
Axially dispersed plug f low reactor o f constant vol-
ume (V) with variable f low (Qo). In this case, assuming
a constant reactor section, the mass balance can be
expressed by
6 C/ 6 t = D ~ 2C/ ~ x 2 - - U (~C/(~X ( 15)
where
u = (Qo/S) = Qo/(V/L) = QoL /V (16)
From eqs (15) and (16)
:o
6 C/~ Qo d t = (D/Qo) ( 6 2 C/6 x a) - { L /V) (6C/6x).
(17)
When D varies approximately linearly with Qo,
D/Qo can be considered constant and therefore the
distribution function will only depend on So Qo dt .
Dimensionless equations
When the flow is constant, the RTD function can be
expressed in a dimensionless way (E0) as a function of
0 = t/F, (18)
the dimensionless time. Similarly, when the flow is
variable, dimensionless equations can be obtained for
the variation
E/Qo = f [ fot Q d t l" (19)
225
In this case the dimensionless equation would be
[ f o l
E V/Qo =f (l / V) Qodt (20)
where
f 0
Eo =EV/ Q, and O =( I / V) Qodt (21)
and therefore
Eo =f ( 0) . (22)
According to this definition, the distribution func-
tion for the cases considered previously will be the
following:
Plug f low reactor. In this case, the input signal
appears in the outlet with a dimensionless time delay
equal to 1.
Continuous ideally stirred tank reactor. From a mass
balance, eq. (23) can be obtained:
Eo = exp ( - 0). (23)
Cascade of N equal ideally mixed tank reactors.
From a mass balance, the following equation is ob-
tained if the number of tanks (N) is constant:
Eo = [N(NO) N 1/(N -- 1)!] exp (--N0). (24)
Axially dispersed plug f low reactor. In this case, eq.
(17) can be written as
6 C/ 6 0 =6 C/ 6 I ( 1 / V) f ~ Qo d t ]
= (D V/Qo L 2) (32 C/ 6 z 2) - 6 C/ 6 z (25)
where z is a dimensionless length (z = x / L ) and the
dispersion module is
D V/Qo L 2 = D/uL.
If this module is constant, i.e. the ratio D/Qo is
constant, all the equations proposed in the References
remain valid.
Systems with variable volume
In this case, a distribution
can be defined, where V is the reactor volume and Qo
is the outlet flow.
The expression (EV/Qo) d [So ( Qo/V)dt ] which
equals E dr, represents the fraction of fluid ele-
ments leaving the system between t and t + d t, or be-
tween the dimensionless times [' .(Qo/V) dt and
So (Qo/V) d t + (Qo/V)dt " The expression'U--- EV/Qo
equals the dimensionless residence time distribution
t
E* and So ( Qo/V)dt represents the dimensionless
time 0".
The distribution function defined in this way has
the advantage that, in the following cases, it depends
only on some parameters and can therefore be useful
226 J. FERNANDEZ-SEMPERE et al.
for studying the hydrodynamic behavior of the sys-
tem, if the state is unsteady and the volume is not
constant.
Plug f lo w in a vessel wit h const ant length. In this
case, the system section and volume change, although
the length remains constant. It is assumed that u, the
velocity at which the fluid is flowing at a particular
moment, is constant along the vessel and its value is
Qo/S, which can however change with time. In this
case, it can be easily deduced that the residence time is
a pulse function at the mean value if* = 1.
Cont inuous st irred t ank reactor. Making a mass
balance for the tracer, when a pulse injection is used in
a stirred tank, the same relation indicated by eq. (23) is
obtained. In this case however 0* and E~ appear,
instead of 0 and Eo:
E* = exp ( - 0" ) . (26)
Dispersed plug f lo w wit h const ant length. Assuming
that at any particular moment the velocity (u) and the
section (S) of the system are constant along the reac-
tor, where Qo = Su, (although these values can change
with time), and that the dispersion coefficient is con-
sidered constant, the solution obtained would be the
same as in the case of steady state, but using 0* and
E~ instead of 0 and Eo. Note that the (D V/Qo L 2) is
the reciprocal of the some times incorrectly called
Peclet number (Levenspiel, 1979).
APPLICATION TO THE STUDY OF A SEWAGE SYSTEM
Charact erist ics o f t he s ys t em
The previous equations were used to study the
effect of polluting agents discharged by the Alicante
University Science Faculty (Phase I) on the municipal
sewage system. Four departments (Organic Chem-
istry, Inorganic Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering) as well as some laboratories
from the Biology Section discharge their wastewaters
into the system studied. A tracer injection technique
was used to study the behavior of the system.
NaCl was selected as the tracer, using a solution
near saturation point and analyzing the level of
sodium ion in the outlet point of the system. Around
1000 g of sodium ion was used as an aqueous solution
which was rapidly discharged into a sink in the stu-
dents' laboratory. At the outlet point, samples were
taken every 5 min and analyzed by flame spectro-
photometry. Results of the tracer concentration
measurements, after subtracting the Na + content in
the sewage water prior to the run, are presented in
Table 1 for different times. It is possible that other
uncontrolled additions of Na + took place as a conse-
quence of the research and teaching activities carried
out in the laboratories. Table 1 also shows the total
amount of Na introduced. It can be observed that
these values are similar to those calculated by the
integration of eq. (1) from the outlet concentration of
Na + .
The tracer stream was injected from the students'
laboratory of the Chemical Engineering Department
because it was the closest point to the sewage system
Cascade o f N equal ideally st irred t anks wit h vari-
able f lo w and volume, wit h t he same residence t ime f o r
all t he t anks at any t ime and wit h t ot al volume equal t o
N t imes t he last t ank volume (number o f t anks is con-
stant). In this case, it is considered that there is a vari-
able flow in the N tanks, a variable total volume and
a variable volume in each one of the tanks, but the
ratio between the volume and the outlet flow (resi-
dence time) is the same for all the tanks. The total
volume, which equals V, is also considered to be equal
to N times the volume of the last tank (VN). The
number of tanks is constant and does not vary with
time.
An expression similar to eq. (24), with 0* and
E~ instead of 0 and Eo, can be deduced:
E~ = IN( NO*) N- 1 / ( N - 1)!] exp (-NO*). (27)
It must be noted that, to calculate eq. (27), the
previous assumptions have been considered.
It can be concluded from the previous deductions
that the general dimensionless relations presented for
steady state and applied to plug flow, ideal stirred
tank, cascade of N-tanks and plug flow with axial
dispersion, can also be applied to systems with con-
stant volume at any situation and to systems with
changing volume only if other conditions occur in the
system.
Table 1. Variation of tracer con-
centration in the different runs
Concentration
Time (s) (kg/m 3)
Run 1 Na amount introduced:
0.98 kg
Na amount calculated by eq. (1):
1.066 kg
Mean residence time calculated by
eq. (6): 1836 s
0 0.0
600 0.0
1200 0.0053
1500 0.0048
1800 0.0117
2100 1.5189
2400 2.5451
2700 1.2749
3000 0.5782
3300 0.357
3600 0.229
3900 0.1639
4200 0.128
4500 0.0953
4800 0.0829
5100 0.0682
5400 0.0655
5700 0.0615
6000 0.0757
6300 0.0625
Residence time distribution
Table 1. (Contd.)
Concentration
Time (s) (kg/m 3)
Run 2 Na + amount introduced:
1.040 kg
Na amount calculated by eq. (1):
1.162 kg
Mean residence time calculated by
eq. (6): 2484 s
0 0.0
600 0.0
900 0.0
1200 0.0
1500 0.0
1800 1.4856
2100 1.4476
2400 0.6206
2700 0.3376
3000 0.1786
3300 0.1186
3600 0.0646
3900 0.0446
4200 0.0356
4500 0.0266
4800 0.0186
5100 0.0156
5400 0.0786
5700 0.1256
6000 0.0486
6300 0.0225
6600 0.0194
6900 0.0094
7200 0.0044
Run 3 Na amount introduced:
0.966 kg
Na amount calculated by eq. (1):
0.902 kg
Mean residence time calculated by
eq. (6): 2772 s
0 0.0
600 0.0
1200 0.0
1500 1.1512
1800 0.4422
2100 0.0862
2400 0.0517
2700 0.048
3000 0.0261
3300 0.0057
3600 0.005
3900 0.0036
4200 0.0
4500 0.0
4800 0.0124
5100 0.0291
5400 0.0138
5700 0.0086
6000 0.0037
6300 0.0013
6600 0.0037
6900 0.0
7200 0.0
and was t herefore t he poi nt where t he pol l ut i ng effect
is most not i ceabl e (less di l ut i on of t he t racer stream).
Sampl es were t aken at t he poi nt where t he syst em
st udi ed di scharges i nt o t he general Uni versi t y sewage
for unsteady-state systems 227
system. Thi s poi nt was selected because it was t he
onl y one where it was possi bl e t o measur e t he flow.
Flow
The flow of t he syst em was measur ed wi t h difficulty.
The usual t echni ques of flow measur ement coul d not
be used due to t he difficulty of access t o t he sewage
syst em and to its shallowness. A vessel wi t h a capaci t y
of 26 1 was t herefore used t o measur e t he flow. The
out l et poi nt was selected in order t o obt ai n easy
access and good visibility. Fl ow measur ement s were
t aken every 5 mi n for a peri od of 100-120 min. The
results are present ed in Fig. 2.
Numerical treatment o f the results
Val ues of t he out l et t racer concent r at i ons are
pl ot t ed vs time in Fig. 3. If t hese results are used t o
obt ai n curve E to est abl i sh t he residence t i me distri-
but i on, different curves obt ai ned at di st i nct days can
be shown in Fig. 4. The r eason for this behavi or is t he
out let f low x ( 1E+3) (m3/s)
2
1.5
0 . 5
/ ,,, ~ . ~ - . ~ ~ , ' ~ '
\k ' / & :
J
i , ,
4 6
time x (1E-3) (s)
I ~ r un l ~ , -run 2 ~ run 3J
Fig. 2. Outlet flow vs time.
c on c en tra tion (kg /m 3)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2 4 6
time x(1E-3) (s)
I ~ n ~ n l * ~ n 2 ~ r on _ ~
Fig. 3, Outlet concentration vs time.
228
E x ( 1 E+ 3 ) ( l/ s )
2.5
1.5
0.5
0 2 ~ 4 - 6 8
t ime x (1 E-3) (s)
I ~ -run l ~ r un 2 ~ run 31
J. FERNANDEZ-SEMPERE et al.
E./Oo ( I [ m 3)
2.5
~ i ! ,
I I,
' l
1.5 ~ !
i
0. 5
0 ~ . . . .
0
Fig. 4. Residence time function (E) vs time.
k",
2 4 6 8 10
f Q od , , m3,
j O r un l run 2 ~ r un 3 ]
t
Fig. 5. Residence time function (E/Qo) vs ~o Qodt.
continuous change in the system flow (as can be seen
in Fig. 2) as well as in the system volume.
In order to predict the behavior of the system, the
above-described treatment was used. The tracer
amount (M) and the average residence time (/-) were
calculated for equal time intervals using eqs (1) and (6)
(Table 1). Next, a new E function was obtained from
eq. (5).
Initially it was assumed that the volume in the
system was constant, although the flow is variable.
However, when E/Qo was plotted vs So Qo dt, (Fig. 5)
it was found that the curves for different experiments
did not coincide. This could be due to a variable
system volume. On considering the average residence
time and the range of outlet flows, it can be deduced
that the system volume is different in each run. Conse-
quently, the volume was then considered as a function
of the system outlet flow:
V = a Qo ~. (28)
An explanation of this variation is presented in Ap-
pendix A.
According to eq. (26), values of E V/Qo were plotted
vs the dimensionless time (0* = So ( Qo/V) dt using the
value of V given by eq. (28). Parameters a and b were
optimized by means of a modified simplex method in
order to obtain an average dimensionless time if*
close to unity for each run (Fig. 6). The expression
obtained for the system volume was
V = 286.31 (Qo)O.7154 (29)
where V is expressed in m 3 and Qo in m3/s. The
exponent 0.7154 is similar to that deduced in Appen-
dix A.
In Fig. 6, it can be observed that there is a great
similarity in the value of 0* in the three experiments,
as well as in the shape of the three curves. Most of the
tracer appears in a big peak (at values of 0* between
0.7 and 0.9) and later, a much smaller peak appears.
Note that there is logically a coincidence of the
greatest peak around 0* = 1 but, at the same time,
E*=EV/Qo
5
0.5 1 1.5 2 - 2.5 3 3.5
] O r un l run 2 ~run31 0*
Fig. 6. Residence time function (E*) vs 0".
there is a coincidence, in runs 2 and 3, of the smallest
peak. In run 1, with a smaller value of rate flow, taking
of samples was stopped before the appearance of the
second maximum. However, for the last experimental
points in run 1, it can be observed that there is an
increase of the E* values, according to the second
maximum that appears in the other runs. The coincid-
ence of the second peak has not been introduced in
the model and therefore corroborates the utility of the
proposed model.
The maximum value of E v/Qo in Fig. 6 allows the
maximum concentration that would be obtained in
the system to be calculated if an amount M of the
polluting agent were discharged into it. Thus, taking
into account eq. (5):
E = C Qo/M
and therefore
E V/Qo = C V/ M. (30)
So, the maximum concentration can be obtained
from eq. (31):
Cm=x = ( M / V) ( E V/Qo) . . . . (31)
Residence time distribution for unsteady-state systems
Table 2. Characteristics of the system studied
229
Run
Flow range Maximum tracer Maximum tracer
( x 104) concentration concentration/tracer
(m3/s) (kg/m 3) amount (l/m 3)
Dispersion
Dispersion coefficient
module (m2/s)
1 2.6-6 2.54 2.4
2 6-14.3 1.49 1.3
3 11.6-16.6 1.15 1.3
0.038 0.553
0.021 0.351
0.012 0.245
At the same time, from Fig. 6, the value of the Es
dispersion modul e [D / u L = D V/(Qo L2)] as a func-
t i on of the system flow (Table 2) can be calculated. E*
The greater the flow, the smaller the dispersion
module. The value of L is around 195 m. Considering L
the mean values for the flow rate range indicated in M
Tabl e 2 and the correspondi ng values of V, the disper- N
sion coefficients were estimated and are presented in Qi
Table 2. It can be observed that the dispersion coeffi- Qo
cient decreases when the mean flow is greater. AI- S
though the aim of this paper is not to obt ai n the t
relationship between the dispersion coefficient and the i
flow in sewage systems, an expl anat i on based on some u
dat a found in the literature (Levenspiel, 1962, 1979) is V
presented in Appendix B. Tabl e 2 also shows the x
maxi mum tracer concent rat i on obt ai ned and the ratio z
(maxi mum concent rat i on/ t racer amount), where the
values of M considered are those obt ai ned from inte-
grat i on of eq. (1).
Al t hough the proposed model does not exactly
obt ai n the same curve for different conditions, it is
capable of predicting approximately peaks or maxi ma
of concent rat i on, whose dispersion is a function of the
operat i ng flow.
CONCLUSIONS
For closed-closed systems, where the inlet flow, the
outlet flow and the vol ume of an incompressible fluid
vary with time, it is useful to define a residence time
function E and a dimensionless residence time func-
tion E*. The residence time function E has a meani ng
similar to t hat of steady-state systems. This means
that, for a vol ume of fluid entering the system at t = 0,
E dt is the fraction of fluid vol ume which leaves the
system between t and t + d t. The dimensionless resi-
dence time function E* is defined as E V/Qo and
plotted vs the dimensionless time 0", which equals
S~(Qo/V)dt.
Usi ng the previous definitions, dat a obt ai ned in
a sewage system and correspondi ng to three different
curves E =f ( t ) with different flow ranges, can be
transformed into three very similar curves E* =f ( O*)
with the coincidence of the maxima.
C
Co
D
E
NOTATION
tracer concent rat i on, kg/ m 3
initial tracer concent rat i on, kg/ m 3
dispersion coefficient, m2/s
residence time di st ri but i on function, s-
dimensionless residence time di st ri but i on
function
dimensionless residence time di st ri but i on
function when the system vol ume is variable
system length, m
tracer total amount , kg
number of stirred t anks
inlet flow, m3/s
outlet flow, m3/s
system section, m E
time, s
mean residence time, s
fluid velocity, m/ s
system volume, m 3
distance, m
dimensionless length
Greek letters
0 dimensionless time [eq. (21)]
0* dimensionless time [eq. (26)]
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AP P ENDI X A
Consider the system between the discharge point of the
saturated sodium salt and the exit point of the sewage
system, where it was possible to measure the flow and take
samples for analysis. The mechanical energy loss AF (J/kg)
approximately equals g Az, where g is the gravity acceler-
ation (m2/s) and Az the difference between the heights of the
two points considered (m). Consequently for different flow
rates, the mechanical energy loss is constant. Assuming that
the circulation regime is turbulent, it can be written that
2 f u 2 L
AF = - - (A1)
D~
wherefis the fraction factor, u is the mean velocity (m/s), L is
the total length between the two points considered (m) and
D h is the hydraulic diameter (m). The sewage system is
formed by large circular concrete tubes, in which wastewater
circulates occupying only the bottom of the cylinder. Figure
Fig. 7. Diagram of the section occupied by the wastewater.
J. FERNANDEZ-SEMPERE et al.
7 shows a diagram of the section. Assuming that the angle
is not very large, it can be deduced that (where ct is in
radians and h -~ b is assumed)
sin ~ ~ ct ~ h/ R ~- b / R (A2)
b 2 = a(2R - a ) - a 2R (A3)
perimeter = p = 2 R (A4)
section = S = Rct a (A5)
hydraulic diameter D~ = 4 S/ p = 2 a (A6)
From eqs (A2)-(A6), one obtains
/S2~ 1/3
Dh= 2\ ~ - ~ j . (A7)
Introducing eq. (A7) in eq. (A1) and assuming that the
volume of the system can be considered V = SL , the follow-
ing expression can be written:
V = (L11 2R)l/s QO.TS. (A8)
Assuming that the fact orfdoes not change considerably
with turbulence, this theoretical relation agrees with the
experimental potential relation between the system volume
V and the outlet volumetric flow, with an exponent equal to
0.7154, which is very similar to the theoretical value 0.75
from eq. (A8).
APPENDIX B
On considering the (defined) hydraulic diameter and other
relations considered in eqs (A2)-(A7), it is deduced that the
Reynolds number is around 6 000, 11,000 and 15,000 for runs
1, 2 and 3, respectively. This means that the regime is prob-
ably turbulent in the transition zone, from laminar to turbu-
lent. Levenspiel (1962) presented a variation of dispersion
coefficients for fluids in pipes, vs Reynolds number. From
this relation, it can be deduced that the dispersion coefficient
can decrease when the Reynolds number increases in the
turbulent regime in the transition zone. The values of the
dispersion coefficients are high, probably as a consequence of
stones, metals, or other obstacles inside the concrete tube
which cause additional mixing of the elements of fluid.