INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND HERITAGE

Henry Darcy and the Pitot Tube

Glenn Brown
1
Abstract
Starting in 1856 Henry Darcy wit! t!e a""i"tance o# Henri Ba$in %&'li"!e(
#o&r wor)" t!at "!ow *ario&" #or+" o# an i+%ro*e( ,itot t&'e (e"ign- .!ile Henri
,itot !a( in*ente( t!e (e*ice in 1/01 t!eoretical an( (e"ign wea)ne""e" !a( )e%t it
little +ore t!an a "cienti#ic toy- Darcy2" in"tr&+ent" %ro*i(e( acc&rate an( ea"y
+ea"&re+ent" o# %oint *elocity #or t!e #ir"t ti+e- T!i" allowe( a(*ance" in o%en
c!annel an( %i%e #low !y(ra&lic"- Darcy2" #inal (e"ign #or t!e in"tr&+ent ti% i"
re#lecte( to(ay in all o# o&r +o(ern in"tr&+ent"-
Introduction
T!e ,itot or ,itot3"tatic t&'e i" a "i+%le an( ine4%en"i*e in"tr&+ent #or t!e
+ea"&re+ent o# #l&i( *elocity an( i" ta)en #or grante( to(ay- .!ile largely re%lace(
'y rotating *ane +eter" an( *ario&" electronic in"tr&+ent" in !y(ra&lic a%%lication"
it i" "till co++only &"e( in %ne&+atic +ea"&re+ent" an( %artic&larly #or a*iation
air"%ee( (eter+ination- It" "trengt! i" o# co&r"e it" "i+%le ro'&"t (e"ign t!at allow"
an acc&rate *elocity (eter+ination 'y +ea"&ring t!e %re""&re (i##erential acro"" two
%ort"- .!ile +o"t %ractitioner" a%%reciate t!e re#ine+ent o# t!e in"tr&+ent t!at
occ&rre( in t!e 15
t!
cent&ry +any +ay not )now it" origin- T!i" %a%er will (i"c&""
t!e #ir"t in"tr&+ent create 'y Henri ,itot an( t!e i+%ro*e+ent" +a(e 'y Henry
Darcy- It will 'e "!own t!at Darcy wit! t!e "&%%ort o# Henri Ba$in #ir"t %er#ecte(
t!e (e"ign into t!e &"e#&l in"tr&+ent we &"e to(ay-
Pitot's Instrument
Henri (e ,itot 6167531//18 a 9renc! engineer an( an early +e+'er o# t!e
:or%" (e" ,ont" et :!a&"";e" 6:or%" o# Bri(ge" an( Roa("8 +a(e contri'&tion" in
"e*eral area" o# engineering +at! an( "cience- Howe*er !i" 1/01 %a%er
1
,ro#e""or <e+'er E.RI Bio"y"te+" an( Agric&lt&ral Engineering O)la!o+a
State =ni*er"ity Stillwater O> /?5/8@ %!one ?553/??38?15 g'rownAo)"tate-e(&
15?
INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND HERITAGE
BDe"cri%tion (2&ne +ac!ine %o&r +e"&rer la *ite""e (e" ea&4 co&rante" et le "illage
(e" *ai""ea&4B 6De"cri%tion o# a +ac!ine to +ea"&re t!e "%ee( o# r&nning water" an(
t!e wa)e o# *e""el"8 i" t!e !ig!lig!t o# !i" re+e+'rance- ,itot2" in"tr&+ent con"i"te(
o# two gla"" t&'e" +o&nte( *ertically on a woo(en #ra+e t!at !a( a lengt! "cale
attac!e(- T!e "tatic t&'e %ointe( "traig!t (own w!ile t!e ,itot t&'e !a( a 75 (egree
'en( at t!e 'otto+ to #ace t!e #low- To o'tain a +ea"&re+ent t!e in"tr&+ent wa"
lowere( into t!e #low an( t!e (i##erence in t!e liC&i( le*el 'etween t!e two t&'e"
recor(e(-
,itot (e"cri'e( !i" e4cite+ent wit! t!e in*ention 'y writing BT!e i(ea o# t!i"
+ac!ine )nown a" a ,itot i" "o "i+%le an( "o nat&ral t!at a" "oon a" it !a( co+e to
+e I ran at once to t!e ri*er to carry o&t t!e #ir"t te"t wit! a "i+%le t&'e o# gla"" an(
t!e e##ect +et +y e4%ectation %er#ectly- A#ter t!i" #ir"t te"t I co&l( not i+agine t!at
"&c! a "i+%le an( at t!e "a+e ti+e *ery &"e#&l t!ing !a( e"ca%e( "o +any ")ille(
%eo%le w!o wrote an( wor)e( on t!e +o*e+ent o# water-B
,itot2" (e*ice wa" recogni$e( a" inno*ati*e at t!e ti+e '&t it !a( #o&r
(e#iciencie" t!at li+ite( it" a%%lication- 9ir"t ,itot (i( not %ro*i(e t!e %ro%er
t!eoretical analy"i" #or t!e (e*ice 6Ro&"e an( Ince 17568- He eC&ate( t!e rea(ing to
t!e *elocity attaine( 'y a #alling 'o(y an( %re%are( cali'ration ta'le" o# C&e"tiona'le
acc&racy- In #airne"" w!ile !i" t!eoretical analy"i" wa" wrong it wa" con"i"tent wit!
t!e %ractice o# t!e (ay- Secon( t!e nee( to rea( t!e in"tr&+ent in t!e water +a(e it"
&"e "low an( aw)war(- T!ir( t!ere wa" no clear &n(er"tan(ing o# !ow t!e "!a%e o#
t!e ,itot inlet a##ecte( %er#or+ance- So+e %ractitioner" #ollowe( ,itot an( &"e(
"traig!t t&'e" w!ile ot!er" &"e( t&'e" t!at !a( a #&nnel o%ening- All !a( tro&'le wit!
o"cillation" in t!e water le*el"- 9inally t!e co+'ination o# t!e "i$ea'le #ra+e an( t!e
large "tatic t&'e %ointe( (ownwar( (i"torte( t!e #low an( t!e %reci"ion o# t!e "tatic
+ea"&re+ent- D&e to t!e in"tr&+ent2" wea)ne""e" it wa" little +ore t!an a "cienti#ic
toy #or t!e ne4t 115 year" 6H&g!e" an( Sa##or( 17168-
Darcy's Modifications
In 1858 anot!er +e+'er o# t!e 9renc! :or%" Henry ,!ili'ert Ga"%ar( Darcy
61850318588 %&'li"!e( a %a%er t!at re*ol&tioni$e( ,itot2" in"tr&+ent an( 'ro&g!t it
into large "cale &"e 6Darcy 17588- T!e %a%er BRelati*e D C&elC&e" +o(i#ication" D
intro(&ire (an" le t&'e (e ,itot B 6BRelating to "o+e +o(i#ication" to 'e intro(&ce( to
t!e ,itot t&'eB8 wa" %&'li"!e( E&"t a#ter Darcy2" (eat!- T!e (e*ice i" "!own in
9ig&re 1a-
Darcy note( t!e #o&r wea)ne"" o# ,itot2" in"tr&+ent an( %rocee(e( to correct
eac!- 9ir"t w!ile !e (i%lo+atically ignore( ,itot2" t!eoretical "!ortco+ing" !e
%ro*i(e( a correct analy"i" o# t!e in"tr&+ent2" rea(ing 'a"e( on Berno&lli2" eC&ation-
Hi" #inal re"&lt wa"
gh 2 V =
618
w!ere V i" t!e %oint *elocity g i" t!e acceleration o# gra*ity h i" t!e (i##erence in t!e
water le*el an( i" a cali'ration coe##icient (e%en(ent on t!e ti% geo+etry-
T!e analy"i" allowe( t!e %re""&re at t!e to% o# t!e +ano+eter t&'e" to (i##er
#ro+ at+o"%!eric w!ic! E&"ti#ie( !i" +o(i#ication to a((re"" t!e "econ( %ro'le+-
T!e to%" o# 'ot! t&'e" were connecte( t!ro&g! a *al*e to a "!ort +o&t!%iece- T!e
o%erator co&l( %lace a "+all *ac&&+ on 'ot! 'y o%ening t!e *al*e "&c)ing on t!e
155
INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND HERITAGE
+o&t!%iece an( t!en clo"ing t!e *al*e- T!e *ac&&+ wo&l( (raw t!e water &% t!e
t&'e" to a con*enient !eig!t #or rea(ing '&t "ince t!e %re""&re on 'ot! wa" eC&al t!e
(i##erence wo&l( re+ain t!e "a+e-
Hi" "ol&tion #or t!e t!ir( %ro'le+ reC&ire( two "te%"- He wrote BT!en I
+a(e t!e o"cillation" in t!e t&'e" (i"a%%ear al+o"t entirely 'y +a)ing t!e o%ening"
only one an( a !al# +illi+eter" in (ia+eter w!ile t!at o# t!e t&'e" wa" one
centi+eter- A" t!e"e o"cillation" !owe*er re(&ce( t!ey were co&l( "till con#&"e t!e
o%erator@ I %lace( a *al*e "o t!at one can "i+&ltaneo&"ly clo"e t!e lower o%ening" o#
t!e t&'e"@ t!e"e o%ening" 'eing clo"e( any co++&nication wit! t!e c&rrent i"
"to%%e( an( one can rea( t!e (i##erence to (e(&ce t!e *elocity wit! ea"e an(
%reci"ion-B
T!e la"t %ro'le+ wa" a((re""e( 'y re%lacing t!e 'otto+ %ortion o# t!e gla""
t&'e" wit! "len(er co%%er %i%e" t!at (ro%%e( clear o# t!e "&%%ort an( t!en 'ent
#orwar(- T!e ,itot t&'e o# co&r"e #ace" t!e #low w!ile t!e "tatic t&'e o%ene( to t!e
"i(e- In a((ition t!e t&'e "&%%ort wa" ta%ere( on 'ot! t!e lea(ing an( training e(ge"-
.it! t!e"e +o(i#ication" in %lace Darcy "tate( BT!&" it i" "een t!at t!e water i" only
*ery3i+%erce%ti'ly (i"t&r'e( at t!e %oint w!ere t!e *elocity i" +ea"&re(-B
T!i" %a%er wa" neit!er t!e #ir"t nor la"t o# Darcy2" %&'lication" t!at a((re""e(
t!e &"e o# ,itot t&'e"- A co+%ari"on 'etween t!e"e %&'lication" "!ow" a "tea(y
a(*ance in in"tr&+ent (e"ign- Darcy2" #ir"t &"e o# t!e (e*ice 6Darcy 185/8 wa" in t!e
+ea"&re+ent o# t!e %i%e #low *elocity (i"tri'&tion"- 6T!e act&al wor) wa" (one #ro+
1855 to 185?-8 9ig&re 1' "!ow" t!e ,itot t&'e t!at !e in"talle( in %i%e te"t "ection"-
T!e t&'e co&l( "li(e &% an( (own an( #it into a rece"" in t!e %i%e wall w!ile t!e
"tatic line wa" in"talle( #l&"! on t!e %i%ewall- T!i" (e*ice (i"%lay" a ta%ere( ti% an(
*al*e" to "ta'ili$e t!e rea(ing" con"i"tent wit! t!e later (e"ign"- It i" C&ite %o""i'le
t!at t!e *al*e" were in"talle( #or o%erational rea"on" an( t!eir &"e in +ea"&re+ent
ca+e later- Darcy 618568 "!ow" a *ery "i+ilar (e"ign to t!e 1858 wit! t!e e4ce%tion
o# t!e ti%- In 9ig&re 1c t!e "tring an( %&lley a%%arat&" t!at allow" 'ot! lower *al*e"
to 'e clo"e( "i+&ltaneo&"ly #ro+ a'o*e can 'e "een- T!e la"t %&'lication Darcy an(
Ba$in 618658 again "!owe( a (e"ign "i+ilar to t!e 1858 (e*ice wit! a t!ir( ti% (e"ign-
Henri E+ile Ba$in 618173171/8 wa" Darcy2" %ro(igy an( a""i"te( !i+ #or "e*eral
year" an( Darcy ac)nowle(ge !i" wor) on t!e te"ting o# t!e ,itot t&'e 6Darcy 18588-
T!e 1865 %&'lication %re"ente( t!e re"&lt" o# o%en c!annel e4%eri+ent" originally
(e"igne( 'y Darcy '&t Ba$in &n(o&'te(ly wrote t!e entire (oc&+ent-
9ig&re 1 %re"ent" t!ree *ariation o# t!e in"tr&+ent ti%- T!e 1856 (rawing
"!ow" t!e ,itot t&'e lengt!ene( con"i(era'ly co+%are( to t!e %i%e3#low (e*ice
69ig&re 1a8- <ore i+%ortantly t!e "tatic line wa" %lace( ne4t to t!e ,itot line an( it"
o%ening #or+e( 'y a "i(eway" 75
o
'en(- In 1858 t!e "tatic %re""&re line o%en" wit!
w!at a%%ear" to 'e a "ol(ere( #itting +o&nte( on t!e 'otto+ '&t it" (etail" are neit!er
clear in t!e te4t nor in t!e ill&"tration 69ig&re 1'8- 9inally t!e 1865 re%ort %re"ent" a
"trea+line( a""e+'ly *ery "i+ilar to +o(ern (e"ign" 69ig&re 1c8- Howe*er t!e
%&'lication (ate" o# t!e t!ree ti% (e"ign" are %ro'a'ly +i"lea(ing a" to w!en t!ey
were act&ally in "er*ice- Darcy 618568 (e"cri'e" t!ree cali'ration te"t" wit! (i##erent
"tatic %ort (e"ign" an( in a #ootnote Darcy 618588 "ee+" to (e"cri'e t!e 1' (e"ign a"
a #a'rication error w!ic! !e re%lace( C&ic)ly wit! 1a- Si+ilarly in t!e (i"c&""ion o#
cali'ration coe##icient" !e "tate" t!e 1a (e"ign !a" a cali'ration coe##icient = 5-8?
156
INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND HERITAGE
w!ile anot!er ti% wit! t!e "tatic %ort #or+e( 'y "i+%ly %iercing t!e t&'e wall !a( a
coe##icient o# 1- Only a (e"ign "i+ilar to 1c co&l( !a*e !a( a coe##icient wit! t!at
*al&e- Since t!e 1858 %a%er wa" %&'li"!e( a#ter !i" (eat! it i" %o""i'le t!at t!e
(rawing o# t!e ol(er in"tr&+ent wa" &"e( 'y t!e e(itor" in"tea( o# t!e +o"t recent
(e"ign-
.!en clo"ing t!e to%ic Darcy 618568 wrote t!e rat!er %ro%!etic "tate+ent@ BIt
i" e""ential to notice t!at a "ee+ingly &ni+%ortant +o(i#ication in t!e #or+ or t!e
%ro*i"ion o# t!e "econ( 6"tatic8 t&'e can !a*e a great in#l&ence on t!e *al&e o# -B
T!i" #act o# co&r"e lea( to a *ariety o# "&'tle (e"ign +o(i#ication" t!ro&g! t!e year"
wit! t!e 'e"t generally cre(ite( to L&(wig ,ran(tl 618/5317508 6<erria+ an(
S%a&l(ing 17058- Hi" (e"ign calle( #or a ro&n(e( ti% ,itot t&'e to %roEect 11 to 10
t&'e (ia+eter" a!ea( o# t!e t&'ing 'en( an( t!e "tatic %ort to 'e a contin&o&" ring
t!ree t&'e (ia+eter" 'e!in( t!e ,itot %ort- A" can 'e "een t!e ti% "!own in 9ig&re 1c
a%%roac!e" t!at (e"ign wit! t!e e4ce%tion o# !a*ing a %ointe( ti% an( a "ingle %ort-
Concluding Remarks
Darcy2" i+%ro*e+ent o# t!e ,itot t&'e wa" "oon %&t to wor) 'y ot!er
re"earc!er" an( contri'&te( to t!e ra%i( a(*ance" in !y(ra&lic" o# t!e late 17
t!
an(
early 15
t!
cent&ry- An e4a+%le o# (ata collecte( 'y t!e 1865 (e"ign i" %re"ente( in
9ig&re 0 6Darcy an( Ba$in 18658- Here we can "ee Ba$in2" %lotting o# t!e i"o*el" in
a rectang&lar c!annel- Integration o*er t!e area allowe( acc&rate e"ti+ate" o#
*ol&+etric #low an( c!annel re"i"tance- Si+ilar (etaile( analy"i" o# %i%e #low i"o*el"
6Darcy 185/8 allowe( i+%ro*e+ent in clo"e con(&it #riction eC&ation"-
9inally it "!o&l( 'e note( t!at Darcy &n"el#i"!ly ga*e t!e in"tr&+ent to t!e
worl(- <ar"aine" 618588 wrote@ B,er#ection" 'ro&g!t 'y Darcy to t!i" in"tr&+ent are
con"i(era'le an( !e wo&l( !a*e 'een a'le to ta)e a %atent to %ro#it #ro+ it" e4cl&"i*e
+an&#act&re (&ring a certain n&+'er o# year"- Howe*er a" a 'elie*er in t!e c&"to+"
o# (i"intere"te(ne"" !e (eci(e( to a'an(on !i" in*ention to t!e %&'lic- T!e
a(+ini"tration !a" alrea(y +a(e a n&+'er o# t!e"e in"tr&+ent" "o+e o# w!ic! are
%lace( in t!e %reci"ion in"tr&+ent (e%o"it at l2Fcole (e" ,ont" et :!a&"";e" an(
ot!er" "ent to "tate engineer" to 'e &"e( in o%eration" t!at (e+an( e4act
+ea"&re+ent" o# t!e water *elocity-B
T!e En*iron+ental an( .ater Re"o&rce" In"tit&te o# AS:E will cele'rate
Darcy2" contri'&tion an( t!at o# ot!er !y(ra&lic re"earc!er" an( %ractitioner" at t!e
Darcy <e+orial Sy+%o"i&+ on t!e Hi"tory o# Hy(ra&lic" 6Brown et al- 15558- T!e
"y+%o"i&+ will coinci(e wit! Darcy2" 155
t!
'irt!(ay in 1550 an( will 'e !el( at t!e
E.RI :ongre"" in ,!ila(el%!ia ,A-
15/
INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND HERITAGE
References
Brown G- Roger" G- an( Gar'rec!t G- 615558- BTa") :o++ittee ,lanningH Darcy
<e+orial Sy+%o"i&+ on t!e Hi"tory o# Hy(ra&lic"B- Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering 1166118 /773851-
Darcy H- 618568- Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon- Dal+ont ,ari" 6in
9renc!8-
Darcy H- 6185/8- Recherches E!eri"entales Relati#es au $ou#e"ent de L%Eau
dans les &uyau <allet3Bac!elier ,ari" 6in 9renc!8-
Darcy H- 618588- BRelati*e D C&elC&e" +o(i#ication" D intro(&ire (an" le t&'e (e
,itotB' (nnales des Ponts et )hauss*es Serie" 0@ 15 0513057 6in 9renc!8-
Darcy H- an( Ba$in H- 618658- Recherches Hydrauliques+ Enter!rises !ar $' H'
Darcy I+%ri+erie Nationale ,ari" 6in 9renc!8-
H&ge" H- an( Sa##or( A- 617168- ( &reatise on Hydraulics <ac+illan :o+%any
New Yor)-
<ar"aine" :- 618588- BNotice necrologiC&e "&r <- Darcy In"%ecte&r G;n;ral (e"
,ont" et :!a&"";e"B (nnales des Ponts et )hauss*es ,eries -. /0 753157 6in
9renc!8-
<erria+ >- an( S%a&li(ng E- 617058- )o"!arati#e &ests of Pitot1,tatic &ubes-
N-A-:-A- Tec!- Note 5?6 .a"!ington D-:-
,itot H- 61/018- BDe"cri%tion (2&ne +ac!ine %o&r +e"&rer la *ite""e (e" ea&4
co&rante" et le "illage (e" *ai""ea&4B $*"oires de L%(cad*"ie No*e+'er 6in
9renc!8-
Ro&"e H- an( Ince S- 6175/8- History of Hydraulics Iowa In"tit&te o# Hy(ra&lic
Re"earc! T!e =ni*er"ity o# Iowa Iowa :ity 175/-
158
INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND HERITAGE
a
' c
9ig&re 1- Darcy2" ,itot t&'e (e"ign" 'y %&'lication (ate@ a8 1858 '8 185/ c8 1856-
157
INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND HERITAGE
a
'
c
9ig&re 1- Darcy2" ti% (e"ign" 'y year o# %&'lication@ a8 1856 '8 1858 c8 1865-
69ig&re 1' 'y a&t!or-8
9ig&re 0- E4a+%le c!annel i"o*el" #ro+ Darcy an( Ba$in 618658-
115