Management of Childhood Obesity in The Primary Care Setting

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting
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Official reprint from UpToDate
www.uptodate.com 2014 UpToDate
Author
Joseph A Skelton, MD, MS
Section Editors
William J Klish, MD
Martin I Lorin, MD
Kathleen J Motil, MD, PhD
Deputy Editor
Alison G Hoppin, MD
Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting
All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.
Literature review current through: Jul 2014. | This topic last updated: Jan 03, 2014.
INTRODUCTION A variety of mechanisms participate in weight regulation and the development of obesity in
children, including genetics, developmental influences (metabolic programming, or epigenetics), and
environmental factors. The relative importance of each of these mechanisms is the subject of ongoing research
and probably varies considerably between individuals and populations. (See "Definition; epidemiology; and
etiology of obesity in children and adolescents", section on 'Etiology' and "Obesity in adults: Etiology and
natural history".)
Among these potential mechanisms, only environmental factors are potentially modifiable during infancy and
childhood. Therefore, prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity in children in the primary care setting
focuses on modifying behaviors that lead to excessive energy intake and insufficient energy expenditure.
Experts who focus on cardiovascular health (rather than obesity per se) recommend very similar health
behaviors, with a slightly different perspective. (See "Pediatric prevention of adult cardiovascular disease:
Promoting a healthy lifestyle and identifying at-risk children".)
This topic review will address interventions to prevent and treat childhood obesity in the primary care setting.
The definitions, epidemiology, and comorbidities of childhood obesity are discussed in separate topic reviews.
Surgical treatment of severe obesity in adolescents also is discussed separately. (See "Definition;
epidemiology; and etiology of obesity in children and adolescents" and "Comorbidities and complications of
obesity in children and adolescents" and "Surgical management of severe obesity in adolescents".)
GUIDING PRINCIPLES Few long-term randomized trials are available to determine which techniques to
prevent or treat obesity are effective. Moreover, several of the techniques that have been addressed in clinical
trials may not be practical for use in a clinical setting. Nonetheless, a number of approaches are recommended
by expert consensus, based on clinical experience, inferences drawn from observing obesity-associated
behaviors, and short-term evidence-based trials [1-6].
Recommendations for primary care providers center on:
Universal measurement of body mass index (BMI) and plotting of results on a BMI chart to track changes
over time
Routine assessment of all children for obesity-related risk factors, to allow for early intervention
Routine brief clinical interventions by the primary care provider, which include:
Messages of obesity-focused education to all children and families
Family-centered communication and interventions, rather than those focused on the child alone
Emphasis on long-term changes in behaviors that are related to obesity risk, rather than relying on
diets and exercise prescriptions, which tend to set short-term goals
Implementing a staged approach to weight management, to address obesity at different ages and levels of
severity

Staged approach to weight management The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggests a staged
approach to pediatric weight management [4]. A childs initial stage of treatment is determined by multiple
factors, including the childs age, BMI percentile, and previous weight management history in other stages of
treatment. The recommendations stipulate that all patients should receive counseling on obesity prevention,
regardless of their BMI percentile, at each well-child visit. Additional intervention to address overweight or
obesity is divided into stages representing escalating degrees of supervision, counseling, and intervention. An
overview of care location, providers, and nutrition goals are provided in the table (table 1).
At each treatment stage the clinician confronts a variety of barriers, which may include a lack of clinician time,
knowledge and treatment skills, or lack of support services or of funding to get support services. Nonetheless,
we feel that involvement of the primary care provider in the first two stages of management is both practical and
important. (See 'Brief clinical intervention' below.)
The third and fourth stages of the childs treatment typically require an intensive degree of care that is unlikely to
be achieved in a primary care setting. For example, in adolescents with severe and refractory obesity, and
particularly those with comorbidities, treatment options include weight loss surgery. (See "Surgical
management of severe obesity in adolescents".)
RAISING THE SENSITIVE ISSUE OF WEIGHT In most modern cultures of the developed world there is
some bias against individuals with obesity, which presumes that obesity is a character flaw. Despite progress in
understanding the complex origins of obesity, which include genetic, epigenetic, cultural, and environmental
factors, this bias remains widespread. The bias is also present within the medical community [7], where it often
causes providers to take a blaming approach to individuals with obesity. Such an approach is rarely effective
and often jeopardizes the therapeutic alliance [8]. Individuals with obesity have often absorbed the bias
themselves, leading to self-criticism, low self-esteem, and hopelessness; these feelings are often barriers to
behavior change.
Because of this widespread cultural bias, many families with obesity are sensitive about discussing the issue.
To form a therapeutic alliance and engage the family in addressing weight-related behaviors, the provider must
carefully avoid a blaming approach. For these reasons, it is important for providers to understand and
acknowledge the role of genetics and epigenetics in the development of obesity, even though their assessment
and intervention will emphasize modifiable environmental factors. The genetic and epigenetic mechanisms help
to explain why families of similar education and capabilities may have very different predispositions to obesity
and different success in weight management. This perspective helps the provider take a supportive rather than
blaming approach and also reduces provider frustration in the challenging endeavor of weight management.
In our practice, we initiate the discussion of weight management by acknowledging that some individuals gain
weight more easily than others, or are easy gainers. We then move on to say that such people may have to
work extra-hard to keep a healthy body weight. This dual message avoids blaming a patient or family with
obesity, while still strongly encouraging them to invest in lifestyle change. We generally use the words
unhealthy weight or weight problem because these terms are perceived by parents as more motivating and
less stigmatizing than the terms obese or fat [9].
We also choose terms which focus on health and function, rather than appearance. For children who are already
overweight or obese, we discuss the goal of growing into a healthy body weight, and being strong and fast. At
least in the initial encounter, we try to avoid discussing an ideal weight for the child, both because this is a
moving target for a growing child, but also because choosing a target ideal weight is often unrealistic and leads
to discouragement, which tends to reduce patient adherence and chances of success. Appropriate weight goals
are discussed later in this topic review. (See 'Weight' below.)
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Recommendations for weight management counseling draw from framework
Stage 1: Prevention plus
Stage 2: Structured weight management
Stage 3: Comprehensive multidisciplinary evaluation
Stage 4: Tertiary care intervention
of behavioral psychology that is outlined here. These ideas have been translated into a format that can be used
for a brief clinical intervention, as described below. (See 'Brief clinical intervention' below.)
Behavioral strategies Simply providing patients with education on obesity related health risks, nutrition,
and physical activity is insufficient to induce behavior change. Instead, nutrition and physical activity should be
thought of as habitual behaviors. The best-established counseling techniques used for pediatric obesity
treatment use a behavioral change model, which includes the following elements [10-15]:
Family involvement We suggest family-based behavioral approaches to pediatric obesity treatment that
incorporate at least one of a childs primary parents or caregivers, consistent with guidelines from the American
Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) [1]. Studies have shown that targeting a parent as an important agent of behavior
change, either with or without the child, is more effective for long-term weight management than targeting only
the referred child without parental participation [10,11,16,17]. No published studies have yet investigated or
demonstrated whether treatments incorporating multiple members of the childs family are superior to those that
include only one parent. Nonetheless, because of the overwhelming amount of evidence implicating the home
environment as a contributor to obesity, we suggest that the counseling intervention include as many members
of the family or household as possible. This approach may assist clinicians in identifying key practices and
behaviors related to obesity that are not exclusive to parent-child relationships, help to reinforce treatment
recommendations, improve program adherence, and create a healthier home environment with greater social
support and fewer barriers to success. These suggestions for family involvement are also consistent with well-
established theoretical perspectives of family function, such as Bioecological and Family Systems Theories.
These theories suggest that a childs most proximal relationships with caregivers, family members, and close
friends that have the most profound impact on their behaviors [18], and the behaviors of one family member
cannot be fully understood without also examining the behaviors of the entire family unit [19].
Client-centered communication Effective approaches to behavior change are usually patient- and family-
centered. In practice, this means that the process of behavior change should be collaborative rather than
prescriptive. As an example, instead of dictating goals to the family, the clinician should engage the family in a
conversation to select specific behaviors to change [1]. The child should be directly involved in decision-making,
as appropriate to his or her age. This process ensures that the family and patient have confidence that they can
change a behavior and are invested in the process, which greatly enhances the chance of success.
Self-monitoring of target behaviors (logs of food, activity, or other behaviors, recorded by patient or
family). This process allows the patient and family to recognize which behaviors may be contributing to
their weight gain. Clinician feedback throughout the self-monitoring process is essential to behavior
change. A patients food log may also identify other contributors to eating behaviors, such as meal-time
environment, boredom, and level of hunger, all of which can be valuable in the evaluation of stimulus
control.
Stimulus control to reduce environmental cues that contribute to unhealthy behaviors. This includes
reducing access to unhealthy behaviors (eg, removing some categories of food from the house or removing
a television from the bedroom) and also efforts to establish new, healthier daily routines (such as making
fruits and vegetables more accessible).
Goal-setting for healthy behaviors rather than weight goals. Goal-setting is widely used for prompting
behavior change. However, the process can be detrimental if goals are not realistic and maintainable.
Appropriate goals are identified by the acronym SMART, where goals should be should Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Timely.
Contracting for selected nutrition or activity goals. Contracting is the explicit agreement to give a reward
for the achievement of a specific goal. This helps children focus on specific behaviors and provides
structure and incentives to their goal-setting process.
Positive reinforcement of target behaviors. Positive reinforcement can be in the form of praise for healthy
behaviors or in the form of rewards for achieving specific goals. The reward should be negotiated by the
parent and the child, ideally facilitated by the provider to ensure that the rewards are appropriate. Rewards
should be small activities or privileges that the child can participate in frequently, rather than monetary
incentives or toys; food should not be used as a reward.

Motivational interviewing Motivational interviewing is a patient-centered counseling technique that is
increasingly used for obesity treatment [1,4,20-22]. Initially used for the treatment of addictions, this technique
addresses a patients ambivalence to change and focuses on his or her values as a means to resolve that
ambivalence [23]. The clinician employs reflective listening to encourage patients to identify their own reasons
for making a behavior change, as well as their own solutions. The tone of motivational interviewing is
nonjudgmental, empathetic, and encouraging [20,23]. Clinicians should help the family focus on specific and
achievable behavioral goals; which usually means selecting a few specific behaviors related to weight
management and overall health, and not goals for weight loss itself.
A clinical study of motivational interviewing used to treat overweight children in a primary care setting
demonstrates that the technique is well accepted by parents and is effective for many patients [20].
Formal assessment of a patient and familys motivation and self-efficacy has been successfully applied to a
variety of health-related behaviors. Several approaches can be used to evaluate a patients readiness to change
(or stage of change) [24], including global assessment through interviewing questions, or use of a numerical or
visual analog scale (eg, on a scale of 1 to 10, how ready are you to consider making this change [to diet or
exercise]). This assessment may help a patient and clinician to recognize ambivalence, which is an important
step in changing behaviors.
Scare tactics The clinician has a role in educating the family about the health risks associated with obesity.
As an example, families may not accurately assess their childs weight status. In this case, it is appropriate to
provide information to the family, such as reviewing the growth chart to show that the childs weight is in an
unhealthy range and describing some of the health implications of overweight and obesity. However, the use of
scare tactics (ie, conversation that emphasizes specific dire long-term risks) is not recommended. Scare
tactics may garner short-term attention but are rarely effective in achieving long-term change, perhaps because
most people do not think probabilistically or respond consistently to risk-based thinking [25]. Instead, it is more
effective to focus the discussion on health consequences that are less dire but more certain, such as
persistence of obesity into adulthood, reduced mobility or athletic ability, and any personalized health concerns
experienced by the patient and family.
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT
Body mass index Measurement of body mass index (BMI) percentile for age and gender is the most
practical tool for clinicians to identify and track overweight and obesity [26-28]. A rapid increase in weight-for-
height or BMI is an important predictor of future obesity even in children who are currently within a healthy
weight category. (See "Definition; epidemiology; and etiology of obesity in children and adolescents", section on
'Definitions'.)
BMI percentiles are grouped into the following categories:
Other methods for measuring adiposity include dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and air displacement
plethysmography. These techniques measure fat mass directly but are too cumbersome and expensive for
clinical use. Use of waist circumference and skin-fold thickness measurements is limited by discrepancies in
normative data, and they are not accurate indices of body fat in many patients [29-31]. (See "Measurement of
body composition in children".)
Assessment of comorbidities Assessment of the patient for comorbidities and for genetic causes of obesity
is detailed in separate topic reviews. (See "Comorbidities and complications of obesity in children and
adolescents" and "Clinical evaluation of the obese child and adolescent".)
Following are several tables highlighting key aspects of evaluating the obese child:
Overweight: BMI 85 to 95 percentile
th th
Obese: BMI 95 percentile
th
Severe obesity: BMI 99 percentile, or >120 percent of the 95 percentile
th th
Physical findings to note in children with obesity, including review of linear growth (height velocity) and
blood pressure (table 2).

Nutritional assessment A detailed assessment of caloric intake is often impractical in the primary care
setting, has low accuracy, and is not usually necessary to support a brief counseling intervention. Therefore, we
suggest a problem-oriented approach, using a brief dietary assessment to identify a few key dietary habits
which are most likely to be associated with obesity.
Childs eating habits The childs eating habits can be briefly assessed by asking about the following
issues:
The rationale and suggested approaches for making these inquiries are listed in the table (table 6) [1,2,4,29].
Although this assessment is not comprehensive, it generally yields one or more appropriate targets for
intervention, and is an efficient way to initiate counseling to improve nutritional status when the time available for
clinical interaction is limited.
Family factors Obesity in a childs parents is an important predictor of the childs risk of persistent
obesity; if both parents are obese the childs risk of being obese as an adult is increased 6- to 15-fold as
compared with a child without obese parents [32,33]. This is probably primarily due to genetic factors, but
shared social and nutritional factors may also play a role. Therefore, we record the biological parents heights
and weights, and calculate their body mass index (BMI).
It is important to understand the childs nutrition patterns within the context of the familys nutritional patterns
and finances. In our clinical evaluations, we evaluate the following aspects of family eating habits:
Medical screening by weight category. Periodic measurement of a fasting lipid profile, hemoglobin A1c or
fasting glucose level, and aminotransferase levels are suggested for children and adolescents with obesity
(BMI 95 percentile), as outlined in the table (table 3).
th
Review of systems (table 4).
Additional assessment may be required in selected children with symptoms or signs of weight-related
comorbidities (table 5). (See "Comorbidities and complications of obesity in children and adolescents".)
Frequency of eating meals in restaurants (fast food, take-out, or service)

Intake of calorie containing beverages (including juice and soft drinks)
Frequency and portion size of energy-dense foods (such as cookies and other baked goods, chips, or ice
cream)
Servings of vegetables and fruits, and which of these are regularly offered and accepted. One serving
equals one whole fruit, or cup of vegetables.
Number of meals each day, and frequency of skipping meals

Typical snacking patterns (timing and foods consumed)
School lunch (purchased or brought from home)
Shopping habits, including coupon use, meal planning, use of grocery list, food label reading, and
purchasing habits for dairy (full-fat versus reduced-fat milk) and grains (white, wheat, whole grain)
Frequency of family meals and who is present at meals

Whether foods are served family style (self-serve) or served by parent or caregiver before bringing to the
table
Caregiver duties and communication regarding food (eg, who does shopping and who does cooking,
whether food selection is discussed among family members, and whether meals are eaten together as a
family)
How child spends time after school, and who supervises this time
Work schedules of parents or other caregivers
Other considerations In some cases, economic or cultural factors may limit a familys ability or
willingness to make changes in diet or physical activity. These obstacles can be addressed using a family-
centered approach to counseling, in which families decide when to begin the change process and the intensity
with which they are willing to pursue weight management. To initiate the discussion, the following factors should
be assessed in selected patients:
Activity assessment Similar to the nutritional assessment of children, we suggest that clinicians do a brief
qualitative assessment of physical activity and sedentary activity patterns in children. Both sedentary and active
behaviors (structured and unstructured) should be assessed as outlined in the table (table 7).
In addition, assessment of the following social and environmental factors often helps to identify barriers to
activity and opportunities for increasing physical activity [29]:
Combining a clinical assessment of baseline activity levels with the barriers to increased activity will provide the
clinician with a basis with which to begin behavior changes. Reducing sedentary activities is a particularly
important target for intervention and should be incorporated into any clinical approaches to obesity treatment
and prevention. (See 'Sedentary activity' below.)
GOALS FOR WEIGHT MANAGEMENT
Weight We find that discussion of specific weight loss targets with the patient and family is not usually
helpful and sometimes causes the patient to become discouraged and to withdraw from weight control efforts.
Instead of weight loss goals, we prefer to emphasize behavior goals for specific dietary habits and activities
during discussions with the patient and family. Nonetheless, it is appropriate for the provider to keep weight
targets in mind to ensure that a patients weight trend is safe and realistic.
Weight loss goals are a function of a patients age and degree of overweight or obesity [1,4,6].
Meal location (eg, at dining table, in bedroom, or on couch/ in living room) and emotional climate
(especially arguments about food)
Whether television or other media is used during meals

Economic challenges Ask about food insecurity (do you sometimes run out of money for food?), about
the familys living conditions (whether there is a working stove and/or refrigerator), and the availability of
income assistance such as food stamps.
Cultural factors Ask the parents and child what they think of the childs weight. Misperception of the
childs weight status, such as a cultural preference for overweight in children, may affect a familys ability
to effectively address the problem. Conversely, excessive anxiety about the childs weight status also can
interfere with effective management. To address this issue, it is important to explore reasons for the
anxiety in the parent or child. Reasons for excessive anxiety may include an overestimate of the childs
risk for future obesity or a personal history of disordered eating in the parent.
Home Television in bedroom [34]; family physical activity routines [35]; access to and frequency of free
play [36,37]; access to and frequency of organized sports [36-38].
School Physical education classes [38,39]; affordability of activities [36,37]; safety concerns [36,37].
Lifestyle activity Current habits that require walking or use of stairs [38].
For children and adolescents who are overweight or mildly obese, the goal of maintaining current body
weight is appropriate, because this will lead to a decrease in BMI as the child grows taller. If the child is in
a phase of rapid linear growth, merely slowing weight gain is more realistic and often improves weight
status.
At higher degrees of obesity (BMI substantially above the 95 percentile, ie, at the 99 percentile),
gradual weight loss is safe and appropriate, depending on the childs age and degree of obesity.
th th
For children between two and eleven years old with obesity and comorbidities, a weight loss of up to
one pound per month is safe and beneficial but may be difficult to achieve.

Diet Few clinical trials have evaluated structured dietary interventions for children with obesity, and even
fewer have attempted to control for complex nutritional behaviors and the family/home environment.
As an example, a few clinical trials have shown modest efficacy of a glycemic index diet, which focuses on
reducing those specific types of carbohydrates which produce a strong glycemic response (rise in blood sugar)
[40,41]. However, overall findings from glycemic index research have been mixed [42,43]. In addition, this type of
highly structured diet is usually difficult to implement and sustain, so the results of a clinical study may not be
generalizable to general clinical practice or to long-term outcomes. Diets that are low in carbohydrates are
usually relatively low in glycemic index and may be simpler to teach and easier for patients to sustain [44-46].
Unfortunately, these and other highly structured diets have poor adherence rates over long periods of time.
Some semi-structured approaches to pediatric obesity treatment have been promising, particularly those which
focus on encouraging families to select food groups of higher nutrient quality and lower energy-density [10,47].
As an example, clinicians can use the traffic light format as a teaching tool, grouping foods based on their
nutrient quality and calorie density, and then explaining which foods should be eaten most often (red: eat rarely;
yellow: eat less often; green: eat more often).
For these reasons, we and others suggest that health care providers use semi-structured dietary goals, seeking
long-term improvement in the quality and quantity of the fats and carbohydrates their patients consume. These
goals are most likely to be achieved by focusing on eating behaviors, rather than by prescribing a specific
structured diet. The following table outlines our approaches to common diet-related problems encountered in
children (table 8). A dietitian can be helpful in providing this type of counseling, particularly if the emphasis and
content are coordinated with and consistent with that of the primary care provider.
Activity Counseling to improve physical activity should focus on reducing sedentary activities as well as
increasing physical activity [6].
Sedentary activity Substantial evidence supports the importance of reducing sedentary activity as a
means of preventing and treating obesity in children [3,48-50]. Indeed, reducing sedentary activity may be more
effective than increasing structured physical activity, perhaps because reducing sedentary activity has the
secondary benefit of reducing caloric intake [49,51].
In developed countries, sedentary activity is usually in the form of screen time: television, video games,
internet and computer, and other media. According to national surveys in the United States, children between 8
and 18 years spend an average of 7-1/2 hours daily viewing media, and those under age six spent nearly two
hours daily [52]. Television viewing is perhaps the best established environmental influence on the development
of obesity during childhood. The association between obesity and use of other media is somewhat weaker. (See
"Definition; epidemiology; and etiology of obesity in children and adolescents", section on 'Environmental
factors'.)
We and others recommend that television viewing and other screen time (other than homework) to be limited to
less than two hours a day, and that children under age two avoid television altogether [4,53]. Because many
children initially will be viewing substantially more than this target, the first step should be in decreasing their
present amount. School-wide campaigns and messages [48], and behavioral interventions using reinforcement
and reward strategies have been effective in reducing television use [49].
Behavioral treatment strategies, detailed above, such as self-monitoring, can be useful. Children and families
should first monitor their present amount of media use and then set goals to decrease it. We ask families to set
firm and consistent media limits for all family members including parents. Consistent with the policy statement
from the American Academy of Pediatrics, we strongly encourage families to include all or most of the following
components in their media rules [53]:
For adolescents with obesity and comorbidities, it is safe to lose up to two pounds per week,
although a weight loss of one to two pounds per month usually is more realistic.
No television set in childs bedroom

No television viewing during meals
Maximum time for television and media viewing (eg, no more than two hours daily, or some strategy that
Substituting healthier behaviors and entertainment is helpful in achieving these goals. For younger children, this
is through the use of active games such as tag, hula hooping, and obstacle courses. Quiet non-media
activities such as reading aloud or playing board games are also acceptable substitutes, because they avoid
television advertising and establish patterns of family interaction that may ultimately lead to active play. Taking
activity breaks during television commercials both reduces exposure to advertising and establishes specific
windows for activity; the average hour of television features approximately 20 minutes of commercials, and half
of the advertisements are for food.
Strategies to reduce media use for older children are more variable and are best addressed through a
combination of self-monitoring, establishment of family media limits, and negotiation to identify substitute
activities. Because both media and homework are often accessed through the computer, it can be difficult for a
parent to monitor a childs actual media use. For these and other reasons, engagement of the child in the
behavior-change process is essential, using the behavioral strategies outlined above. (See 'Theoretical
background' above.)
Physical activity Despite some discrepancy in study outcomes of increasing physical activity as a
means to lower BMI, increasing child and family levels of physical activity is a key focus in obesity treatment
[50]. It is generally recommended that children and adolescents participate in 60 minutes or more of physical
activity a day [39,54,55]; the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends at least 30 minutes of structured
physical activity during the school day [54].
As with nutrition goals, strategies for increasing physical activity are individualized. Clinicians should take into
account the developmental stage of the child, family schedule, and personal preferences for activity, while being
mindful of sedentary activity. Clinicians can support the change process by consistently advising patients and
families to be physically active, suggesting options and encouraging goal-setting. In addition, clinicians can
provide support for physical activity in the community by forming partnerships with local fitness centers and
schools.
To increase physical activity in children it is often helpful to consider a variety of options. Structured physical
activity (organized sports or performance arts) may be team-based or individual, and competitive or non-
competitive. Less structured activity includes recreational sports with peers or family, self-directed physical
training, and lifestyle activity. Although these categories overlap, consideration of each allows for an expanded
and diverse view of a child and familys opportunities for physical activity.
For preschool-aged children, most physical activity will be unstructured; outdoor play is particularly helpful [56].
Providers can encourage physical activity in this age group by prescribing playground time and providing a list
of local resources (playgrounds or other opportunities for active play), in addition to discouraging sedentary time
(television use). The provider can also encourage parents to consider physical activity levels when they make
choices among options for daycare and after-school programs.
For older children, we prefer to encourage structured physical activity when possible (ie, participation in team or
individual sports, or supervised exercise sessions). Patients are more likely to participate consistently in these
activities because they are accountable to a coach or leader. However, whether a child is willing to engage in
structured activities varies, particularly for adolescents. Some adolescents will enjoy engaging in sports or
fitness centers, while others may not, due to lack of self-confidence or self-esteem. Directly engaging
adolescents in choosing activities to replace sedentary time is helpful. We have found that a persistent trial-and-
error approach often results in discovering activities that they enjoy.
Non-competitive active games and lifestyle activities may be more appealing to some children, particularly those
with more severe obesity. These activities provide moderate levels of physical activity, while also replacing
sedentary time. Activities to consider are: a walking program (boosted by use of a pedometer or walking
partner), trial memberships at local gyms (we find local fitness centers often provide trial memberships or
passes to interested children and families), home fitness videos, and non-traditional sports such as yoga, tai
chi, fencing, and martial arts.
approximates that limit)
No media viewing for children under two years of age
If a patient chooses to focus his or her activity on walking, we encourage them to use a pedometer to measure
the number of steps that they take; we find that this improves motivation (at least initially) and accountability,
and allows the patient to track progress. Typical goals in adults are to walk more than 10,000 steps a day to
improve health. Step counts vary markedly among children, so the best strategy is to measure current step
counts using the pedometer and then set a goal of increasing the number of steps by approximately 10 percent.
Subsequent goal setting can be modified based on the patients weight and other activities. A variety of devices
are available (relative performance and costs are reviewed at www.pedometers.com).
Electronic gaming systems are now programmed to increase physical activity through interactive control
devices, such as the Nintendo Wii. There is scant research but great interest in these systems to increase
the physical activity level in children, and some have been used in school-based approaches. In general, the
activity levels achieved while playing these games is modest, but certainly higher than sedentary activities. (See
"Definition; epidemiology; and etiology of obesity in children and adolescents", section on 'Video games'.)
BRIEF CLINICAL INTERVENTION For patients in the initial stages of obesity treatment (stages 1 and 2
above), we suggest that the provider of primary care perform a brief clinical intervention, using the behavioral
strategies, nutritional goals, and exercise goals outlined above and summarized in the table (table 1).
Problems identified during the brief assessment are addressed in a brief problem-solving discussion. Even if
many problems of lifestyle habits are identified, we suggest limiting the counseling to two or three problems,
setting goals that the family can agree are achievable. Other issues can be addressed in future sessions as
needed. Consistent with the theoretical principles outlined above, the intervention should be focused on
modifying lifestyle habits of the entire family, rather than focused exclusively on the identified child [10,15]. In
addition, the intervention should be tailored to the familys level of readiness (stage of change), and the tone of
the interview should be nonjudgmental, empathetic, and encouraging [20]. A guide to using these concepts for a
brief clinical intervention is available from the Maine Youth Overweight Collaborative [57]. (See 'Theoretical
background' above.)
The counseling session can be very brief (eg, three to five minutes) and use preprinted handouts. This brief
format recognizes the time constraints that are usually present in the primary care setting, particularly because
a substantial fraction of patients in most practices are overweight or obese and will require this intervention.
Additional contact time is valuable if time permits or if an allied health care provider (eg, dietitian or nurse) is
available to provide counseling. (See 'Intensity of intervention' below.)
These brief counseling sessions are repeated at each subsequent follow-up visit. To provide continuity and
reinforce the message, the provider should review the same concerns at a follow-up session. If progress has
been made the provider should praise the family and encourage additional work; if no progress has been made
the provider should engage in further problem-solving and/or work with the family to identify other goals that
seem more achievable.
Early intervention Emerging evidence suggests that intervention during early- or mid-childhood can be
effective. Although it is very difficult to directly compare the efficacy of interventions across different age groups
through clinical studies, indirect comparisons suggest that early intervention may be more effective than
intervention during adolescence [58-60]. If so, this advantage may be attributable to increased involvement of the
family with younger age groups or to metabolic programming. (See "Definition; epidemiology; and etiology of
obesity in children and adolescents", section on 'Metabolic programming'.)
The following studies illustrate the efficacy of early intervention to treat or prevent obesity:
A randomized trial in overweight or obese pre-school aged children in the United States consisted of 10
hours of group meetings over six months, supplemented by eight phone calls from a health coach [61].
At the end of the intervention, significant effects were seen on child and parent body mass index (BMI).
A randomized trial in overweight children 4 to 7 years of age in Italy consisted of five group meetings over
one year, providing motivational interviewing [62]. At the end of the intervention, the BMI in children
receiving the intervention had increased by 0.49 kg/m , which was significantly less than the increase of
0.79 kg/m in the control group. Thus, a low-intensity intervention had a significant effect on BMI in this
population.
2
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The evidence base in this age group is still small, and the optimal type and timing of intervention remain unclear.
Nonetheless, these findings call for further exploration of early interventions to prevent and treat obesity [50,70].
Research has not determined optimal intervention approaches based on child age groups, though it is believed
that children should be increasingly included in the counseling dialogue and should be given autonomy in
treatment decisions as they mature [4].
Intensity of intervention Most available data suggests that substantial hours of provider contact are
necessary to improve a childs weight status. As an example, a systematic review concluded that behavioral
interventions of moderate or high intensity (defined as 26 to 75 hours or >75 hours of provider contact,
respectively) are effective in achieving short-term (up to 12 months) weight improvements in children [5,22,71].
Unfortunately, interventions at this level of intensity are usually impractical for use in a primary care setting,
unless ample services from dietitians or other specialized counselors are readily available and funded.
Low-intensity interventions (less than 25 hours of provider contact) are feasible in a primary care setting and are
recommended by expert panels, although the evidence base to support this recommendation currently is weak.
Clinical trials suggest that these low-intensity interventions for treatment of childhood obesity have weak or
inconsistent effects [5,72]. It is likely that low-intensity interventions may have important effects on obesity and
health behaviors in individual patients, even if they have little or no measureable effect on the study population
as a whole. Moreover, meta-analyses suggest that lifestyle interventions to prevent and treat obesity in children
are generally effective, even if some of the included studies are too small to show statistically significant
changes in weight status [50,73]. (See "Definition; epidemiology; and etiology of obesity in children and
adolescents", section on 'Environmental factors'.)
Therefore, we and others recommend that providers of primary care consistently provide counseling to all
patients to support healthy eating and activity behaviors in an effort to prevent obesity [2]. In addition, we
recommend that providers engage in brief counseling interventions for their patients with obesity or those with
significant risk factors for developing obesity (such as parental obesity) [1].
For patients who do not respond to a brief clinical intervention or for those with severe obesity, higher-intensity
approaches are needed. These interventions are implemented in stages, and usually require referral to a dietitian
or behavioral counselor, and/or to specialized weight management programs or tertiary care centers. (See
'Staged approach to weight management' above.)
Example and materials Several groups have developed messaging to support this type of brief clinical
intervention as outlined above. Materials to support patient education and practice process improvement are
available at each of the following websites:
A randomized trial in overweight or obese pre-school aged children in the Netherlands consisted of 27
hours of provider contact over four months, including nutritional advice, supervised physical activity, and
parent training [63]. At the end of the four-month program, there were significant decreases in child BMI
and in other anthropometric measures as compared with baseline and a usual care control group. Most
of the improvements were sustained at 12 months follow-up.
An observational study in Sweden evaluated predictors of success for a behaviorally based three-year
treatment program for 643 children 6 to 16 years of age [64,65]. Among participants with severe obesity,
58 percent of the younger children (six to nine years) experienced a clinically significant reduction in BMI
Z-score (-0.5 kg/m ), as compared with only 2 percent of adolescents (14 to 16 years). Among
participants with moderate obesity, younger children also were more likely to be successful than older
children.
2
A randomized trial in 3 to 5 year old children at risk for behavioral issues assessed the effect of an
intervention to promote effective parenting [66]. Although the intervention focused on parenting rather than
nutrition or physical health, the children in the intervention group had lower rates of obesity compared with
controls (24 percent versus 54 percent), after three to five years follow up.
Several studies of lower-intensity interventions in infants and young children report improvements in weight-
related habits, such as television viewing, but did not achieve statistically significant improvements in BMI
outcomes [67-69].

These models have much in common and have not been directly compared. It is reasonable for providers to
select materials with messaging that is best suited to their community.
The Maine Youth Overweight Collaborative provides an example of a coordinated intervention that has been
implemented in primary care practices across the state of Maine, using common approaches and messaging.
The Healthcare toolkit includes extensive materials for patient education and improvement of practice
processes, and is available to download free of charge or can be ordered in hard copy from the website. Some of
these materials are translated into different languages. The program specifically seeks to evaluate outcomes
using both qualitative and quantitative data. Initial analyses suggest substantial increases in clinician support for
several obesity-related interventions [74]. The office-based initiative is closely integrated with initiatives in
schools, after-school programs, and communities, and supported by community partners.
OFFICE SYSTEMS Establishing an effective and efficient approach to prevention and management of obesity
in the primary care setting generally requires systems-level changes, including practice processes, training of
staff and colleagues, and negotiating insurance reimbursement [2,29].
Practice processes The most important practice process is to establish regular, accurate, and efficient BMI
screening for all patients during routine health management visits. Despite the introduction of BMI growth charts
over 10 years ago, many practices are not routinely calculating and plotting BMI [75,76]. The first step is to
identify the personnel responsible for measuring heights and weights, calculating BMI, and plotting the result.
The calculation and plotting can be accomplished automatically by many electronic health records. Important
steps in the practice improvement process are to set a clear goal for BMI charting and to objectively assess the
practices performance against the goal through chart audits.
It is also important to integrate the results of BMI screening into the clinical and educational process of the
health maintenance visit. Discussion of overweight and obesity with a patient and family can be challenging but
is usually well accepted if approached in a nonjudgmental way (see 'Raising the sensitive issue of weight'
above). The following office systems may facilitate a positive and efficient discussion:
Equipment Whenever possible, practices should have appropriate equipment to provide medical care to
patients with obesity. This includes a wide range of blood pressure cuffs (including a large adult size) to ensure
accurate measurements, and high-capacity scales (ideally up to 500 or 1000 lbs). In addition, it is helpful to
have office furniture that is appropriate for large patients and their families, including sturdy armless chairs and
lower examination tables.
PREVENTION Preventing obesity in children should be a focus of every child healthcare provider. Prevention
efforts are best focused on key behaviors associated with the development of obesity (table 6 and table 7),
although other factors including genetics undoubtedly also contribute to the risk for obesity [4].
There is modest evidence to suggest that modification of the following factors may help to prevent the
development of obesity. These issues are discussed in more detail in the linked topic reviews.
5210 Lets go (Maine Youth Overweight Collaborative)
National Initiative for Childrens Healthcare quality (NICHQ)
Eat smart move more (North Carolina)
American Academy of Pediatrics
Educational materials Having educational materials readily available in the office improves efficiency and
communication. In our practice we have posters with health related messages on the wall of each clinic
room alongside related educational handouts. The clinician can use the poster as a talking point in
screening health behaviors. The proximity of the materials and displayed poster allow for efficient and
focused discussion and also allows families to select materials that capture their interest.
Community resources To assist families in developing an action plan, the practice can collect and
distribute information about resources in the local community, including options for physical activity, active
after-school programs, nutrition counseling services, and sources of healthy food (eg, local sources of
fresh produce).

Maternal factors:
Psychosocial factors:
Dietary goals: (See "Dietary recommendations for toddlers, preschool, and school-age children", section on
'Dietary guidelines'.)
Activity goals: (See "Physical activity and strength training in children and adolescents: An overview", section
on 'Physical activity'.)
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Obesity during childhood is associated with long-term health
consequences and is influenced by genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and environmental factors. Among these,
only behavioral and environmental factors are modifiable during childhood, so these are the focus of clinical
interventions.
We suggest the following practices among providers of primary care to children. These suggestions are based
primarily on expert opinion; some are supported by clinical studies, usually with short-term outcomes.
Maternal weight prior to conception and weight gain during pregnancy. (See "Weight gain and loss in
pregnancy" and "Definition; epidemiology; and etiology of obesity in children and adolescents", section on
'Metabolic programming'.)
Breastfeeding Breastfeeding may have a weak protective effect on the development of obesity, but
probably is not a major determinant of obesity risk. (See "Infant benefits of breastfeeding", section on
'Obesity'.)
Establishing a healthy feeding relationship early in life (avoiding overly restrictive and overly permissive
feeding patterns). (See "Introducing solid foods and vitamin and mineral supplementation during infancy",
section on 'Feeding environment'.)
Encouraging a family to eat meals together. (See "Dietary recommendations for toddlers, preschool, and
school-age children", section on 'Eating environment'.)
Limiting consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, including juice

Encouraging a diet with ample servings of vegetables and fruits
Limiting eating at restaurants, particularly fast-food restaurants
Limiting portion size (which for young children often is less than a serving size as listed on a food label)
Encouraging moderate to vigorous physical activity for one or more hours daily [4].
Limiting television and other screen time no screen time for children under two years of age; less than
two hours daily after age two [2].
Universal measurement of body mass index (BMI) and plotting of results on a BMI chart to track changes
over time. (See 'Body mass index' above.)
Routine assessment of all children for obesity-related risk factors, to allow for early intervention. This
includes recording the obesity status (BMI) of the biological parents and assessing key nutritional and
physical activity habits (table 6 and table 7). (See 'Nutritional assessment' above and 'Activity assessment'
above.)
For children with obesity, weight-related comorbidities should be assessed through a focused review of
systems (table 4), physical examination (table 2), and laboratory screening (table 3). (See 'Assessment of
comorbidities' above.)
For all children and their families, routine health care should include obesity-focused education. Key goals
to address are the common diet-related problems encountered in children (table 8), set firm limits on
television and other media early in the childs life, and establish habits of frequent physical activity. (See
'Diet' above and 'Sedentary activity' above and 'Physical activity' above.)
For children who are overweight or obese, we suggest a series of clinical counseling interventions in the
primary care setting (Grade 2C). Each session can be brief (3 to 15 minutes); this brief format is most

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is valuable if time permits or if an allied health care provider (eg, dietitian or registered nurse) is available to
provide counseling. (See 'Brief clinical intervention' above and 'Intensity of intervention' above.)
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'Example and materials' above.)
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Topic 15848 Version 22.0
GRAPHICS
Recommendations for treatment of childhood obesity
Stage Staff and skills
Nutrition
goals
Activity
goals
Behavior
intervention
1: Prevention
plus
Primary care
provider
Encourage
consumption
of 5 or more
servings of
vegetables
or fruit daily
Minimize
sugared
beverages
Eat
breakfast
every day
Eat most
meals at
home and as
a family
Less than
2 hours of
television
or other
screen
time per
day
More than
1 hour of
physical
activity
daily
Reinforce
goals at each
health care
visit,
additional
visits as
tolerated
Allow child to
self-regulate,
avoid overly
strict eating
regimens
2: Structured
weight
management
Primary care
physician or
provider with
additional training
in nutrition or
behavioral
counseling (eg,
dietitian)
Stage 1 plus: Stage 1 plus: Monthly
patient-
provider
contact
Monitor
eating and
physical
activities
through logs
Use positive
reinforcement
techniques
(reward
system)
Strong
parental
involvement
for school-
aged children
Daily eating
plan, with
scheduled
meals and
snacks
Emphasize
foods with
low energy
density
Reduce
frequency
and quantity
of foods with
high energy
density (eg,
fried foods,
baked
goods, fats)
Limit portion
size
Set explicit
behavior
goals
Less than
1 hour of
television
or other
screen
time daily
More than
1 hour of
physical
activity
daily,
supervised
and
structured
3:
Comprehensive
multidisciplinary
intervention
Multidisciplinary
team with
childhood obesity
expertise OR
Stage 2 plus: Similar to
stage 2,
supported by
behavioral
Weekly
patient-
provider
contact
Structured
primary care-based
program with
counselor,
dietitian, and use
of structured
outside activity
program
diet and
physical
activity
designed for
negative
energy
balance
interventions (and/or
phone)
Similar, but
with
increased
structure and
accountability
Parent
training in
behavioral
techniques to
improve
home eating
and activity
environment
4: Tertiary care
intervention
Multidisciplinary
team with
childhood obesity
expertise, including
obesity medicine
physician to
rigorously assess
comorbidities
As guided by established protocols. Various
modalities are available, including: highly
structured diets, medications, or bariatric surgery.
Most children 2 years and older who are overweight or obese start at stage 1 (Prevention
plus). Those who are older than 6 years progress to higher stages if there is no
improvement in BMI percentile or trend after 3 to 6 months of treatment. Initiating
treatment at higher stages of intervention is appropriate for children who are older, more
severely obese (BMI >99th percentile) and motivated.
Based on information from: Spear BA, Barlow SE, Ervin C, et al. Recommendations for treatment of
child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 2007; 120:S254.
Graphic 54846 Version 8.0
Findings of note on physical examination in children with obesity
Exam finding Definition Clinical concern raised
Short stature
OR unexplained
decrease in
height velocity
Height <50th percentile with
weight >95th percentile* (if not
explained by familial short stature)
Growth velocity <5 cm/year in a
prepubertal child, or declining
across over two or more height
percentile curves on a standard
chart (eg, decreasing from the
90th to the 50th percentile)
Endocrine or genetic condition (eg,
Cushing syndrome)
Hypertension Hypertension if systolic or diastolic
blood pressure >95th percentile
for age, gender, and height on 3
occasions
Essential hypertension, renal
disease, or Cushing syndrome
Acanthosis
nigricans
Hyperpigmented, thickened,
velvety skin in body folds and
creases, particularly neck
Increased risk of insulin resistance
Excessive acne,
hirsutism
Hirsutism: excessive growth of
hair in atypical areas, such as face
and neck
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
Violaceous
striae
Linear lesions, red, pink, or purple
in color, particularly on abdomen
Cushing syndrome
Papilledema,
cranial nerve VI
paralysis
Optic disc swelling on funduscopic
exam, caused by increased
intracranial pressure
Pseudotumor cerebri (idiopathic
intracranial hypertension)
Tonsillar
hypertrophy
Tonsils occupy more than 50
percent of the lateral dimension of
oropharynx
Obstructive sleep apnea
Goiter Enlarged or swollen thyroid gland Hypothyroidism
Wheezing High-pitched whistling on
auscultation
Asthma
Hepatomegaly,
right upper
quadrant
tenderness
Increased liver span Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, or
gallstones
Micropenis Unusually small penis In most cases the small-appearing
penis is actually normal size; the
length is buried under suprapubic
fat
Undescended
testes
Testicle not palpable in scrotum Prader-Willi syndrome
Abnormal gait,
limp, pain in hip
or groin, limited
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
(SCFE)
range of motion
in hip
Bowing of tibia Lower leg angles inward, causing
a bowleg appearance
Blount disease
Small hands
and feet, or
polydactyly
Genetic condition (eg, Prader-Willi
syndrome or Bardet-Biedl
syndrome)
* Most children with obesity who have not completed linear growth are relatively tall for their
age. Therefore, height <50th percentile is unusual.
Medical screening for children with obesity, by BMI category
BMI
percentile
Physical
examination
Laboratory tests
85th-94th
percentile
Blood pressure,
full exam
Fasting lipid profile*
Conditional testing for abnormalities in blood glucose
or liver function
95th
percentile
Blood pressure,
full exam
Fasting lipid profile*
Hemoglobin A1c or fasting glucose level every two
years
ALT and AST levels every two years
* If results of the fasting lipid profile are normal, we suggest repeating the screening every
three to five years. If the results are abnormal, annual monitoring usually is appropriate. (Refer
to UpToDate topic on Pediatric prevention of adult cardiovascular disease).
In this weight category, screening for abnormalities in blood glucose or hemoglobin A1c, AST
and ALT is recommended if the patient is 10 years or older, and has one or more of the following
risk factors: personal history of elevated blood pressure, lipid levels, tobacco use, or family
history of obesity-related diseases (type 2 diabetes, lipid abnormalities, heart disease).
Hemoglobin A1c is now an accepted approach to screening for diabetes mellitus in adults; a
hemoglobin A1c level 6.5 percent on two occasions can be used to diagnose diabetes, and
patients with A1c values between 5.7 and 6.4 percent are at high risk for developing diabetes.
The utility of hemoglobin A1c as a screening tool in children and adolescents has not been fully
evaluated.
Recommendations based on: Krebs NF. Assessment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity.
Pediatrics 2007; 120:S193.

Important aspects of the review of systems in overweight or obese
children
Symptom Potential significance
Additional studies or
referral
Delayed
development
Genetic syndrome Pediatric geneticist and/or
neurologist
Short stature or
reduced height
velocity
Genetic syndrome Pediatric geneticist
Endocrinologic etiology (eg,
Cushing syndrome,
hypothyroidism, ROHHADNET
syndrome [rapid onset obesity
with hypothalamic dysfunction,
hypoventilation, autonomic
dysregulation, and neural crest
tumor])
24 hour urine collection for free
cortisol, thyroid function tests;
pediatric endocrinologist
Headaches Pseudotumor cerebri Pediatric neurologist
Snoring Sleep apnea, obesity
hypoventilation syndrome
Polysomnogram (sleep study)
and/or referral to a pediatric sleep
medicine or ENT specialist
Daytime
sleepiness
Sleep apnea, obesity
hypoventilation syndrome
Polysomnogram (sleep study),
possibly blood gasses; and/or
referral to a pediatric sleep
medicine, pulmonologist, or ENT
specialist
Abdominal pain Gall bladder disease Liver function tests, abdominal
ultrasonography
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease Liver function tests; pediatric
gastroenterologist
Hip pain, knee
pain, limp
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
(SCFE) or Blount disease (tibia
vara)
Radiographs; pediatric orthopedist
Oligomenorrhea
or amenorrhea
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) Pediatric endocrinologist or
adolescent specialist
Prader-Willi syndrome Pediatric geneticist
Urinary
frequency,
nocturia,
polydipsia,
polyuria
Type 2 diabetes Urinalysis, fasting blood glucose,
hemoglobin A1c, glucose tolerance
test; pediatric endocrinologist
Binge eating or
purging
Eating disorder Specialist in eating disorders
Insomnia Depression Pediatric psychologist or
psychiatrist
Anhedonia Depression Pediatric psychologist or
psychiatrist
ENT: ear/nose/throat.
Adapted from: Barlow SE, Dietz WH. Obesity evaluation and treatment: Expert Committee
recommendations. The Maternal and Child Health Bureau, Health Resources and Services
Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services. Pediatrics 1998; 102:E29 and
Dietz WH, Robinson TN. Clinical practice. Overweight children and adolescents. N Engl J Med 2005;
352:2100.
Additional assessment for weight-related comorbidities to be
considered for selected children with obesity
Condition Tests Reason Note
Cardiac disease Lipid profile Hyperlipidemia,
hypertriglyceridemia,
cardiovascular
disease risk
Fasting sample
preferred
Hypertension Repeat BP
measurements on
several occasions
Required to
diagnose or exclude
hypertension
Use appropriately
sized cuffs and age-
appropriate norms
24-hour ambulatory
BP monitoring
Evaluate for
"masked"
hypertension; rule
out "white coat"
hypertension
Suggested if the
diagnosis is unclear
from random office
measurements
CBC, metabolic panel,
renin assay,
urinalysis, renal
ultrasound
Exclude other
causes of
hypertension
Suggested if
hypertension is
confirmed
Fatty liver disease Liver ultrasound; -1-
antitrypsin,
ceruloplasmin, ANA,
hepatitis antibodies
Determine cause of
elevated
transaminases
Persistent elevation
of AST, ALT for >6
months warrants
further investigation
Liver biopsy Determine cause of
elevated
transaminases,
assess degree of
hepatitis
Imaging cannot
accurately
determine
inflammation and
fibrosis
Type 2 diabetes
mellitus or impaired
glucose tolerance
Fasting glucose, oral
glucose tolerance
test, HbA1c, urinary
microalbumin
Assess for insulin
resistance, renal
involvement
Fasting glucose
126 mg/dL or
HbA1c 6.5 percent
indicates diabetes.
Fasting glucose
100-125 mg/dL or
HbA1c 5.7-6.4
percent considered
pre-diabetes.
Sleep apnea Polysomnogram
(sleep study)
Evaluate sleep
related breathing
disorders
Polysomnogram
also may detect
disordered sleep
pattern
Orthopedic disease Hip x-rays Evaluate for SCFE Use frog-leg
positioning for
radiograph
Knee x-rays Evaluate for Blount
disease

Polycystic ovary
syndrome
17-
hydroxyprogesterone,
DHEAS,
androstenedione,
free testosterone (or
total testosterone
and SHBG), LH, FSH,
possibly pelvic
ultrasound
To confirm whether
hyperandrogenemia
is present, and
exclude other
causes of
hyperandrogenemia

Precocious puberty LH, FSH, testosterone
or estradiol, DHEAS
Early onset of
obesity
Physical exam often
is sufficient to
evaluate
Pseudotumor
cerebri
Fundoscopic exam,
lumbar puncture
Increased
intracranial pressure
suggested by
papilledema, and
confirmed by lumbar
puncture

BP: blood pressure; CBC: complete blood count; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; ALT: alanine
aminotransferase; ANA: antinuclear antibodies; HbA1c: hemoglobin A1c; SCFE: slipped capital
femoral epiphysis; DHEAS: dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; SHBG: sex hormone binding
globulin; LH: luteinizing hormone; FSH: follicle-stimulating hormone.
Adapted from:
1. Barlow SE. Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and
treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report. Pediatrics. 2007
Dec; 120 Suppl 4:S164-92.
2. Krebs NF, et al. Assessment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics. 2007
Dec; 120 Suppl 4:S193-228.
Assessment of nutritional factors related to childhood obesity
Nutritional
factor
Contribution to weight gain
Examples of questions
for clinical assessment
Restaurants
and fast
food
Meals eaten away from home increase
portion size and total energy intake, and
are of poorer nutrient quality .
Increased frequency of eating meals away
from home is associated with increased
BMI .
"How many times a week
does your family get takeout
food?"
"How many meals a week
does your family eat at a
restaurant or eat fast food?"
Sweetened
beverages
High intake of sugar-sweetened beverages
is linked to increased prevalence of obesity
in children , but causality has not
been established . Fruit juice also
should be considered a sweetened
beverage.
"How many times a day, or
how many ounces, does
your child drink the
following: juice, soda,
flavored milk, sports drinks,
or sweetened tea?"
Portion
sizes
Larger portions lead to increased energy
intake .
"Are seconds or large
portions a challenge for your
child?"
"How many baseball-size
servings of pasta, rice, or
cereal does your child eat at
a meal?"
"How many decks of cards of
meat or protein does your
child eat at a meal?"
Energy-
dense foods
An association between energy dense
foods and obesity has been established in
adults, but not yet in children .
"How often does your child
eat fried foods?"
"What does your child
typically eat for snacks?"
"What type of milk, cheese,
cereal, and protein do you
have at home?"
Fruits and
vegetables
Eating fruits and vegetables may displace
more energy dense foods and increase
satiety. There is some evidence that low
consumption of these foods is associated
with obesity .
"What fruits and vegetables
do you currently have in your
home?"
eat vegetables at lunch or
dinner?"
"At which meals or snacks
does your child eat fruit?"
Breakfast Skipping breakfast associated with
increasing obesity in children despite
perceived decrease in daily caloric
intake , and has adverse effects on
school performance .
"When is the first time your
child typically has something
to eat or drink after waking
up?"
"Does your child eat
breakfast at home or at
[1-6]
[7,8]
[9-11]
[12]
[13-15]
[15]
[16-18]
[19-23]
[24-26]
school?"
skip breakfast?"
Meal
frequency
and
snacking
Snacking tends to result in increased
energy intake and poorer diet quality; a
direct association between snacking and
obesity in children has not been
established.
"When does your child eat
meals and snacks at home?"
"Where does your child eat
their snacks?"
"How long after a meal does
your child eat a snack?"
"How many snacks does
your child eat on the
weekends?"
References:
1. Whitlock EP, O'Connor EA, Williams SB, Beil TL, Lutz KW. Effectiveness of Weight Management
Interventions in Children: A Targeted Systematic Review for the USPSTF. Pediatrics 2010.
2. Paeratakul S, Ferdinand DP, Champagne CM, Ryan DH, Bray GA. Fast-food consumption
among US adults and children: dietary and nutrient intake profile. J Am Diet Assoc 2003;
103:1332-8.
3. Diliberti N, Bordi PL, Conklin MT, Roe LS, Rolls BJ. Increased portion size leads to increased
energy intake in a restaurant meal. Obes Res 2004; 12:562-8.
4. Bowman SA, Gortmaker SL, Ebbeling CB, Pereira MA, Ludwig DS. Effects of fast-food
consumption on energy intake and diet quality among children in a national household
survey. Pediatrics 2004; 113:112-8.
5. French SA, Story M, Neumark-Sztainer D, Fulkerson JA, Hannan P. Fast food restaurant use
among adolescents: associations with nutrient intake, food choices and behavioral and
psychosocial variables. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25:1823-33.
6. Nielsen SJ, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM. Trends in food locations and sources among adolescents
and young adults. Prev Med 2002; 35:107-13.
7. Schmidt M, Affenito SG, Striegel-Moore R, Khoury PR, Barton B, Crawford P, Kronsberg S,
Schreiber G, Obarzanek E, Daniels S. Fast-food intake and diet quality in black and white girls:
the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc
Med 2005; 159:626-31.
8. Thompson OM, Ballew C, Resnicow K, Must A, Bandini LG, Cyr H, Dietz WH. Food purchased
away from home as a predictor of change in BMI z-score among girls. Int J Obes Relat Metab
Disord 2004; 28:282-9.
9. Pereira MA, Kartashov AI, Ebbeling CB, Van Horn L, Slattery ML, Jacobs DR Jr, Ludwig DS.
Fast-food habits, weight gain, and insulin resistance (the CARDIA study): 15-year prospective
analysis. Lancet 2005; 365:36-42.
10. Ludwig DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened
drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 2001; 357:505-8.
11. Harnack L, Stang J, Story M. Soft drink consumption among US children and adolescents:
nutritional consequences. J Am Diet Assoc 1999; 99:436-41.
12. Tordoff MG, Alleva AM. Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame or high-fructose corn
syrup on food intake and body weight. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 51:963-9.
13. Lewis CJ, Park YK, Dexter PB, Yetley EA. Nutrient intakes and body weights of persons
consuming high and moderate levels of added sugars. J Am Diet Assoc 1992; 92:708-13.
Rolls BJ, Engell D, Birch LL. Serving portion size influences 5-year-old but not 3-year-old
children's food intakes. J Am Diet Assoc 2000; 100:232-4.
14. Krebs NF, Himes JH, Jacobson D, Nicklas TA, Guilday P, Styne D. Assessment of child and
adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 2007; 120 Suppl 4:S193-228.
15. Orlet Fisher J, Rolls BJ, Birch LL. Children's bite size and intake of an entree are greater with
large portions than with age-appropriate or self-selected portions. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;
77:1164-70.
16. McCrory MA, Fuss PJ, Hays NP, Vinken AG, Greenberg AS, Roberts SB. Overeating in America:
association between restaurant food consumption and body fatness in healthy adult men and
women ages 19 to 80. Obes Res 1999; 7:564-71.
17. Bazzano LA, He J, Ogden LG, Loria CM, Vupputuri S, Myers L, Whelton PK. Fruit and vegetable
intake and risk of cardiovascular disease in US adults: the first National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76:93-9.
18. Maskarinec G, Novotny R, Tasaki K. Dietary patterns are associated with body mass index in
multiethnic women. J Nutr 2000; 130:3068-72.
19. Wolfe WS, Campbell CC, Frongillo EA Jr, Haas JD, Melnik TA. Overweight schoolchildren in New
York State: prevalence and characteristics. Am J Public Health 1994; 84:807-13.
20. Gibson SA, O'Sullivan KR. Breakfast cereal consumption patterns and nutrient intakes of
British schoolchildren. J R Soc Health 1995; 115:366-70.
21. Ortega RM, Requejo AM, Lopez-Sobaler AM, Quintas ME, Andres P, Redondo MR, Navia B,
Lopez-Bonilla MD, Rivas T. Difference in the breakfast habits of overweight/obese and normal
weight schoolchildren. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1998; 68:125-32.
22. Pastore DR, Fisher M, Friedman SB. Abnormalities in weight status, eating attitudes, and
eating behaviors among urban high school students: correlations with self-esteem and
anxiety. J Adolesc Health 1996; 18:312-9.
23. Summerbell CD, Moody RC, Shanks J, Stock MJ, Geissler C. Relationship between feeding
pattern and body mass index in 220 free-living people in four age groups. Eur J Clin Nutr
1996; 50:513-9.
24. Wyatt HR, Grunwald GK, Mosca CL, Klem ML, Wing RR, Hill JO. Long-term weight loss and
breakfast in subjects in the National Weight Control Registry. Obes Res 2002; 10:78-82.
25. Murphy JM, Pagano ME, Nachmani J, Sperling P, Kane S, Kleinman RE. The relationship of
school breakfast to psychosocial and academic functioning: cross-sectional and longitudinal
observations in an inner-city school sample. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1998; 152:899-907.
26. Ross MM, Kolbash S, Cohen GM, Skelton JA. Multidisciplinary treatment of pediatric obesity:
nutrition evaluation and management. Nutr Clin Pract 2010; 25:327-34.
Data from:
Krebs NF, et al. Pediatrics 2007; 120:S193.
Ross MM, et al. Nutr Clin Pract 2010; 25:327.
Assessment of physical activity in children
Sedentary behaviors
Hours spent watching television, including videos or movies
Hours spent playing video games (hand-held, internet or on-line, or television/video-
based)
Hours spent on computer or in internet-based activities, aside from school work
Hours spent talking on telephone or texting
Hours spent doing productive sedentary behaviors, such as homework, reading, and
computer-based learning
Physical activity behaviors
Type, frequency, duration, and intensity of structured physical activity (organized physical
activity, such as sports)
Time spent in unstructured play (eg, outside play, and routine activity such as walking to
school)
Example of questions to ask for a brief semi-quantitative assessment of physical activity in
children. Evaluating activity in each of these areas provides an estimate of the child's
overall activity level, and helps identify areas for potential improvement.
Based on recommendations in: Krebs NF, Himes JH, Jacobson D, Nicklas TA, Guilday P, Styne D.
Assessment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 2007; 120 Suppl 4:S193-
228.
Tips for dietary counseling in children
Challenge Possible solutions
Family has little or no structure
to dietary patterns (few family
meals, meals are not eaten at
the table, television on during
meals, etc...)
Encourage family to eat meals together.
Emphasize scheduling of meals and snacks.
Avoid skipping meals.
Limit meal-time distractions (eg, television).
Child is motivated by sports
and activity, but has little
interest in making dietary
changes
Emphasize physical activity as primary goal; frame
dietary recommendations as tools to be stronger and
improve athletic performance.
Discuss energy in versus energy out; emphasize the
importance of achieving proper balance between
nutrition and activity.
Family frequently eats meals
away from home
Identify barriers that prevent families from eating at
home more often.
Provide meal-planning resources, initially using recipes
that are familiar to them; begin the process of cooking
more at home using these recipes.
Assess the type of restaurant, usual selections, and
discuss alternatives.
Large portion sizes Emphasize structured (pre-planned and timed) meals
and snacks.
Provide tools and education to help child learn to pay
attention to bodily cues for hunger and fullness.
Fast eating pace Emphasize that eating slowly is important in recognizing
fullness.
Provide family with strategies to slow down eating pace.
Discuss "mindful eating" and encourage all family
members to practice slow, mindful eating.
Poor dietary quality (lack of
fruits/vegetables and whole
grains, consumption of whole
milk, etc...)
Provide education about food groups, discussing the
importance of each food group as part of the daily diet.
One approach is to discuss the concept of a "balanced
plate," focusing on supplying ample vegetables, fruits
and fiber (approximately 1/4 plate each for vegetables,
grains, fruits, and protein). Guidance available at
www.choosemyplate.gov.
Lacks nutritional knowledge
(no label reading, does not
make shopping list, etc...)
Assess family's level of nutritional knowledge, and start
by helping them set small goals, such as balancing their
plates or providing a variety of foods.
When the family is ready, increase goals gradually by
discussing which foods should be eaten most often,
which foods should be eaten sparingly, and teaching the
family how to read food labels.
Excessive refined grains (white
bread) and simple
Emphasize the importance of including fiber in the diet
as a means of decreasing hunger and feeling full after
carbohydrates (sugars) eating.
Explain that whole grains are digested and absorbed at
a slower rate than refined gains and sugars, resulting in
a more stable blood sugar which reduces hunger and is
healthier.
High-fat dairy intake Compare nutritional information in high fat dairy
products to low fat dairy products.
Discuss types of fat: which fats are healthier, and which
fats should be avoided (ie, trans fats and saturated
fats).
Skipping meals Emphasize the importance of eating three regularly-
scheduled meals a day to have a healthy weight and
metabolism.
Explain that meal-skipping can lead to increased hunger
and excessive eating later.
Start by establishing a small goal to eat just one food
group at the time that they would usually skip a meal.
Increase goal gradually by introducing other food groups
as the child is ready; encouraging them to achieve a
balanced meal.
Excessive snacking Set a snack schedule between meals to encourage less
grazing.
Outline several choices for healthy snacks.
Emphasize the importance of eating a single portion of
food from two different food groups to encourage
fullness until the next meal.
High intake of sugar-
sweetened beverages
Discuss empty calories from sugar-containing beverages
(which include 100 percent fruit juice).
Estimate the number of calories that the child is
currently taking from beverages.
Suggest low-sugar alternatives for family to try.
Low fruit and vegetable intake Provide education regarding serving sizes of vegetables
and fruits.
Discuss the importance of fiber from vegetables and
fruits.
Have the family try new vegetables and fruits to
increase variety.
Provide quick and easy recipes or products.
Picky eating Introduce child to new foods gradually.
Provide the same foods for each family member; no
"special orders."
Eat meals and snacks together as a family.
Structure meals and snacks.
Encourage, but do not pressure child to eat a specific
food. Continue to offer the same food on multiple
occasions.
Di scl osures: Joseph A Skelton, MD, MS Nothing to disclose. William J Klish, MD Nothing to disclose. Martin I Lorin, MD
Nothing to disclose. Kathleen J Motil, MD, PhD Consultant/Advisory Boards: NPS Pharmaceuticals [Short gut syndrome
(Teduglutide)]. Alison G Hoppin, MD Employee of UpToDate, Inc.
Contributor disclosures are reviewed f or conf licts of interest by the editorial group. When f ound, these are addressed by vetting
through a multi-level review process, and through requirements f or ref erences to be provided to support the content. Appropriately
ref erenced content is required of all authors and must conf orm to UpToDate standards of evidence.
Conflict of interest policy
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Management of Childhood Obesity in The Primary Care Setting

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16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

Frequency of eating meals in restaurants (fast food, take-out, or service)

Number of meals each day, and frequency of skipping meals

Frequency of family meals and who is present at meals

Whether television or other media is used during meals

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

No television set in childs bedroom

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

Limiting consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, including juice

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

16/8/2014 Management of childhood obesity in the primary care setting

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