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AMITY SCHOOL OF ENGNEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL TRAINNING REPORT

GENERAL CIVIL WORKS SUPREME COURT PROJECT

B.TECH CLASS OF 2015


FACULTY GUIDE: SUBMITTED BY:
RUCHI TAH TRIPATHI SAURABH BHARDWAJ
ASST. PROFESSOR B.TECH CIVIL ENGG.
CIVIL ENGG. DEPT. A2315811102
AMITY UNIVERSITY 4
TH
YEAR SEMESTER-7
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Acknowledgement

I consider it my privilege to express a few words of gratitude and respect to all those
who contributed and wished for successful completion of my summer internship. I
express my deep felt gratitude to CPWD and Executive engineer Mr. BP SINGH as
well as other site management at SUPREME COURT PROJECT, NOIDA for providing
me with all facilities for making this endeavor possible.
I hereby take this opportunity to thank Prof. Madhuri Kumari (HOD, Civil Department,
Amity University, Noida) and Asst. Prof. Ruchi Tah Tripathi (Faculty Guide) for
giving their consent to undertake this summer internship report.




















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Certificate

This is to certify that Mr Saurabh Bhardwaj student in B.Tech Civil Engineering of Amity
University Uttar Pradesh, Noida (AUUP) has carried out the work presented in the
project of the Industrial Training entitled GENERAL CIVIL WORKS cpwd supreme
court project as a part of fourth year Programme of Bachelor of Technology in Civil
Engineering from Amity School Of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar
Pradesh (Noida) under my supervision.





Ruchi Tah Tripathi
Asst Professor
Civil Engg. Dept
Amity University







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Abstract

During my industrial training period of 6 weeks at CPWD, I recieved a lot of practical
exposure, on site experience and learnt about various practical accepts of civil
engineering. This report gives an insight to the various modern construction practices
being used at SUPREME COURT PROJECT , PRAGATI MAIDAM . During the short
training period I gained lot of practical experience and came across the various
challenges faced in practical field and how to deal with effectively. This report focuses
on the integration of onsite practical experience with the theoretical knowledge to solve
any given problem. This report contains the practical experience gained by working at a
construction site, the general industry observation, the various practical skills and
construction techniques used at this Project.

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CONTENT


SOIL NAILING
WATER PROOFING
BUILDING MATERIAL
AGGREGATES
REINFORCEMENT STEEL
FOUNDATION
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
SLABS
COLOUM
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES









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SUPREME COURT
PROJECT


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INTRODUCTION




Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. The vast
majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room,
or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer,
paymaster, and design team for the entire project. Many projects of varying sizes reach
undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation
reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful
oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. The causes of these
deficiencies can be complex.
As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction
technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management
departments are on the cutting






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edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency,
performance and reduce construction waste.
As architects and the building industry continue to design and build structures that vary
in type, design, materials, and building methods, it has become increasingly important
that members stay familiar with both basic and new concepts of building construction.
Construction methods are constantly being replaced by new and more efficient and cost
effective methods to construct buildings.








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SOIL NAILING
Soil nailing is a construction technique that can be used as a remedial measure to treat
unstable natural soil slopes or as a construction technique that allows the safe over-
steepening of new or existing soil slopes. The technique involves the insertion of
relatively slender reinforcing elements into the slope often general purpose reinforcing
bars(rebar) although proprietary solid or hollow-system bars are also available. Solid
bars are usually installed into pre-drilled holes and then grouted into place using a
separate grout line, whereas hollow bars may be drilled and grouted simultaneously by
the use of a sacrificial drill bit and by pumping grout down the hollow bar as drilling
progresses. Kinetic methods of firing relatively short bars into soil slopes have also
been developed. Bars installed using drilling techniques are usually fully grouted and
installed at a slight downward inclination with bars installed at regularly spaced points
across the slope face. A rigid facing (often pneumatically applied concrete, otherwise
known as shotcrete) or isolated soil nail head plates may be used at the
surface.
[1]
Alternatively a flexible reinforcing mesh may be held against the soil face
beneath the head plates. Rabbit proof wire mesh and environmental erosion control
fabrics and may be used in conjunction with flexible mesh facing where environmental
conditions dictate.


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Soil nail components may also be used to stabilize retaining walls or existing fill slopes
(embankments); this is normally undertaken as a remedial measure.Since its first
application using modern techniques in Versailles in 1972,soil nailing is now a well-
established technique around the world.
Preliminary Analysis
Four main points to be considered in determining if soil nailing would be an effective
retention technique are as follows. First, the existing ground conditions should be
examined. Next, the advantages and disadvantages for a soil nail wall should be
assessed for the particular application being considered. Then other systems should be
considered for the particular application. Finally, cost of the soil nail wall should be
considered.
]
Soil nail walls can be used for a variety of soil types and conditions. The
most favorable conditions for soil nailing are as follows: The soil should be able to stand
unsupported one to two meters high for a minimum of two days when cut vertical or
nearly vertical. Also all soil nails within a cross section should be located above
the groundwater table. If the soil nails are not located above the groundwater table, the
groundwater should not negatively affect the face of the excavation, the bond between
the ground and the soil nail itself. Based upon these favorable conditions for soil nailing
stiff to hard fine-grained soils which include stiff to hard clays, clayey silts, silty clays,
sandy clays, and sandy silts are preferred soils. Sand and gravels which are dense to
very dense soils with some apparent cohesion also work well for soil nailing. Weathered
rock is also acceptable as long as the rock is weathered evenly throughout(meaning no
weakness planes). Finally, glacial soils work well for soil nailing.
A list of unfavorable or difficult soil conditions for soil nailing can include dry, poorly
graded cohesion-less soils, soils with a high groundwater table, soils with cobbles and
boulders, soft to very soft fine-grained soils, highly corrosive soils, weathered rock with
unfavorable weakness planes, and loess. Other difficult conditions include prolonged
exposure to freezing temperatures, a climate that has a repeated freeze-and-thaw
cycle, and granular soils that are very loose.
Origin
Soil nailing evolved from the New Austrian Tunneling method which is a system for
underground excavations in rock. This method consists of passive steel reinforcement
in the rock followed by the application of reinforced shotcrete. This concept of
combining passive steel reinforcement and shotcrete has also been applied to the
stabilization of rock slopes since the early 1960s.
]

The first application of soil nailing was implemented in 1972 for a railroad widening
project near Versailles, France. Soil nails were used to stabilize an 18 m high slope
consisting of sandy soil. This method proved to be more cost-effective, while at the
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same time cut down the construction time when compared to other conventional support
methods.Germany was the next country to investigate soil nailing. From 1975 to 1981
the University of Karlsruhe and the construction company Bauer collaborated to
establish a research program. This program conducted full scale testing of experimental
walls with different configurations and developed analysis procedures for use in
design. The United States first used soil nailing in 1976 for the support of a 13.7 m deep
foundation excavation in dense silty sands. Soil nailing was implemented in the
expansion of The Good Samaritan Hospital in Portland, Oregon. This retaining system
was produced in approximately half the time at about 85% of the cost of conventional
retaining systems

Design
After a preliminary analysis of the site, initial designs of the soil nail wall can be begin.
This begins with a selection of limit states and design approaches. The two most
common limit states used in soil nail wall design is strength limit and service limit
states. The strength limit state is the limit state that addresses potential failure
mechanisms or collapse states of the soil nail wall system.The service limit state is the
limit state that addresses loss of service function resulting from excessive wall
deformation and is defined by restrictions in stress, deformation and facing crack width
under regular service conditions.The two most common design approaches for soil nail
walls are limit state design and service load design
Initial design considerations include wall layout (wall height and length), soil nail vertical
and horizontal spacing, soil nail pattern on wall face, soil nail inclination, soil nail length
and distribution, soil nail material and relevant ground properties.With all these variables
in the mind of the design engineer the next step is to use simplified charts to
preliminarily evaluate nail length and maximum nail force. Nail length, diameter and
spacing typically control external and internal stability of the wall. These parameters can
be adjusted during design until all external and internal stability requirements are met
After the initial design is completed, final design progresses where the soil nail wall has
to be tested for external and internal failure modes, seismic considerations and
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aesthetic qualities Drainage, frost penetration and external loads such as wind and
hydrostatic forces also have to be determined and included in the final examination of
the design.Soil nail walls are not ideal in locations with highly-plastic clay soils. Soils
with high-plasticity, a high liquid limit and low undrained shear strengths are at risk of
long term deformation (creep)
Construction
With the design complete, construction is the next step. Most soil nail wall construction
follows a specific procedure. First a cut is excavated and temporary bracing is put in
place if necessary. This is done with conventional earth moving equipment and
hydraulic drills. Next, holes for the soil nails are drilled at predetermined locations as
specified by the design engineer. The equipment used for this step is dependent on the
stability of the material in which the soil nail wall is supporting. Rotary or rotary
percussive methods using air flush or dry auger methods can be used with stable
ground. For unstable ground, single tube and duplex rotary methods with air and water
flush or hollow stem auger methods are used. With the holes drilled, the next step is to
install and grout the nails into place. After all nails are inserted, a drainage system is put
into place. Synthetic drainage mat is placed vertically between the nail heads, which are
extended down to the base of the wall where they are most commonly connected to a
footing drain. A layer of shotcrete is applied and bearing plates are installed before a
final facing is put in place to complete the soil nail wall. Variations of the steps described
above may be necessary to accommodate additional preparation tasks or
supplementary activities for specific project conditions.
In terms of construction, soil nail walls have a decisive advantage over other
alternatives. Soil nail walls require a smaller right-of-way than ground anchor walls and
have less environmental impact. Installation of soil nail walls is relatively rapid and
typically uses less materials and smaller construction equipment than ground anchor
walls.
Cost comparison
One great advantage of soil nail walls is their cost-effectiveness over other alternatives.
When conventional soil nailing construction procedures are used, soil nail walls are
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much more economical than concrete gravity walls and similarly or more cost effective
than ground anchor walls.
Inspection and performance monitoring
Inspection activities play a vital role in the production of high-quality soil nail walls
because conformance to project plans and specifications should result in a soil nail wall
that will perform its intended duty for its designed duration. Inspections usually involve
evaluation of the following: conformance of system components to material
specification, conformance of construction methods to execution specifications,
conformance to short-term performance specifications, and long-term monitoring. Short-
term performance specifications are checked with loads tests, which utilize hydraulic
jacks and pumps to perform several load applications. Three common load tests for
short-term performance are verification or ultimate load tests, proof tests and creep
tests. Verification or ultimate load tests are conducted to verify the compliance of the
soil nails with pullout capacity and strengths resulting from the contractor's installation
method. Proof tests are intended to verify that the contractor's construction procedure
has been consistent and that the nails have not been drilled and grouted in a soil zone
not tested in the verification stage. Creep tests are performed to ensure that the nail
design loads can be safely carried throughout the structure's service life.
Long term performance monitoring is used to collect data to ensure adequate
performance and refine future design practices. Parameters to be measured include
vertical and horizontal movement of the wall face, local movements or deterioration of
facing elements, drainage to the ground, loads, load distribution and load changes in
the nails, temperature and rainfall. These parameters are measured using several
specific tools including inclinometers, load cells and strain gauges. More information
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about geotechnical monitoring can be found on geotechdata.



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WATER PROOFING

A building or structure is waterproofed with the use of membranes and coatings to
protect contents as well as the structure. Waterproofing is a fundamental aspect of
creating a building envelope which is a controlled environment.

MATERIAL USED FOR WATER PROOFING
TAPECRETE (ACRYLIC POLYMER) is used in the sunken area.
SUPER CICO (liquid) is used for plastering the outer face of wall.
XYPEX
XYPEX:- Xypex is a non-toxic, chemical treatment for the waterproofing, durability
enhancement, repair and protection of concrete from a range of aggressive mediums.
Xypex has ability to generate a non-soluble crystalline formation deep within the pores
and capillary tracts of concrete and permanently seals the concrete against the
penetration of water and other liquids from any direction. Because Xypex is not
dependent on surface adhesion to achieve its waterproofing effect, it is resistant to
extreme hydrostatic pressure. It will seal hairline cracks up to 0.4mm.

As a coating for new or existing structures
As an admixture included in the concrete mix at the time of batching
The crystalline nature of the Xypex waterproofing system provides many application
advantages over traditional barrier products.
Xypex does not require a dry surface, in fact, a wet surface is necessary.
Xypex does not require dry weather to be applied.
It cannot puncture, tear, or come apart at the joints.
It does not require protection during backfilling.
Xypex does not require sealing, lapping, and finishing of joints at corners, edges or
between membranes.
It is less costly to apply than most other methods.


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WATER PROOFING ON RAFT AND FOOTING

RCC concrete along with the Xypex admix C2000 NF@ 1% by weight of cement in the
300mm lower section shall be poured.
Whereas in the periphery, the concrete shall be treated with the Xypex
coating.Treatment of all the construction joints are done with the help of mortar mixed
with the Xypex coating.


WATER PROOFING IN RETAINING WALL / VERTICAL SURFACE OF THE
FOOTING

RCC concrete along with the Xypex admix C2000 NF@ 1% by weight of cement in the
300mm lower section shall be poured whereas in the periphery, the thickness of
concrete shall be treated with the xypex coating and this is same as the above.
Shall be treated between RCC raft and joints of retaining wall and between vertical
joints of retaining wall to retaining wall i.e. treatment of the construction joints.
Treatment of Honeycomb on retaining wall is done in the following way:
Removing unsound concrete up to the sound concrete in u shape cavity around
honeycomb.
Filling the u-cavity up to surface with Xypex modified mortar (1 Part Xypex: 5 Part
cement: 15 Part fine aggregate) after application of the crystalline slurry in to the cavity.







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RETAINING WALL

Retaining walls are basically the structures used retain earth or other loose materials
which would not be able to stand vertical by itself. There are six different types of
retaining walls as follows:
1. Cantilever wall
2. Counter fort wall
3. Buttress wall
4. Bridge abutment
5. Box culvert
6. Gravity wall
The main force that acts on the retaining wall is the pressure due to retained material.
This earth pressure will always tent to overturn and slide a retaining wall.
The retaining wall which has been used under construction on site is Bridge Abutment.
This is most commonly used retaining wall it consist of three components.
a) Vertical wall
b) Heel slab
c) Toe slab
Each components act as a cantilever beam. Stability is provided by weight of the earth
on the base slab and the weight of retaining wall.

DIMENSIONS OF THE RETAINING WALL (AS PER DRAWING)
Heel Slab:
Width: 700 mm
Depth: 550 mm


Toe Slab:
Width: 450 mm
Depth: 450 mm

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Vertical wall:
Width: 400mm (up to the beam of upper basement)
Then after it is 250 mm (up to the ground floor).
The thickness is reduced on the inner side.



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BUILDING MATERIALS

Sand
Sand is used with cement, and sometimes lime, to make mortar for masonry work
and plaster. Sand is also used as a part of the concrete mix. An important low-cost
building material in countries with high sand content soils is the Sandcrete block, which
is weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks.

Stone or rock
Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting
building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of
rock throughout the world, all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for
particular uses. Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too; its main
drawback as a material is its weight and awkwardness. Its energy density is also
considered a big drawback, as stone is hard to keep warm without using large amounts
of heating resources.
Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of
another. Eventually, different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together,
cement being the most commonplace now.
The granite-strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example,
provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose
granite rocks throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and the remains of an
estimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout
the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse) and into modern times. Slate is another
stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and other parts of
the world where it is found.
Stone buildings can be seen in most major cities; some civilizations built entirely with
stone such as the Egyptian and Aztec pyramids and the structures of
the Inca civilization.
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THATCH




Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known; grass is a good insulator and
easily harvested. Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses
and sand year-round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the
material fell out of favor as industrialization and improved transport increased the
availability of other materials. Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the
Netherlands, for instance, many new buildings have thatched roofs with special ridge
tiles on top.



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WOOD $ TIMBER


Wood has been used as a building material for thousands of years in its natural state.
Today, engineered wood is becoming very common in industrialized countries.
Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction
purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and
similar materials. It is a generic building material and is used in building just about any
type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping
strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically. There are
many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species.
This means specific species are better suited for various uses than others. And growing
conditions are important for deciding quality.
"Timber" is the term used for construction purposes except the term "lumber" is used in
the United States. Raw wood (a log, trunk, bole) becomes timber when the wood has
been "converted" (sawn, hewn, split) in the forms of minimally-processed logs stacked
on top of each other, timber frameconstruction, and light-frame construction. The main
problems with timber structures are fire risk and moisture-related problems.
In modern times softwood is used as a lower-value bulk material, whereas hardwood is
usually used for finishings and furniture. Historically timber frame structures were built
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with oak in western Europe, recently douglas fir has become the most popular wood for
most types of structural building.
Many families or communities, in rural areas, have a personal woodlot from which the
family or community will grow and harvest trees to build with or sell. These lots are
tended to like a garden. This was much more prevalent in pre-industrial times, when
laws existed as to the amount of wood one could cut at any one time to ensure there
would be a supply of timber for the future, but is still a viable form of agriculture.

Fired bricks and clay blocks





Bricks are made in a similar way to mud-bricks except without the fibrous binder such
as straw and are fired ("burned" in a brick clamp orkiln) after they have air-dried to
permanently harden them. Kiln fired clay bricks are a ceramic material. Fired bricks can
be solid or have hollow cavities to aid in drying and make them lighter and easier to
transport. The individual bricks are placed upon each other in courses using mortar.
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Successive courses being used to build up walls, arches, and other architectural
elements. Fired brick walls are usually substantially thinner than cob/adobe while
keeping the same vertical strength. They require more energy to create but are easier to
transport and store, and are lighter than stone blocks. Romans extensively used fired
brick of a shape and type now called Roman bricks.
[11]
Building with brick gained much
popularity in the mid-18th century and 19th centuries. This was due to lower costs with
increases in brick manufacturing and fire-safety in the ever crowding cities.
The cinder block supplemented or replaced fired bricks in the late 20th century often
being used for the inner parts of masonry walls and by themselves.
Structural clay tiles (clay blocks) are clay or terracotta and typically are perforated with
holes.

Cement composites
Cement bonded composites are made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood,
particles, or fibers to make pre-cast building components. Various fiberous materials,
including paper, fiberglass, and carbon-fiber have been used as binders.
Wood and natural fibers are composed of various soluble organic compounds
like carbohydrates, glycosides and phenolics. These compounds are known to retard
cement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in making cement bonded composites,
its compatibility with cement is assessed.
Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-
cement composite to that of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed
as a percentage value. To determine wood-cement compatibility, methods based on
different properties are used, such as, hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial
bond and morphology. Various methods are used by researchers such as the
measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix; the comparison of
the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visual assessment of
microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes. It has been found that the
hydration test by measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most
convenient method. Recently, Karade et al. have reviewed these methods of
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compatibility assessment and suggested a method based on the maturity concept i.e.
taking in consideration both time and temperature of cement hydration reaction.
Bricks were laid in lime mortar from the time of the Romans until supplanted by Portland
cement mortar in the early 20th century. Cement blocks also sometimes are filled
withgrout or covered with a parge coat.

Concrete


Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and
a binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement
concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), portland
cement and water.
After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material.
When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term "concrete".
For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it
is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as rebars). This strengthened
concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete. In order to minimise any air bubbles,
that would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been
entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has
been the predominant building material in the modern age due to its longevity,
formability, and ease of transport. Recent advancements, such as insulating concrete
forms, combine the concrete forming and other construction steps (installation of
insulation). All materials must be taken in required proportions as described in
standards.
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Fabric
The tent is the home of choice among nomadic groups all over the world. Two well-
known types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. The tent has been revived
as a major construction technique with the development of tensile architecture and
synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such
as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables, rigid or internal, or by
air pressure

FOAM


Recently, synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used in combination
with structural materials, such as concrete. It is lightweight, easily shaped, and an
excellent insulator. Foam is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel, wherein
the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement or insulating concrete forms.
GLASS
Glassmaking is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material.
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Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a
building. Glass panes provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while
at the same time keeping inclement weather outside.
Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates, in a very hot fire stove
called a kiln, and is very brittle. Additives are often included the mixture used to produce
glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as bulletproof glass or light
emittance).
The use of glass in architectural buildings has become very popular in the modern
culture. Glass "curtain walls" can be used to cover the entire facade of a building, or it
can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a "space frame". These uses though
require some sort of frame to hold sections of glass together, as glass by itself is too
brittle and would require an overly large kiln to be used to span such large areas by
itself.
Glass bricks were invented in the early 20th century.

Gypcrete
Gypcrete is a mixture of gypsum plaster and fibreglass rovings. Although plaster and
fibres fiborous plaster have been used for many years, especially for ceilings, it was not
until the early 1990s that serious studies of the strength and qualities of a walling
system Rapidwall, using a mixture of gypsum plaster and 300mm plus fibreglass
rovings, were investigated. It was discovered, through testing at the University of
Adelaide, that these walls had significant, load bearing, shear and lateral resistance
together with earthquake-resistance, fire-resistance, and thermal properties. With an
abundance of gypsum (naturally occurring and by-product chemical FGD and phospho
gypsums) available worldwide, gypcrete-based building products, which are fully
recyclable, offer significant environmental benefits
.
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Metal
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an
external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Metal
figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut, and can
be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to
produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for the building
industries. Corrosion is metal's prime enemy when it comes to longevity.
Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, and is the usual choice for
metal structural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well
and/or treated lasts a long time.
The lower density and better corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys
and tin sometimes overcome their greater cost.


Copper belfry of St. Laurentius church, Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler
Copper is a valued building material because of its advantageous properties
(see: Copper in architecture). These include corrosion resistance, durability, low
thermal movement, light weight, radio frequency shielding, lightning protection,
sustainability, recyclability, and a wide range of finishes. Copper is incorporated into
roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, wall cladding, building
expansion joints, and indoor design elements.
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Other metals used include chrome, gold, silver, and titanium. Titanium can be used
for structural purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and
silver are used as decoration, because these materials are expensive and lack
structural qualities such as tensile strength or hardness.

Plastics


Plastic pipes penetrating a concretefloor in a Canadian highrise apartment buildingThe
term "plastics" covers a range of synthetic or semi-
synthetic organic condensation orpolymerization products that can be molded or
extruded into objects, films, or fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that in their
semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property ofplasticity. Plastics vary
immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability,
the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in
almost all industrial applications today.

Papers and membranes
Building papers and membranes are used for many reasons in construction. One of the
oldest building papers is red rosin paper which was known to be in use before 1850 and
was used as an underlayment in exterior walls, roofs, and floors and for protecting a
jobsite during construction. Tar paper was invented late in the 19th century and was
used for similar purposes as rosin paper and for gravel roofs. Tar paper has largely
fallen out of use supplanted by asphalt felt paper. Felt paper has been supplanted in
some uses by synthetic underlayments, particularly in roofing by synthetic
underlayments and siding by housewraps.
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There are a wide variety of damp proofing and waterproofing membranes used for
roofing, basement waterproofing, and geomembranes.

Ceramics
Fired clay bricks have been used since the time of the Romans. Special tiles are used
for roofing, siding, flooring, ceilings, pipes, flue liners, and more.

AGGREGATES
Aggregate is the component of a composite material that resists compressive stress
and provides bulk to the composite material. For efficient filling, aggregate should be
much smaller than the finished item, but have a wide variety of sizes. For example, the
particles of stone used to make concrete typically include both sand and gravel.


Comparison to fiber composites
Aggregate composites tend to be much easier to fabricate, and much more predictable
in their finished properties, than fiber composites. This is because fiber orientation and
continuity can have an overwhelming effect, but can be difficult to control and assess.
Fabrication aside, aggregate materials themselves also tend to be less expensive; the
most common aggregates (mentioned above) are found in nature and can often be
used with only minimal processing.
Not all composite materials include aggregate in their design. This is because
aggregate particles tend to have about the same dimensions in every direction (that is,
an aspect ratio of about one), so that aggregate composites do not display the level of
synergy that fiber composites often do. A strong aggregate held together by a
weak matrix will be weak in tension, whereas fibers can be less sensitive to matrix
properties, especially if they are properly oriented and run the entire length of the part
(i.e., a continuous filament).
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Most composites are filled with particles whose aspect ratio lies somewhere between
oriented filaments and spherical aggregates. A good compromise is chopped fiber,
where the performance of filament or cloth is traded off in favor of more aggregate-like
processing techniques. Ellipsoid and plate-shaped aggregates are also used.
Aggregate properties
In most cases, the ideal finished piece would be 100% aggregate. A given application's
most desirable quality (be it high strength, low cost, high dielectric constant, or low
density) is usually most prominent in the aggregate itself; all the aggregate lacks is the
ability to flow on a small scale, and form attachments between particles. The matrix is
specifically chosen to serve this role, but its abilities should not be abused.

Aggregate size
Experiments and mathematical models show that more of a given volume can be filled
with hard spheres if it is first filled with large spheres, then the spaces between
(interstices) are filled with smaller spheres, and the new interstices filled with still
smaller spheres as many times as possible. For this reason, control of particle size
distribution can be quite important in the choice of aggregate; appropriate simulations or
experiments are necessary to determine the optimal proportions of different-sized
particles.
The upper limit to particle size depends on the amount of flow required before the
composite sets (the gravel in paving concrete can be fairly coarse, but fine sand must
be used for tile mortar), whereas the lower limit is due to the thickness of matrix material
at which its properties change (clay is not included in concrete because it would
"absorb" the matrix, preventing a strong bond to other aggregate particles). Particle size
distribution is also the subject of much study in the fields of ceramics and powder
metallurgy.
Some exceptions to this rule include:
32

Toughened composites
Toughness is a compromise between the (often contradictory) requirements
of strength and plasticity. In many cases, the aggregate will have one of these
properties, and will benefit if the matrix can add what it lacks. Perhaps the most
accessible examples of this are composites with an organic matrix
and ceramic aggregate, such as asphalt concrete("tarmac") and filled
plastic (i.e., Nylon mixed with powdered glass), although most metal matrix
composites also benefit from this effect. In this case, the correct balance of hard and
soft components is necessary or the material will become either too weak or too brittle.
Nanocomposites
Many materials properties change radically at small length scales
(see nanotechnology). In the case where this change is desirable, a certain range of
aggregate size is necessary to ensure good performance. This naturally sets a lower
limit to the amount of matrix material used.
Unless some practical method is implemented to orient the particles in micro- or nano-
composites, their small size and (usually) high strength relative to the particle-matrix
bond allows any macroscopic object made from them to be treated as an aggregate
composite in many respects.
While bulk synthesis of such nanoparticles as carbon nanotubes is currently too
expensive for widespread use, some less extreme nanostructured materials can be
synthesized by traditional methods, including electrospinning and spray pyrolysis. One
important aggregate made by spray pyrolysis is glass microspheres. Often
called microballoons, they consist of a hollow shell several tens of nanometers thick and
approximately one micrometer in diameter. Casting them in a polymer matrix
yields syntactic foam, with extremely high compressive strength for its low density.
Many traditional nanocomposites escape the problem of aggregate synthesis in one of
two ways:
Natural aggregates: By far the most widely used aggregates for nano-composites are
naturally occurring. Usually these are ceramic materials whose crystalline structure is
extremely directional, allowing it to be easily separated into flakes or fibers. The
33

nanotechnology touted by General Motors for automotive use is in the former category:
a fine-grained clay with a laminar structure suspended in a thermoplastic olefin (a class
which includes many common plastics like polyethylene and polypropylene). The latter
category includes fibrous asbestos composites (popular in the mid-20th century), often
with matrix materials such as linoleum and Portland cement.


In-situ aggregate formation: Many micro-composites form their aggregate particles by
a process of self-assembly. For example, in high impact polystyrene,
two immisciblephases of polymer (including brittle polystyrene and
rubbery polybutadiene) are mixed together. Special molecules (graft copolymers)
include separate portions which are soluble in each phase, and so are only stable at
the interface between them, in the manner of a detergent. Since the number of this type
of molecule determines the interfacial area, and since spheres naturally form to
minimize surface tension, synthetic chemists can control the size of polybutediene
droplets in the molten mix, which harden to form rubbery aggregates in a hard
matrix. Dispersion strengthening is a similar example from the field of metallurgy.
In glass-ceramics, the aggregate is often chosen to have a negativecoefficient of
thermal expansion, and the proportion of aggregate to matrix adjusted so that the
overall expansion is very near zero. Aggregate size can be reduced so that the material
is transparent to infrared light.














34

REINFORCEMENT STEEL







To enhance the load carrying capacity of the concrete it is reinforced with steel bars of
different diameters provided in an appropriate manner to the tensile strength of the
concrete. Concrete has low tensile, but high compressive strength. The tensile
deficiency is compensated by reinforcing the concrete mass through insertion of plain or
twisted mild steel bars. Both branded and unbranded bars are available. It is wise to buy
good brands the names of which are marked on the steel. During construction make
sure that steel reinforcement is provided exactly as the engineering

35

FOUNDATION
A foundation is the lowest part of the building structure. Foundations are generally
divided into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations.
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded about a metre or
so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of
concrete (or other materials) which extend below the frost line and transfer the weight
from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock.
Another common type of shallow foundation is the slab-on-grade foundation where the
weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the
surface. Slab-on-grade foundations can be reinforced mat slabs, which range from
25 cm to several metres thick, depending on the size of the building, or post-tensioned
slabs, which are typically at least 20 cm for houses, and thicker for heavier structures.
SPREAD FOUNDATIONA
Spread footing foundation, which is typical in residential building, has a wider bottom
portion than the load-bearing foundation walls it supports. This wider part "spreads" the
weight of the structure over more area for greater stability

36

The design and layout of spread footings is controlled by several factors, foremost of
which is the weight (load) of the structure it will support as well as penetration of soft
near-surface layers, and penetration through near-surface layers likely to change
volume due to frost heave or shrink-swell.These foundations are common in residential
construction that includes a basement, and in many commercial structures. But for high
rise buildings they are not sufficient.
A spread footing which changes elevation in several places in a series of vertical "steps"
in order to follow the contours of a sloping site or accommodate changes in soil strata,
is termed a stepped footing.

STRAP FOUNDATION


37

A strap footing is a component of a buildings foundation. It is a type of combined
footing, consisting of two or more column footings connected by a concrete beam. This
type of beam is called a strap beam. It is used to help distribute the weight of either
heavily or eccentrically loaded column footings to adjacent footings.
A strap footing is often used in conjunction with columns that are located along a
buildings property or lot line. Typically, columns are centered on column footings, but in
conditions where columns are located directly adjacent to the property line, the column
footings may be offset so that they do not encroach onto the adjacent property.This
results in an eccentric load on a portion of the footing, causing it to tilt to one side. The
strap beam restraints the tendency of the footing to overturn by connecting it to nearby
footings.

COMBINED FOUNDATION

Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread footing,
it is called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are generally the
economical.
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Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as:
1. When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated
footings
2. Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
3. Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building
column
4. The combined footing may be rectangular, trapezoidal or Tee-shaped in plan.
5. The geometric proportions and shape are so fixed that the centeroid of the
footing area coincides with the resultant of the column loads. This results in
uniform pressure below the entire area of footing.
6. Trapezoidal footing is provided when one column load is much more than the
other. As a result, the both projections of footing beyond the faces of the columns
will be restricted.
7. Rectangular footing is provided when one of the projections of the footing is
restricted or the width of the footing is restricted.

RAFT FOUNDATION
39

Mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under
the entire structure or a large part of the structure to lower the contact pressure
compared to spread footing.

When Mat/Raft Foundation is recommended:
It is recommended for the following purposes:
1. Bearing capacity of soil is low,
2. Walls of the structure are so close that individual footings would overlap,
3. It is used for large loads,
4. Individual footings would cover more than about half of the construction area.
Advantages of Raft Foundation:
It has many advantages as well as disadvantages. The advantages of raft foundation
are as follows:
1. Raft or mat foundation is economic due to combination of foundation and floor slab.
2. It requires little excavation.
3. It can cope with mixed or poor ground condition.
4. It reduces differential settlement.
Disadvantages of Raft Foundation:
It has some disadvantages also. The disadvantages of raft foundation include the
following:
1. Mat foundation requires specific treatment for point loads.
2. Edge erosion occurs if not treated properly.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Deep foundations are required to carry loads from a structure through weak
compressible soils or fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth,
or for functional reasons. These foundations are those founding too deeply below the
40

finished ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface
conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level. Deep foundations
can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at depth if
unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
There are many reasons a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep
foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common reasons are very large
design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints (like property lines). There
are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations including the
pile (which is analogous to a pole), the pier (which is analogous to a column), drilled
shafts, and caissons. Piles are generally driven into the ground in situ; other deep
foundations are typically put in place using excavation and drilling. The naming
conventions may vary between engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can
be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete.


CAISSONS FOUNDATION

41

Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the surface
and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.
Caisson foundation is also known as pier foundation. Caisson is a cylinder or hollow box
that is sunk into the ground to a specified depth by auguring a deep hole into the strata.
The cylinder or box is then back filled with concrete, thus creating the foundation. This
type of foundation is most often used when constructing bridge piers and other such
foundations that will be beneath bodies of water since the caissons can be floated to the
correct locations and then sunk in place using concrete.
Advantages of CaissonFoundations
There are many advantages to using a caisson foundation. Here is a list of the top
advantages of a caisson foundations:
1. It is easily adaptable to varying site conditions. This means that no matter where the
structure is being constructed, caissons can be easily put in place. The hardest part of
placing them is the drilling of the holes.
2. High axial and lateral load capacity for these foundations. The weight of the structure
can be easily held by the piers and is very sturdy.
3.They are very economical. The cost to drill and install the caissons is minimal when
compared to the cost to lay a traditional foundation.
4.Piers minimize the need for pile caps. Because the piers are filled with concrete, pile
caps are really not necessary.
5. The caisson foundation will reduce vibrations and has slightly less noise. Since the
foundation is based on piers, there are less vibrations that will upset the structure.
Disadvantages of CaissonFoundations
While a caisson foundation sounds ideal, there are also many downfalls to using this
type of foundation rather than the traditional foundation. Here is a list of the top
disadvantages of caisson foundations:
1. There is a lack of expertise of these types of foundations. Construction managers and
crews are not as familiar with the procedures and protocols related to caissons.
2. Piers cannot be placed on contaminated sites. Due to the amount of drilling required
to place the caissons and pour the concrete, they cannot be placed in an area where
42

the soil has been contaminated and risk further contamination throughout the site.
3. The construction procedures for placing caissons is very sensitive. This is why there
are not many construction managers who are willing to work on a job requiring caissons
to be placed.
4. There is a major lack of inspectors who are qualified to inspect the construction of
caisson foundations to ensure that they are safe and secure.
Types of Caissons
1. Box caissons are watertight boxes that are constructed of heavy timbers and open at
the top. They are generally floated to the appropriate location and then sunk into place
with a masonry pier within it.
2. Excavated caissons are just as the name suggests, caissons that are placed within
an excavated site. These are usually cylindrical in shape and then back filled with
concrete.
3. Floating caissons are also known as floating docks and are prefabricated boxes that
have cylindrical cavities
4. Open caissons are small cofferdams that are placed and then pumped dry and filled
with concrete. These are generally used in the formation of a pier.
5. Pneumatic caissons are large watertight boxes or cylinders that are mainly used for
under water construction.

PILE FOUNDATION

Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by driving
preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or drilling-in tubes to the
required depth the tubes being filled with concrete before or during withdrawal or by
drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined boreholes which are then filled with concrete.
Pile foundations are principally used to transfer the loads from a superstructure, through
weak, compressible strata or water onto stronger, more compact, less compressible and
stiffer soil or rock at depth, increasing the effective size of a foundation and resisting
horizontal loads (Tomlinson & Woodward, 2008). They are used for large structures,
and in situations where the soil under is not suitable to prevent excessive settlement.
43

Generally piles are classified as; end-bearing piles (where most of the friction is
developed at the toe of the pile, bearing on a hard layer) or friction piles (where most of
the pile-bearing capacity is developed by shear stresses along the sides of the pile,
suitable when harder layers are too deep). Most piles use some end-bearing and some
friction, in order to resist the action of loads.





Function of piles:
As other types of foundations, the purpose of pile foundations is:
1. To transmit the buildings loads to the foundations and the ground soil layers whether
these loads vertical or inclined
2. To install loose cohesion less soil through displacement and vibration.
3. To control the settlements; which can be accompanied by surface foundations.
3. To increase the factor of safety for heavy loads buildings
44

WELL FOUNDATION

Well foundation are the most common type of deep foundation used for bridges in India.
Well foundation are similar to open caisson foundation.
Commonly used shapes of well foundations are as follows:

Circular wells:

Most common shape of well foundations preferably used everywhere is circular wells. It
is featured with very high structural strength and is convenient in sinking; additionally
the chances of tilting are exclusively minimum. These circular well foundations are
perfectly suitable for piers of the single-line railway bridges and the double-lane road
bridges. But for excessively lengthier piers it turns out to be uneconomical. Thus, the
maximum diameter of circular well is principally limited to 9m.
45

SLABS

Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs of buildings and carrying distributed
loads primarily by flexure. Inclined slabs may be used as ramps for multistory car parks.
A staircase can be considered to be an inclined slab. A slab may be supported by
beams or walls. Moreover, a slab may be simply supported or continuous over one or
more supports and is classified according to the manner of support:
One-way slabs spanning in one direction,
Two way slabs spanning in both directions,
Circular slabs,
Flat slabs resting directly on columns with no beams. And
Grid floor and ribbed slabs.

ONE WAY SLAB
One way slab are those in which the length is more than twice the breadth. A one way
slab can be simply supported or continuous. Main reinforcement is provided along the
shorter span and the distribution steel is provided along the longer span of the slab.

TWO WAY SLAB
When slabs are supported on four sides, two ways spanning action occurs. Such slabs
may be simply supported or continuous on any or all sides. The deflections and bending
moment are considerably reduced as compared to those in a one way slab. Thus, a
thinner slab can carry the same load when supported on all the four edges. In two way
slab the length is less than twice the breadth of the slab. A two way slab may be
considered to consist of a series of interconnected beam. These beams of unit width will
transfer the load to the respective supports.

CIRCULAR SLAB
Circular slabs are most commonly used in the design of circular water tank containers
with flat bottom and circular raft foundations. Under uniformly distributed loads, these
slabs deflect in the form of a saucer and develop radial and circumferential stresses.
46


AT SUPREME COURT
At site only two-way slabs are under construction


47


COLUMN
Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural
elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The term column
applies especially to a large round support with a capital and base
[1]
and made of stone,
or appearing to be so. A small wooden or metal support is typically called a post, and
supports with a rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers. For the
purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral
forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar
stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which
the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a
structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column
might also be a decorative element not needed for structural purposes.



48


CONCLUSION

The main aim of studies within this project was to investigate how a structure is
constructed within its desired properties. We get knowledge about the basic & advanced
techniques of building construction as well as saw the challenges which a civil engineer
have to face during construction i.e. labour problems, cost management, environmental
challenges etc. We cleared our many doubts regarding building construction. We had
seen dewatering system at project site for construction which is not used at our state
anymore, so it was a new thing for us..Although are subjects more important
for technicians, in the project we have been Studied some mechanic or electro-
mechanic machinery such as the ready mix plant because basic knowledge about their
working is important for an engineer but also because was the opportunity to see and
understand them. Overhaul it must be said that the construction methods and quality
control on a highway Project needs a very good coordination and large quantities of
man power, equipment and funds. During the period of one & half month all the
company staff helped us a lot to provide all the information about any query. So we are
grateful to all the staff , as well as we are so thankful to our Civil Engineering for their
kind support.













49



REFERENCES

http://www.lafdtraining.org/ists/books/bk29ch4const.pdf
http://www.lbfdtraining.com/Pages/buildingconstruction/bconstructintro.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_load
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)
http://www.engr.mun.ca/~swamidas/Notes2forENGI3731.ppt
http://www.ekt.bme.hu/ArchEng/Foundations%20(S-D)-s.pdf