Compressible Flow Usyd - Edu

8/27/2014 Compressible Flow
http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/gasdyn/node1.html 1/61

Compressible FLow
We know that fluids are classified as Incompressible and Compressible fluids. Incompressible fluids
do not undergo significant changes in density as they flow. In general, liquids are
incompressible;water being an excellent example. In contrast compressible fluids do undergo
density changes. Gases are generally compressible;air being the most common compressible fluid
we can find. Compressibility of gases leads to many interesting features such as shocks, which are
absent for incompressible fluids. Gasdynamics is the discipline that studies the flow of compressible
fluids and forms an important branch of Fluid Mechanics. In this book we give a broad introduction
to the basics of compressible fluid flow.
Figure 1.1: Classification of Fluids
Though gases are compressible, the density changes they undergo at low speeds may not be
considerable. Take air for instance. Fig. 1.2 shows the density changes plotted as a function of
Mach Number. Density change is represented as where is the air density at zero speed
(i.e., Zero Mach Number).
Figure 1.2: Density change as a function of Mach Number
We observe that for Mach numbers up to 0.3, density changes are within about 5% of . So for
all practical purposes one can ignore density changes in this region. But as the Mach Number
increases beyond 0.3, changes do become appreciable and at a Mach Number of 1, it is 36.5% . it
is interesting to note that at a Mach Number of 2, the density changes are as high as 77%. It
follows that air flow can be considered incompressible for Mach Numbers below 0.3.
Another important difference between incompressible and compressible flows is due to temperature
changes. For an incompressible flow temperature is generally constant. But in a compressible flow
one will see a significant change in temperature and an exchange between the modes of energy.
Consider a flow at a Mach Number of 2. It has two important modes of energy-Kinetic and Internal.
At this Mach Number, these are of magnitudes 2.3 x 10
5
Joules and 2 x 10
5
Joules. You will
recognise that these are of the same order of magnitude. This is in sharp contrast to
incompressible flows where only the kinetic energy is important. In addition when the Mach 2 flow
is brought to rest as happens at a stagnation point, all the kinetic energy gets converted into
internal energy according to the principle of conservation of energy. Consequently the temperature
increases at the stagnation point. When the flow Mach number is 2 at a temperature of 20
0
C, the
stagnation temperature is as high as 260
0
C as indicated in Fig. 1.3.
Figure 1.3: stagnation Temperature.
A direct consequence of these facts is that while calculating compressible flows energy equation
has to be considered (not done for incompressible flows). Further, to handle the exchange in modes
of energy one has to understand the thermodynamics of the flow. Accordingly we begin with a
review of the concepts in thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a vast subject. Many great books have been written describing the concepts in
it and their application. It is not the intention here to give a detailed treatise than it is to review
the basic concepts which hep us understand gasdynamics. Reader is referred to exclusive books on
thermodynamics for details.
System, Surroundings and Control Volume
Concepts in Thermodynamics are developed
with the help of systems and control
volumes. We define a System as an entity
of fixed mass and concentrate on what
happens to this fixed mass. Its boundary is
not fixed and is allowed to vary depending
upon the changes taking place within it.
Consider the system sketched, namely
water in a container placed on a heater. We
are allowed to chose the system as is
convenient to us. We could have system as
defined in (a) or (b) or (c) as in Fig. 1.4.
Everything outside of a system becomes
the Surroundings.
Properties of the system are usually
measured by noting the changes it makes in
the surrounding. For example, temperature
of water in system (a) is measured by a the
raise of the mercury column in a
thermometer which is not a part of the
system.
Sometimes the system and the surroundings
are together called the Universe.
Figure 1.4: Definition of a System
Control Volume should now be familiar to you. Most of Integral Approach to Fluid Dynamics exploits
control volumes, which can be defined as a window in a flow with a fixed boundary. Mass,
momentum and energy can cross its boundary.
Density, pressure, temperature, etc become properties of a given system. Note that these are all
measurable quantities. In addition, these properties also a characterise a system. To define the
state of a system (Fig. 1.5) uniquely we need to specify two properties say (p,T), (p, ), (T,s)
etc., where p, T, , s are pressure, temperature, density and specific entropy respectively.
Figure 1.5: State of a System
Properties can be Extensive or Intensive. Extensive properties depend on the mass of the system.
On the other hand, Intensive properties are independent of the mass. Volume , , Energy, E,
Entropy, S, Enthalpy, H are Extensive properties. Corresponding intensive properties are Specific
Volume, v, Specific Energy, e, Specific Entropy, s, and Specific Enthalpy, h, and are obtained by
considering extensive properties per unit mass. In other words,
(1.1)
Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics centers around a few laws. We will consider them briefly so that the concepts in
gasdynamics can be easily developed.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
This laws helps define Temperature. It states - "Two systems which are in thermal equilibrium with
a third system are themselves in thermal equilibrium."
Figure 1.6: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
When in thermal equilibrium, we say that the two systems are at the same temperature. In the
figure 1.6, system A and Bare independently in equilibrium with system C. It follows that Aand B are
themselves in thermal equilibrium and they are at the same temperature.
First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of Thermodynamics is a statement of the principle of conservation of energy. It is
simply stated as "Energy of a system and surroundings is conserved." Consider a system S. If one
adds dq amount of heat per unit mass into the system and the work done by the system is dw per
unit mass we have the change in internal energy of the system, du given by,
du = dq - dw (1.2)
where u is Internal Energy. Bringing in Specific Enthalpy defined as
(1.3)
the statement for the first law can also be written as
dh = dq + v.dp (1.4)
While writing Eqn.1.4 we have included only one form of energy, namely, internal. Other forms such
as the kinetic energy have been ignored. Of course, it is possible to account for all the forms of
energy.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics has been a subject of extensive debate and explanation. Its realm
ranges from physics, chemistry to biology, life and even philosophy. There are numerous websites
and books which discuss these topics. They form an exciting reading in their own right. Our
application however is restricted to gasdynamics.
The first law is just a statement that energy is conserved during a process. (The term Process
stands for the mechanism which changes the state of a system). It does not "worry" about the
direction of the process whereas the second law does. It determines the direction of a process. In
addition it involves another property - Entropy.
Figure 1.7: Second Law of Thermodynamics
There are numerous statements of the Second Law. Consider a Reversible Process. Suppose a
system at state A undergoes changes, say by an addition of heat Q, and attains state B. While
doing so the surroundings change from A' to B'. Let us try to bring the state of the system back to
A by removing an amount of heat equal to Q. In doing so if we can bring the surroundings also back
to state A' then the process is said to be reversible. This is possible only under ideal conditions. In
any real process there is friction which dissipates heat. Consequently it is not possible to bring the
system back to state A and at the same time, surroundings back to A'.
Assuming the process to be reversible the second law defines entropy such that
(1.5)
where s is Specific Entropy. For small changes, the above equation is written as
(1.6)
Generalising the equation 1.6, we have
(1.7)
where an '=' sign is used for reversible processes and > is used for ireversibe processes.
Thus with any natural process, entropy of the system and universe increases. In the event the
process is reversible entropy remains constant. Such a process is called an Isentropic process.
Perfect Gas Law
It is well known that a perfect gas obeys
(1.8)
where R is the Gas constant. For any given gas R is given by
(1.9)
where is known as the Universal Gas Constant with the same value for all gases. Its numerical
value is 8313.5 J/kg-mol K. M is the molecular weight of the gas. The following table gives the
value of the gas constant (along with other important constants) for some of the gases.
Gas Molecular Weight Gas Constant, R c
p
J/kg K J/kg K c
p
/c
v
Air 28.97 287.0 1004 1.4
Ammonia 17.03 488.2 2092 1.3
Argon 39.94 2081 519 1.67
Carbon dioxide 44 188.9 845 1.3
Helium 4.003 2077 5200 1.67
Hydrogen 2.016 4124 14350 1.4
Oxygen 32 259.8 916 1.4
Consequences of First Law for a Perfect Gas
For a perfect gas internal energy and enthalpy are functions of temperature alone. Hence,
u = u(T)
h = h(T) (1.10)
Specific Heat of a gas depends upon how heat is added - at constant pressure or at constant
volume. We have two specific heats, c
p
, specific heat at constant pressure and c
v
, specific heat
at constant volume. It can be shown that,
(1.11)
Then introducing it follows that

(1.12)
A Calorically Perfect Gas is one for which c
p
and c
v
are constants. Accordingly,
(1.13)
Consequences of Second Law for a Perfect Gas
We have shown in Eqn. 1.4 in First Law of Thermodynamics

Now
assuming a
perfect
gas and a
reversible
process
we have

Integrating
between
states 1
and 2, we
can show
that,

(1.14)
If we assume that the process is isentropic that is adiabatic(implying no heat transfer) and
reversible we can show that the above equation leads to
(1.15)
A familiar form of equation for an isentropic flow is
(1.16)
Equations of Motion for a Compressible Flow
We now write the equations of motion for a compressible flow. Recall that for an incompressible
flow one calculates velocity from continuity and other considerations. Pressure is obtained through
the Bernoulli Equation. Such a simple approach is not possible for a compressible flow where
temperature is not a constant. One needs to solve the energy equation in addition to the
continuity and momentum equations. The latter equations have already been derived for
incompressible flows. Of course, one has to account for the changes in density. We focuss here on
the energy equation and briefly outline the other two. We restrict ourselves to an Integral
Approach and write the equations for a control volume.
Equations are derived under the following assumptions.
Flow is one-dimensional.
Viscosity and Heat Transfer are neglected.
Behaviour of flow as a consequence of area changes only considered.
The flow is steady.
We consider a one-dimensional control volume as shown.
Figure 1.8: Control Volume for a Compressible Flow
Continuity Equation
For a steady flow it is obvious that the mass flow rates at entry (1) and exit (2) of the control
volume must be equal. Hence,
(1.17)
Written in a differential form the above equation becomes,

(1.18)
At this stage, it is usual to consider some applications of the above equation. But we note that this
equation has always to be solved with momentum and energy equations while calculating any flow.
Accordingly, we skip any worked example at this stage.
Momentum Equation
The derivation of Momentum Equation closely follows that for incompressible flows. Basically, it
equates net force on the control volume to the rate of change of momentum. Defining p
m
as the
average pressure between the entry (1) and exit (2),(see Fig. 1.8), we have for a steady flow,
(1.19)
For a steady flow through a duct of constant area the momentum equation assumes a simple form,
(1.20)
It is to be noted that the above equations can be applied even for the cases where frictional and
viscous effects prevail between (1) and (2). But it is necessary that these effects be absent at (1)
and (2).
Energy Equation
From the first law of Thermodynamics it follows that, for a unit mass,
q + work done = increase in energy (1.21)
where q is the heat added. Work done is given by
p
1
v
1
- p
2
v
2
(1.22)
We consider only internal and kinetic energies. Accordingly, we have,
Change of energy =
(1.23)
Substituting Eqns. 1.22 and 1.23 into Eqn. 1.21 we have as the energy equation for a gas flow as,
(1.24)
Noting that enthalpy, h = e + p.v, we have
Considering an adiabatic process, q = 0, we have,
(1.25)
This equation demands that the states (1) and (2) be in equilibrium, but does allow non-equilibrium
conditions between (1) and (2).
If the flow is such that equilibrium exists all along the path from (1) to (2) then we have, at any
location along 1-2,
= constant
(1.26)
Differentiating the above equation, we have,
(1.27)
For a thermally perfect gas i.e., enthalpy, h depends only on temperature, T (h =c
p
T) the above
equation becomes,
(1.28)
Further, for a calorically perfect gas, i.e., c
p
is constant, we have,
(1.29)
Stagnation Conditions
What should be the "constant" on the RHS of Eqn. 1.29 equal to? We have left it as an open
question. It appears that stagnation conditions and sonic conditions are good candidates to
provide the required constant. We now discuss the consequences of each of these choices.
Constant from Stagnation Conditions
Stagnation conditions are reached when the flow is brought to rest,i.e., u = 0. Temperature,
pressure, density, entropy and enthalpy become equal to "Stagnation Temperature" , T
0
,
"Stagnation Pressure", p
0
, "Stagnation Density", , "Stagnation Entropy", s
0
and "Stagnation
Enthalpy, s
0
. These are also known as "Total" conditions. This is in contrast to incompressible flows
where we have only the Stagnation Pressure.
Rewrite Eqn.1.26 as,
(1.30)
Recalling that h = c
p
T for a calorically perfect gas, we have,
(1.31)
The constant we have arrived at is h
0
or c
p
T
0
.
It is to be noted that there does not have to be a stagnation point in a flow in order to use the
above equations. Stagnation or Total conditions are only reference conditions. Further, it is
apparent that there can be only one stagnation condition for a given flow. Such a statement is to
be qualified and is true only for isentropic flows. In a non-isentropic flow every point can have its
own stagnation conditions, meaning if the flow is brought to rest locally at every point, one can
have a series of stagnation points.
In an adiabatic flow (a flow where heat is not added or taken away) the stagnation or total
temperature,T
0
does not change. This is true even in presence of a shock as we will see later. But
the total pressure p
0
can change from point to point. Consider again the control volume shown in
Fig. 1.8 . As long as the flow is adiabatic, we have,
(1.32)
To deduce the conditions for total (stagnation) pressure we consider the Second Law of
Thermodynamics,
(1.33)
For a perfect gas the above equation becomes,
(1.34)
Since , we have,
(1.35)
"Equals" sign applies when the flow is isentropic and "Greater Than " sign applies for any non-
isentropic flow. Thus for any natural process involving dissipation total pressure drops. It is
preserved for an isentropic flow. A very good example of a non-isentropic flow is that of a shock.
Across a shock there is a reduction of total pressure.
Area-Velocity Relation
We are all used to the trends of an incompressible flow where velocity changes inversely with area
changes - as the area offered to the flow increases, velocity decreases and vice versa. This seems
to be the "commonsense". But a compressible flow at supersonic speeds does beat this
commonsense. Let us see how.
Consider the Continuity Equation, Eqn.1.18 , which reads,

Consider also the Euler Equation (derived before for incompressible flows)

Rewriting the equation,
(1.36)
Where we have brought in speed of sound, which is given by . Further
introducing Mach Number, M the above equation becomes,
(1.37)
Upon substituting this in the continuity equation, 1.18 we have
(1.38)
Figure 1.9: Response of Subsonic and Supersonic Flows to Area Changes
Studying Eqn.1.38 and Fig.1.9 one can observe the following,
For incompressible flows, M = 0. As the area of cross section for a flow decreases velocity
increases and vice versa.
For subsonic flows, M<1 , the behaviour resembles that for incompressible flows.
For supersonic flows,M > 1 , as the area decreases velocity also decreases, and as the area
increases, velocity also increases. We can explain this behaviour like this. In response to an
area change all the static properties change. At subsonic speeds changes in density are
smaller. The velocity decreases when there is an increased area offered (and vice versa). But
in case of a supersonic flow with increasing area density decreases at a faster rate than
velocity. In order to preserve continuity velocity now increases (and decreases when area is
reduced). vice versa).
Not apparent from the above equation is another important property. If the geometry of the
flow involves a throat, then mathematically it can shown that if a sonic point occurs in the
flow, it occurs only at the Throat. But the converse - The flow is always sonic at throat , is
not true.
Isentropic Relations
For an isentropic flow all the static properties such as and s when expressed as a ration of
their stagnation values become functions of Mach Number, M and alone. This can be shown as
below. Recall the energy equation,
(1.39)
Eliminating T using the equation for speed of sound (still not proved), , we have
(1.40)
where a
0
is the stagnation speed of sound. The above equation simplifies to
(1.41)
Multiplying throughout by yields,
(1.42)
Thus we have a relationship which connects temperature ratio with Mach Number. Assuming
isentropy and using the relation, (see Eqn.1.16, we can derive expressions for pressure
and density as,
(1.43)
(1.44)
The relations just developed prove very useful in calculating isentropic flows. Once Mach Number is
known it is easy now to calculate pressure, density and temperature as ratios of their stagnation
values. These are tabulated as functions of Mach number in tables in the Appendix. There are also
calculation scripts found in the Appendix for compressible flow and the aerodynamics calculator at
http://www.aoe.vt.edu/aoe3114/calc.html is very useful in this regard.
Sonic Point as Reference
The preceding relations were arrived at with stagnation point as the reference. As stated before, it
is also possible to choose sonic point, the position where M = 1 as the reference. At this point let u
= u
*
and a = a
*
. Since M = 1 , we have u
*
= a
*
. As a consequence the energy equation, 1.40
Isentropic Relations) , becomes,
(1.45)
Comparing with the energy equation, Eqn. 1.40 we obtain,
(1.46)
As a result for air with we have

(1.47)
It may be pointed out a sonic point need not be present in the flow for the above equations to be
applicable.
Mass Flow Rate
Now derive an equation for mass flow rate in terms of Mach Number of flow. Denote the area in an
isentropic flow where the Mach Number becomes 1, as A
*
. We have for mass flow rate,

For an isentropic flow

It follows by noting that

Substituting for terms such as etc and simplifying one obtains,
(1.48)
This is a very useful relation in Gasdynamics, connecting the local area and local Mach Number.
Tables in Appendix also list this function, i.e., A/A
*
as a function of Mach Number. It helps one to
determine changes in Mach Number as area changes.
Figure 1.10: Mach Number as a function of area.
Figure 1.10 shows the area function A/A
*
plotted as a function of Mach Number. We again see
what was found under "Area Velocity" rule before. The difference is that now we have a
relationship between area and Mach Number. For subsonic flows Mach Number increases as the
area decreases and it decreases as the area increases. While with supersonic flows, Mach Number
decreases as area decreases and it increases as area increases.
Equations of Motion in absence of Area Changes
We can now gather the equations that we have derived for mass, momentum and energy. If we
ignore any area change, these become,

(1.49)
Wave Propagation
Waves carry information in a flow. These waves travel at the local speed of sound. This brings a
sharp contrast between incompressible and compressible flows. For an incompressible fluid the
speed of sound is infinite (Mach number is zero). Consequently, information in the form of pressure,
density and velocity changes is conveyed to all parts of the flow instantaneously. The flow too
therefore changes instantaneously. Take any incompressible flow and study its flow pattern. You
will notice that the stream lines are continuous and the flow changes smoothly to accommodate
the presence of a body placed in the flow. It seems to change far upstream of the body. This may
not happen in compressible flows. The reason is that in compressible medium any disturbance
travels only at finite speeds. Signals generate at a point in the flow take a finite time to reach
other parts of the flow ( See annimation given below). The smooth streamline pattern noticed for
incompressible flow may now be absent. In fact this stems from the compressibility effects which
make a compressible flow far more interesting than an incompressible flow. In this section we derive
an expression for the speed of sound. Then we study the difference in the way a supersonic flow
responds to the presence of an obstacle in comparison to a subsonic flow. We then find out how
shocks are formed in compressible flows.
Press RED to start.
Speed of Sound
We first derive an expression for the speed of sound. Consider a sound wave propagating to the
right as shown (Fig.2.1) with a speed a. The medium to the right is at rest and has pressure,
density and temperature respectively. As a consequence of wave motion the medium gets
compressed and the gas is set to motion. Let the speed of gas behind the wave be du. Pressure,
Density and temperature will now be respectively.
Figure 2.1: Speed of Sound
For analysis it is better to make the wave stationary. Accordingly we superpose an equal and
opposite speed a (equal to the wave speed) everywhere in the flow. This is shown in part (b) of
Fig. 2.1.
Applying the equations of mass and momentum to the control volume indicated we have,

(2.1)
Simplifying the continuity equation and ignoring the products such as ,we have
(2.2)
Replacing the term in the momentum equation, we have

which simplifies to
(2.3)
Combining Eqns. 2.2 and 2.3, one gets,

(2.4)
If we now consider the propagation of sound wave to be isentropic the above equation becomes,
(2.5)
For a perfect gas the above expression reduces to,
(2.6)
As stated before any change in flow conditions is transmitted to other parts of the flow by means
of waves travelling at the local speed of sound. The ratio of flow speed to the speed of sound ,
called Mach Number, is a very important parameter for a given flow. Writing it out as an equation,
we have,
(2.7)
Mach Number also indicates the relative importance of compressibility effects for a given flow.
Propagation of a Source of Sound
Let us now consider a point source of sound and the changes that occur when it moves at
different speeds.
Stationary Source
First consider a stationary source. This source emits a sound wave at every second, say. The
waves travels in the form of a circle with its centre at the location of the source as shown in Fig.
2.2. After 3 seconds we will see three concentric circles as shown. The effect of the sound source
is felt within the largest circle.
Source moving at Subsonic Speeds
Let the source move to the left at half the speed of sound, i.e.,M = 0.5. The source occupies
various position shown. Sound produced reaches out as far as a distance of 3a being the distance
travelled by the sound emitted at t = 0 . In this case as well as the one above, sound travels
faster than the particle, which is in some sense "left behind".
Figure 2.2: Propagation of a Source of Sound at different speeds
Source moving at the Speed of Sound
Now consider the situation where the source moves at the speed of sound, i.e.,a. This is sketched
in the same figure (Fig. 2.2). Now sound travels with the particle speed and it does not "outrun" it.
Consequently, the circles representing wave motion touch each other as shown. One can draw a
line which is tangential to each of these circles. Any effect of the sound wave is felt only to the
right of this line. In the region to the left of the line one does not see any effect of the source.
These regions are designated "Zone of Action" and "Zone of Silence" respectively.
Source moving at Supersonic Speeds
The situation becomes dramatic when the source moves at speeds greater than that of sound.
Now the boundary between the Zone of Silence and the Zone of Action is not a single straight line,
but it two lines meeting at the present position of the source. In addition, the Zone of Action is
now a more restricted region. An observer watching the flight of the source does not hear any
sound till he is within the Zone of Action. This is a common experience when one watches a
supersonic aircraft fly past. The observer on ground first sees the aircraft but hears nothing. He
has to wait till the aircraft flies past him and "immerses" him in the Zone of Action. But in case of a
subsonic aircraft, the observer always hears the sound. These are again illustrated in Fig. 2.2.
The boundary between the two zones is called a Mach Wave and is a straight line when the source
moves at the speed of sound and is a wedge when it moves at supersonic speeds. The half angle
of the wedge is called the Mach Angle, .
(2.8)
Mach Angle is a function of the Mach Number of the flow and is in this sense a property of the
flow. It is an important one for supersonic flows and is listed in Tables in the Appendix.
The animation shows the effect of propagation of the source of sound at
different speeds.
Response of Subsonic and Supersonic Flows to an Obstacle
We now consider an obstacle placed in subsonic and supersonic flows and study its effect upon the
flow.
Figure 2.3: A Body placed in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows
Subsonic Flow
Consider a body placed in a subsonic stream. As the flow interacts with the body several
disturbances are created. These propagate at the speed of sound. The question is whether these
disturbances can propagate upstream. The answer is a "YES". Since the incoming flow is slower
than sound, these disturbances can propagate upstream. As they propagate upstream, they modify
the incoming flow. Consequently the flow adjusts itself to the presence of the body sufficiently
upstream and flows past the body smoothly. This is also what happens with incompressible flows
where the speed of sound is infinite.
Supersonic Flow
With a supersonic flow too disturbances are formed as a result of flow interacting with the body.
But now they cannot propagate upstream because the incoming flow is faster. Any signal that tries
to go upstream is pushed back towards the body. These signals, unable to go upstream, are piled
up closed to the body (Fig. 2.3). The incoming flow is therefore not "warned" of the presence of
the body. It flows as if the body is absent and encounters the region where the disturbances are
piled up. Then it suddenly modifies itself to accommodate the presence of the body. This marks a
sharp difference between subsonic and supersonic flows.
The example indicates that in a supersonic flow disturbances cannot propagate upstream. This
technically stated as "In a Supersonic flow there is no upstream influence". Further the region
where the disturbances have "piled up" is a Shock Wave. These are regions of infinitesimally small
thickness across which flow properties such as pressure, density and temperature can jump, orders
of magnitude, sometimes depending upon the Mach Number of the flow.
Shock Waves
We had a small introduction to the formation of a Shock Wave in the previous section. Now we
consider shock waves in detail, their formation and the equations that connect properties across a
shock. We restrict ourselves to one-dimensional flow now. But in a later chapter we do consider
two-dimensional flows.
Formation of a Shock Wave
Consider a piston-cylinder arrangement as shown in Fig.2.4. We have a gas at rest in front of the
piston with pressure, density and temperature given by and . Let the piston be given a jerk
at time, t = 0. The jerk disturbs the flow. A weak wave is emitted (a in the figure). The wave
moves to right at a speed a , i.e., the speed of sound. The wave as it propagates sets the gas into
motion. Accordingly behind it we will have a medium which is slightly compressed. Its properties are
given by and . Now let the piston be given second jerk (b in the
figure). One more is generated. Its speed, however is not a , but is a + da
1
. This waves has a
higher speed because it is generated in a medium of higher temperature. We have the second wave
chasing the other with a higher speed. Will the second wave overtake the first one? No, what
happens is that the second wave merges with the first one and becomes a stronger wave. The
pressure jump across the stronger wave is not dp
1
but is dp
1
+dp
2
. This phenomenon where the
waves merge is called Coalescence.
Figure 2.4: Formation of a Shock Wave
Now imagine the situation where the piston is a series of jerks (a,b,c and d in Fig.2.4 ) or the
piston is pushed continuously. We will have a train of waves where each wave is stronger and
faster than the one before. Very soon we sill see these waves coalesce into a strong wave with
pressure and temperature jumping across it. This is a Shock Wave.
Waves in piston-cylinder arrangement
Shock Formation - Animation
Normal Shock Waves
We have seen the formation of shock waves in two different situations- (1) when a supersonic
flow negotiates an obstacle and (2) When a piston is pushed inside a cylinder. Now we analyse a
shock and see how flow properties change across it. For this we choose shocks which are
stationary and normal to flow and called Normal Shock Waves. As stated before, these are very
thin surfaces across which properties can jump by big magnitudes. A normal shock in a flow with a
Mach number of 3 will have a pressure which jumps 10.333 times across it. This jump occurs in a
distance of about 10
-6
cm. The shock thickness is so small that for all practical purposes it is a
discontinuity. Of course, in reality a shock is not a discontinuity; many interesting processes of
heat transfer and dissipation do take place in this narrow thickness. But in practice, one is
interested only in the changes in flow properties that occur across a shock wave. It is for these
changes that we derive expressions here.
Figure 2.5: Shock Wave

Consider a shock wave as shown across which pressure, density, temperature, velocity,... jump
from to . Let us put a control volume around it. For no
change in area the governing equations are

(2.9)

(2.10)

(2.11)
Noting that the term in the momentum equation is
(2.12)
The momentum equation now becomes,
(2.13)
Energy equation written above is a statement of the fact that total enthalpy,
is constant across the shock. Accordingly, we have
h
01
= h
02

which for a perfect gas becomes,
T
01
= T
02
(2.14)
Substituting from Eqn.1.42, we have
(2.15)
We have just derived expressions for temperature (Eqn.2.15) and pressure (Eqn.2.13) ratios.
Density relation follows from the perfect gas equation,
(2.16)
Substituting for as , the continuity equation becomes,
(2.17)
Substituting for pressure ratio from Eqn.2.13, we have,
(2.18)
Substituting for temperature ratio from Eqn.2.15, we have
(2.19)
This is the equation which connects Mach Numbers across a normal shock. We see that Mach
number downstream of the shock, is a function of Mach Number upstream of the shock,
and . Equation 2.19 has two solutions given by,
(2.20)
(2.21)
We rule out the imaginary solutions for Eqns.2.20 and 2.21. One of the possible solutions, M
1
= M
2
is trivial telling that there is no shock.
Now that we have a relation that connects M
2
with M
1
(Eqn.2.21), we can write down the
relationships that connect pressure, density, and other variables across the shock. This is done by
substituting for M
2
in the equations derived before, namely, 2.13, 2.15 and 2.16. The final form of
the equations are,

(2.22)

(2.23)

(2.24)
(2.25)
Considering now the "Total" properties, we have,

(2.26)

(2.27)
Change in entropy across the shock is given by
(2.28)
and
(2.29)
which in terms of M
1
alone becomes,
(2.30)
Tables in the Appendix have the values of the ratios of pressure, density, temperature, Mach
Numbers etc tabulated for different inlet Mach Numbers, i.e.,M
1
. The aerodynamics calculator at
http://www.aoe.vt.edu/aoe3114/calc.html is very useful in this regard.
Important Characteristics of a Normal Shock
We plot Eqn.2.21 in Fig. 2.6 to reveal an important property of normal shocks. It is evident from
the plot that -
If M
1
> 1 , then M
2
< 1 , i.e, if the incoming flow is supersonic , the outgoing flow is subsonic.
If M
1
< 1 , then M
2
> 1 , i.e, if the incoming flow is subsonic , the outgoing flow is supersonic.
It appears that both the solutions are mathematically possible. Is it so physically? This question
has to be investigated from entropy considerations. Accordingly we plot the entropy change across
the shock s
2
- s
2
given by Eqn.2.30 as a function of Mach Number in the same figure.
Figure 2.6: Downstream Mach Number and Entropy rise across a shock.
It comes out that if M
1
< 1, then we have a decrease in entropy across the shock, which is a
violation of the second law of thermodynamics and therefore a physical impossibility.In fact, this
solution gives a shock which tries to expand a flow and decrease pressure. It is clear that
expansion shocks are ruled out. Further, if M
1
> 1 there is an increase in entropy, which is
physically possible. This is a compressive shock across which pressure increases. So the traffic
rules for compressible flows are such that shocks are always compressive, incoming flow is always
supersonic and the outgoing flow is always subsonic.
Figure 2.7: Traffic Rules for Compressible Flow.
Flow through Nozzles and Ducts
We now consider application of the theory of compressible flows that we have developed so far.
What happens when we have a gas flow through area changes? - is the first question we ask.
We have noted already that a subsonic flow responds to area changes in the same manner as an
incompressible flow. A supersonic flow behaves in an opposite manner in that when there is an area
decrease, Mach Number decreases, while for an area increase, Mach Number increases. We have
also stated that a sonic flow can occur only at a throat, a section where area is the minimum. With
this background we can explore the phenomena of gas flow through nozzles.
Flow through a Converging Nozzle
Consider a converging nozzle connected to a reservoir where stagnation conditions prevail,p = p
0
,
T = T
0
, u = 0. By definition reservoirs are such that no matter how much the fluid flows out of
them, the conditions in them do not change. In other words, pressure, temperature, density etc.
remain the same always.
Pressure level p
b
at the exit of the nozzle is referred to as the Back Pressure and it is this pressure
that determines the flow in the nozzle. Let us now study how the flow responds to changes in Back
Pressure.
When the Back Pressure, p
b
is equal to the reservoir pressure,p
0
, there is no flow in the nozzle.
This is condition (1) in Fig.3.1. Let us reduce p
b
slightly to p
2
(condition (2) in the Figure). Now a
flow is induced in the nozzle. For relatively high values of p
b
, the flow is subsonic throughout. A
further reduction in Back Pressure results in still a subsonic flow ,but of a higher Mach Number at
the exit (condition (3)). Note that the mass flow rate increases. As p
b
is reduced we have an
increased Mach Number at the exit along with an increased mass flow rate. How long can this go
on? At a particular Back Pressure value the flow reaches sonic conditions (4). This value of Back
pressure follows from Eqn.1.47. For air it is given by
(3.1)
What happens when the Back Pressure is further reduced (5,6 etc.) is interesting. Now the Mach
Number at the exit tries to increase. It demands an increased mass flow from the reservoir. But as
the condition at the exit is sonic, signals do not propagate upstream. The Reservoir is unaware of
the conditions downstream and it does not send any more mass flow. Consequently the flow
pattern remains unchanged in the nozzle. Any adjustment to the Back Pressure takes place outside
of the nozzle. The nozzle is now said to be choked. The mass flow rate through the nozzle has
reached its maximum possible value, choked value. From the Fig. 3.1 we see that there is an
increase in mass flow rate only till choking condition (4) is reached. Thereafter mass flow rate
remains constant.
Figure 3.1: Flow through a Converging Nozzle
It is to be noted that for a non-choked flow, the Back Pressure and the pressure at the exit plane
are equal. No special adjustment is necessary on the part of the flow. But when the nozzle is
choked the two are different. The flow need to adjust. Usually this take place by means of
expansion waves which help to reduce the pressure further.
Flow through a Converging-diverging nozzle
A converging-diverging nozzle is an important tool in aerodynamics. Also called a de Laval nozzle, it
is an essential element of a supersonic wind tunnel. In this application the nozzle draws air from a
reservoir which is at atmospheric conditions or contains compressed air. Back pressure at the end
of the diverging section is such that air reaches sonic conditions at throat. This flow is then led
through the diverging section. As we have seen before the flow Mach Number increases in this
section. Area ratio and the back pressure are such that required Mach Number is obtained at the
end of the diverging section, where the test section is located. Different area ratios give different
Mach Numbers.
We study here the effect of Back Pressure on the flow through a given converging-diverging
nozzle. The flow is somewhat more complicated than that for a converging nozzle. Flow
configurations for various back pressures and the corresponding pressure and Mach Number
distributions are given in Fig. 3.2. Let us discuss now the events for various back pressures,
a,b,c,....
(a) Back Pressure is equal to the reservoir pressure, p
b
= p
0
. There is no flow through the nozzle.
(b) Back Pressure slightly reduced,p
b
< p
0
. A flow is initiated in the nozzle, but the condition at
throat is still subsonic. The flow is subsonic and isentropic through out.
(c) The Back Pressure is reduced sufficiently to make the flow reach sonic conditions at the
throat,p
b
= p
c
. The flow in the diverging section is
still subsonic as the back pressure is still high. The nozzle has reached choking conditions. As the
Back Pressure is further reduced, flow in the converging section remains unchanged.
We now change the order deliberately to facilitate an easy understanding of the figure 3.2.
(i) We can now think of a back Pressure, p
b
= p
i
, which is small enough to render the flow in the
diverging section supersonic. For this Back
Pressure, the flow is everywhere isentropic and shock-free.
(d) When the Back Pressure is p
d
, the flow follows the supersonic path. But the Back Pressure is
higher than p
i
. Consequently, the flow meets
the Back Pressure through a shock in the diverging section. The location and strength of the shock
depends upon the Back Pressure. Decreasing the Back Pressure moves the shock downstream.

Figure 3.2: Pressure and Mach Number Distribution for the Flow through a Converging-Diverging
Nozzle.
(e) One can think of a Back Pressure p
f
, when the shock formed is found at the exit plane. p
f
/ p
0

is the smallest pressure ratio required for the operation of this nozzle.
(f) A further reduction in Back Pressure results in the shocks being formed outside of the nozzle.
These are not Normal Shocks. They are Oblique Shocks. Implication is that the flow has reduced
the pressure to low values. Additional shocks are required to compress the flow further. Such a
nozzle is termed Overexpanded.
(g) The other interesting situation is where the Back Pressure is less than p
i
. Even now the flow
adjustment takes place outside of the nozzle, not through shocks, but through Expansion Waves.
Here the implication is that the flow could not expand to reach the back Pressure. It required
further expansion to finish the job. Such a nozzle is termed Underexpanded.
This is an annimation to illustrate the flow through a converging-diverging nozzle.
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow
Hither too we have only been considering one-dimensional flows. While it is difficult to find a true
one-dimensional flow in nature, it helps to build various concepts. Using these concepts we now try
to understand some of the typical examples of two-dimensional flows, in particular supersonic
flows. Main features of interest here are
Oblique Shock Waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
Shock Interactions and Detached Shocks
Shock-Expansion Technique
Thin Aerofoil Theory
Method of Characteristics.
Oblique Shock Waves
We have discussed Normal Shocks which occur in one-dimensional flows. Although one can come
across Normal Shocks in ducts and pipes, most of the times we encounter only Oblique Shocks, the
ones that are not normal to the flow - shocks formed at the nose of wedge when a supersonic flow
flows past, the shock in front of a body in a supersonic flow. These have been sketched in Fig.4.1.
How do we analyse such these shocks?
Figure 4.1: Examples of Oblique Shock.
Figure 4.2: Velocity Components for an Oblique Shock.
Consider an oblique shock as shown in Fig.4.2. Looking at the velocity components and comparing
with that for a normal shock, it is clear that we now have an additional one, i.e, a tangential
component,v . Accounting for this is not a major problem. The shock mechanism is such that this
component is unchanged across the oblique shock. However, the normal component u
1
does
undergoe a change as with a normal shock and comes out with a value u
2
on passing through the
shock. We have seen with normal shocks that u
2
< u
1
. A close look at Fig.4.2 reveals that the
flow undergoes a turn as it passes through an oblique shock and the turn is towards the shock.
Relations across an Oblique Shock
The angle between the shock and the incoming flow is called the Shock Angle. The angle
through which the flow turns is , termed Deflection Angle. If M
1
is the incoming mach number we
have,

Define,
(4.1)
Oblique shock in Fig. 4.2 can be viewed as a normal shock with an incoming Mach Number equal to
, but with a tangential (to the shock) velocity component,v superposed everywhere.
Then it is a simple matter to calculate conditions across an oblique shock. In the normal shock
relations,Eqns 2.22 to 2.30, just replace Mach Number with . Accordingly, we
have,
(4.2)
It is to be noted that is the normal component of Mach Number downstream of
the shock and is equal to,
(4.3)
The other relations across the shock are given by,
(4.4)
(4.5)
(4.6)
(4.7)
(4.8)
We have shown before that the upstream flow for a normal shock must be supersonic, i.e.,
(4.10)
For a given Mach Number, M
1
, we have a minimum shock angle, which is given by , the
maximum inclination is . Accordingly, the condition we have for an oblique shock is that,
(4.11)
The lower limit gives a Mach Wave which gives a zero flow turn. The higher limit
gives a normal shock, which also gives a zero flow turn but perturbs the flow strongly.
This gives the highest pressure jump across the shock.
It may also be mentioned that the normal component of Mach Number downstream of the shock,
must be less than 1, i.e, must be subsonic.
Relation between and
A question that naturally arises is - for a given Mach Number M
1
and a shock angle what is the
flow deflection angle ? An expression for this can derived as follows-

which gives

leading to
(4.12)
It is easily seen that has two zeros, one at and the other at
. These correspond to the two limits we have on the shock angle ( Eqn. 4.11.
Having two zeros, it is evident that the expression should have a maximum somewhere in between.
Fig. 4.3 shows the relationship between and plotted for various Mach Numbers. For a given
value of we see that there are two values of , indicating that two shock angles are possible
for a given flow turning and an upstream Mach Number. For a given Mach Number there is a
maximum flow turning, .
Figure 4.3: Relationship between and
Clearly for , there are two solutions, i.e., two values of . The smaller value gives
what is called a Weak Solution. The other solution with a higher value of is called a Strong
Solution.
Figure also shows the locus of solutions for which M
2
= 1 . It is clearly seen that a strong solution
gives rise to a subsonic flow downstream of it,
i.e, M
2
. The weak solution gives a supersonic flow downstream of it except in a narrow band, with
slightly smaller than .
Conditions across an oblique shock can be found in a table in the Downloadable Information and
Data Sheets. The aerodynamics calculator at http://www.aoe.vt.edu/aoe3114/calc.html is very
useful in this regard.
Supersonic Flow past Concave Corners and Wedges
We consider a few weak solutions for the oblique shocks now. Strong solutions are considered
later. The examples we discuss are the flow past a concave corner and the flow past a wedge.
Figure 4.4: Supersonic Flow past Concave Corners and Wedges
Let a supersonic flow at Mach Number M
1
flow past a concave corner inclined at an angle to the
incoming flow (Fig.4.4). At the corner, the
flow has to turn though an angle because of the requirement that the normal component of
velocity at any solid surface has to be zero for an inviscid flow. To facilitate this turn we require an
oblique shock at an angle to form at the corner. We can calculate the shock angle for a given
Mach Number and angle . The same theory can be applied in case of a symmetric or asymmetric
wedge of half angle as shown in Fig.4.4.
In these cases the shocks are formed at the corner or the nose of the body. They are called
Attached Shocks. Recalling that with supersonic flows we have limited upstream influence, we can
see that flow on the lower surface of the wedge is independent of the flow on the upper surface.
Weak Oblique Shocks
For small deflection angles it is possible to reduce the oblique shock relations to simple expressions.
Writing out only the end results we have,
(4.13)
The above expression indicates that the strength of the shock, denoted by the term is
proportional to the deflection angle, . It can be shown that the change of entropy across the
shock, is proportional to the cube of the deflection angle,
(4.14)
Other useful expression for a weak oblique shock is for the change of speed across it,

(4.15)
Supersonic Compression by Turning
Indirectly we have come across a method to compress a supersonic flow. If the flow is turned
around a concave corner, an oblique shock is produced. As the flow passes through the shock its
pressure increases, i.e, the flow is compressed. This lends itself to a simple method of compression.
But the question is how to perform it efficiently.
Consider first a compression through a single oblique shock. (Fig.4.5). The flow turns through an
angle . We have seen that
(4.16)
There is a price to be paid for this compression. Entropy increases across the shock (which is the
same as saying that total pressure decreases) proportional to .
Figure 4.5: Compression of a Supersonic Flow by Turning
Second, consider compressing the flow through a number of shocks, say n . Let each shock be
such that the flow downstream is supersonic. The flow turning through each of the shocks is
. Consequently through n shock we have,
Total turning:

Change in pressure:

Entropy rise:
(4.17)
Thus we see that this arrangement gives us the same compression as before, but the entropy rise
is reduced enormously implying that losses are controlled.
Now the third possibility suggests itself. Why not make n tend to . That is compression is
effected by an infinite number of waves, i.e, Mach Waves. Instead of a concave corner we now
have a smooth concave surface (Case c in Fig. 4.5). Now the compression is effected as before
but the losses are zero because,
(4.18)
The entire process is thus isentropic and the most efficient.
Convergence of Mach Waves
Figure 4.6: Coalescence of Mach Waves to form an Oblique Shock.
Figure 4.7: Isentropic compression and expansion of a flow.
Consider the compression around a concave surface which takes place through a series of Mach
Waves. As the flow passes through each Mach Wave, pressure rises and the Mach Number
decreases. Consequently, the wave angle increases. This leads to a convergence of Mach
Waves far from the concave surface as shown in Fig. 4.6. This phenomenon is called Coalescence .
The waves merge and become an oblique shock. When this happens the flow is no longer
isentropic, severe non-linearities build up. If one wishes to have an isentropic compression, it is
necessary to see that waves do not converge. This can be brought about by placing a wall forming
a duct as shown in Fig.4.7. It is interesting that the flow compresses itself as it moves from left to
right and expands when it is driven in the opposite direction.
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion
Now we consider expansion of a flow. Obviously a supersonic flow negotiating a convex corner
undergoes expansion. First question that arises is "Can we expand a gas through a shock?". This
means we will send a supersonic flow through a shock and expect an increase in Mach Number and
a decrease in pressure as sketched in Fig.4.8. This demands that u
2
> u
1
. That is we are
expecting the flow velocity normal to the shock to increase as it passes through the shock. This
we have seen before violates the second law of thermodynamics. Expansion shocks are a physical
impossibility.
Figure 4.8: Flow expansion through a shock?
Actually, expansion of a flow takes place isentropically through a series of Mach Waves. The waves
may be centered as happens at a convex corner or spread out as in the case of a convex surface.
The Mach Waves are divergent in both the cases. A centered wave is called a Prandtl-Meyer
Expansion fan.
Figure 4.9: Prandtl-Meyer Expansion
Consider a Prandtl-Meyer fan (Fig. 4.9) through which a flow expands from a Mach Number, M
1
to
M
2
. The leading wave is inclined to the flow at an angle and the
expansion terminates in a wave inclined at an angle, . We can derive an
expression connecting the flow turning angle and the change in Mach Number as follows.
Consider a differential element within the fan (Fig. 4.10) through which the Mach Number changes
from M to M + dM as the flow turns through an angle .
Figure 4.10: Prandtl-Meyer Expansion, continued
For a Mach Wave we have from Eqn. 4.15
(4.19)
On integrating it gives,
(4.20)
where we have introduced a function, called the Prandtl-Meyer function.
Starting from
(4.21)
one can deduce that,
(4.22)
Prandtl-Meyer function is very significant in calculating supersonic flows. Note that for ,
. For every Mach Number greater than one there is a unique Prandtl-Meyer function.
Tables for supersonic flow in Appendix do list as a function of Mach Number. In fact, is the
angle through which a sonic flow should be turned in order to reach a Mach Number of M. In
addition, consider a flow turning through an angle . We have,
(4.23)
With the knowledge of , one can calculate M
2
(or read it off the Table). One can also calculate
the Mach Number following an isentropic compression using Prandtl-Meyer function -
(4.24)
Figure 4.11: Using Prandtl-Meyer Function
It is to be noted that (Mach Number) decreases in compression and it increases in expansion.
See Fig.4.11
Shock Interactions and Detached Shocks
Many interesting situations arise concerning oblique shocks. These include reflection of shocks from
solid walls, intersection of shocks etc.
Shock Reflection from a Wall
Consider an oblique shock impinging on wall at an angle as shown in Fig.4.12. This oblique shock
could be the result of a wedge being placed in a supersonic flow at a Mach Number M
1
. The flow is
deflected through an angle . But the presence of the wall below pulls the flow back and renders
it to be parallel to itself. This requires another shock inclined to the wall at an angle . One other
way of explaining the phenomenon is that the shock is incident on the wall at an angle and gets
reflected at an angle . A question to ask is whether the angle of incidence be equal to angle of
reflection. The answer is a NO. It is true that both the shocks turn the flow by the same amount
in different directions. But the Mach Numbers are different. Incident shock is generated in a flow
where the Mach number is M
1
while the reflected shock is generated where the Mach Number is M
2
.
Figure 4.12: Shock reflection from a wall
The resulting pressure distribution is also given in the figure and can be calculated easily from the
tables.
Intersection of two Shocks
Intersection of two shocks occurs when they hit each other at an angle as shown in Fig.4.13. Let
us first consider shocks of equal strength. The interaction takes place as if each of the shocks is
reflected of the centreline of the flow, which is in fact a streamline. We can always treat a
streamline as a wall so that the calculation procedure is identical to that for a single shock
reflection.
Figure 4.13: Intersection of two symmetric Shocks
Figure 4.14: Intersection of two asymmetric Shocks
When the shocks are of unequal strengths interact the flow field loses symmetry. A new feature
appears downstream of the interaction, Fig. 4.14. This is what is called a Slip Stream. This divides
the flow into two parts - (1) flow which has been processed by shocks on top and (2) flow
processed by the shocks at the bottom. But the slip stream is such that the pressure, p
3
and the
flow angle ( ) are continuous across it. Density, temperature and other properties are different. It
requires an iteration to solve for the pressure distribution and other features in this case.

Strong Solutions - Detached Shocks
Consider the case of a flow which is flowing past a body whose nose is such that (with
reference to Fig.4.3. Question is how is this geometry dealt with by the flow? What happens in
such a case is the shock is not attached to the nose but stands away from it - i.e, is Detached as
shown in Fig. 4.15. The shock is no longer a straight line but is curved whose shape and strength
depend upon M
1
and the geometry of the body. On the centreline the shock is a normal shock at a.
As we move away from the centreline the shock weakens and approaches a Mach Wave at d. From
a to d one sees the entire range of solutions given by Fig.4.3 .
Figure 4.15: Detached Shock in front of a Wedge
The flow field downstream of the shock is somewhat complicated. Recall that the flow downstream
of a normal shock is subsonic. Accordingly we have a subsonic patch of flow near the centreline
downstream of the shock. The extent of this region depends upon the body geometry and the
freestream Mach Number. As we move away from the centreline the shock corresponds to a weak
solution with a supersonic flow behind it. A sonic line separates the supersonic flow from the
subsonic patch.
If the body is blunt as shown in Fig.4.16, the shock wave is detached at all Mach Numbers.
Figure 4.16: Detached Shock in front of a Blunt Body
The distance between the body and the shock is called Shock Stand Off Distance and it decreases
with Mach number. It is possible to compute this distance using CFD techniques or measure it
experimentally.
Mach Reflection
Sometimes the reflection of shock at a solid surface is not as simple as indicated before. It may so
happen that the Mach Number downstream, M
2
is such that a simple reflection is not possible. In
these circumstances, reflection of the shock does not take place at the solid wall but a distance
away from it. As shown in Fig.4.17. We now have a triple point in the flow followed by a slip
stream. This phenomenon is called Mach Reflection.
Figure 4.17: Mach Reflection
Shock-Expansion Technique
One could think of a general two-dimensional supersonic flow to be a combination of uniform flow,
shocks and expansion waves. We have developed tools to handle each one of these in the
preceding sections. A technique to calculate such a flow reveals itself and is called Shock-
Expansion Technique. In plain words it can be described as follows. Employ shock relations where
there is a shock and Prandtl-Meyer expansion relations where there is an expansion.
We now consider typical examples are flow past corners and aerofoils.
Flat Plate Aerofoil
Figure 4.18: Flat Plate Aerofoil at zero angle of attack
Consider a thin flat plate placed in a supersonic stream as shown in Fig.4.18. For a zero angle of
attack, there is no flow turning anywhere on the flat plate. Consequently the pressure is uniform on
the suction and the pressure surfaces. Drag and lift are both zero. Now consider the flow about the
flat plate at an angle of attack equal to .
Figure 4.19: Flat Plate Aerofoil at an angle of attack
Interesting features are produced on the plate as shown in Fig. 4.19. The flows sees the leading
edge on the suction surface as a convex corner. A Prandtl-Meyer expansion results. At the trailing
edge the flow compresses itself through a shock. At the leading edge on the pressure surface is a
shock since it forms a concave corner.The flow leaves the trailing edge through an expansion fan.
A close look at the flow past the trailing edge shows that there are two streams of gas - one,
processed by expansion and shock on the suction surface and two, gas processed by similar
features on the pressure side. The two shocks are not of the same strength. Consequently the gas
streams are of different densities and temperatures. However, the pressures and flow angles are
equalised at the trailing edge. This gives rise to a slip stream at the trailing edge. From the
pressure distribution shown, lift and drag can be calculated as
(4.25)
where c is the chord. Note that this drag is not produced by viscosity as with incompressible or
subsonic flows. It is brought about by the waves (shock and expansion) which are unique to
supersonic flows. This is an example of Supersonic Wave Drag.
It is desirable to express drag and lift as drag and lift coefficients, C
L
and C
D
. These are obtained
by non-dimensionalising the corresponding forces with the term , where A is the
area over which lift or drag force acts. This can be shown to be equal to .
Consequently, it can be shown that
(4.26)
where C
pl
and C
pu
are the pressure coefficients on lower and upper surfaces.
Diamond Aerofoil
Figure 4.20: Flow about a Diamond Aerofoil
Consider a typical aerofoil for a supersonic flow i.e., a Diamond Aerofoil as shown in Fig.4.20. A flow
at zero angle of attack produces the features as shown. At the leading edge we have a shock
each on the pressure and suction sides. Then at maximum thickness we have expansion waves.
The flow leaves the trailing edge through another shock system.
The flow is symmetrical in the flow normal direction and lift is zero. But there is a drag which is
given by,
(4.27)
It is possible to generalise the aerofoil and develop a formula for drag and lift. Consider an aerofoil
with a half wedge angle of . Let be the orientation of any side of the aerofoil. The pressures
on each of the sides can now be summed to determine lift and drag coefficients as follows -
(4.28)
In terms of C
p
for each side we have

(4.29)
Similarly for drag we have,
(4.30)
In terms of C
p
for each side we have

(4.31)
Interaction between shocks and expansion waves
In the case of diamond aerofoil considered above, interactions can take place between shocks and
expansion. In general, these have insignificant effect on the flow. Still for an accurate analysis, the
interactions should be considered. But this is beyond the scope of an introductory textbook as the
present one. The effect of interaction is in general to attenuate the shock. The flow configuration
is given in Fig.4.21.
Figure 4.21: Interaction between Expansion Waves and Shock.
Thin Aerofoil Theory
The shock-Expansion technique we developed is accurate and also simple. However, it is a
numerical device requiring considerable book keeping. This is no problem today that we have
computers that can handle this efficiently. But in the past people were looking for methods, which
gave a closed form solution. One such is the Thin Aerofoil Theory. Now we consider aerofoils that
are thin and angles of attack small such that the flow is deflected only slightly from the freestream
direction. Consequently the shocks belong to the weak shock category ( See Weak Oblique Shocks
). Now the pressure change anywhere in the flow is given by,
(4.32)
As per our assumption, pressure, p is not far from and the local Mach Number on the aerofoil is
not far from making the above equation, reduce to
(4.33)
Referring all pressures to and flow direction to that of the freestream, we have,
(4.34)
This gives,
(4.35)
(4.36)
(4.37)
Thus we have a simple expression for calculating C
p
on any surface in the flow, say an aerofoil.
The interesting feature is that C
p
depends upon the local flow inclination alone. What feature
caused that flow turning is of no consequence. We can now re-look at the examples we considered
before.
Flow about a Flat Plate Aerofoil at an Angle of Attack
Consider the Flat Plate Aerofoil previously treated in Section . The flow is inclined at an angle on
both the surfaces. Accordingly,
(4.38)
The lift and drag coefficients are given by,
(4.39)
Substituting for C
p
and noting that for small , , we have,
(4.40)
Diamond Aerofoil
For the aerofoil we have for the flow behind the shock,
(4.41)
For the flow behind the expansion waves,
(4.42)
While using Eqn. 4.37 a positive sign is used for compression and a negative one for expansion. The
drag coefficient is given by,
(4.43)
which can be written as
(4.44)
An Arbitrary Aerofoil
Consider a general aerofoil placed in a supersonic flow as in Fig.4.22. The aerofoil can be thought
of having a thickness, h(x) , an angle of attack, and a camber . One can show that for this
aerofoil,
Figure 4.22: Flow about an Arbitrary Aerofoil.

(4.45)
Second Order Theory
The approximate theory we have developed is of first order in that it retains only the first
significant term involving in an expansion for C
p
. Busemann has provided a second order theory
which includes terms as well. As per this theory,
(4.46)
which is also written as
(4.47)
even while using this equation, a positive sign for compression and a negative one for expansion is
used.
Note that the coefficients C
1
and C
2
are functions of Mach Number and only. These are also
listed in Tables in appendix.
Thus we have three methods to calculate pressure in a turning supersonic flow. Of these Shock-
Expansion technique is the most accurate. The remaining are for small flow turnings only. The
Busemann's method may provide better answers for small flow turnings.
Reduction of Drag by cancelling the Waves
It is clear that in supersonic flows waves are the main sources of drag. An idea suggests itself that
we can reduce drag by removing the waves from the system. What do we mean by this? Let us
take the example of a shock impinging on a solid wall. We have seen that this produces an incident
shock and a reflected shock. The latter one comes about in order to turn the flow to be parallel to
the wall. Suppose, we turn the wall itself at the point o through an angle in the other direction
as shown in Fig.4.23. Then the flow follows the wall and there is no need for a reflected shock.
This phenomenon can also be interpreted as saying that an expansion wave is produced at 0 that
cancels the reflected shock. Now the system is free of waves and so free of wave drag.
Figure 4.23: Cancellation of Waves.
A clever device built based on the idea of wave cancellation is Busemann Biplane (Fig. 4.24). The
geometry and incoming Mach Number are so arranged that a perfectly symmetrical system of
shocks is produced and at the exit there are no waves whatever. This gives a zero wave drag. If
the Busemann plane is run under off-design conditions as in Fig.4.25, the exit flow is not wave-
free. There is a resulting wave drag.


Figure 4.24: Busemann Biplane under design conditions
Figure 4.25: Busemann Biplane under off-design conditions
Method of Characteristics
Method of Characteristics is a very convenient tool to calculate isentropic portions of supersonic
flows. This is a numerical method, but the merit is that the method itself determines the grid (or
mesh) it requires. Researchers and others today seem to prefer a Finite-Volume method to compute
supersonic or any other flow. But there are a few who still prefer the Method of characteristics,
notably the ones that design supersonic nozzles. There have also been efforts to "extend" the
method to accommodate shocks by patching solutions across them. These have seen only a limited
success. It is significant that even those that employ Finite-Volume Methods depend on Method of
Characteristics to provide the boundary conditions.
There is an elaborate mathematical theory behind the Method of Characteristics. But we restrict
ourselves to the application. However, we do bring out the essential features of the theory.
Theory of Method of Characteristics
Governing Equations for a two-dimensional compressible, irrotational flow can be written as
(4.48)
(4.49)
It is easy to realise that Eqn.4.49 is the irrotationality condition. Equation 4.48 is a non-linear
Partial Differential Equation. It is classified as follows,
Elliptic, if (u
2
+ v
2
)/a
2
< 1
Parabolic, if (u
2
+ v
2
)/a
2
= 1
Hyperbolic, if (u
2
+ v
2
)/a
2
> 1.
We see that supersonic flows with M > 1 , belong to the Hyperbolic class. One of the properties of
Hyperbolic Equations is that there exist what are called the characteristic lines or directions. Recall
that in a supersonic flow at every point there are what are called Mach Waves. These are, in fact,
the characteristic lines. Direction of Mach lines is the characteristic direction. Across a
characteristic line, velocity derivatives may be discontinuous, but velocity itself will be
discontinuous. Along the characteristic lines, what are called the Compatibility Relations hold good.
Compatibility Relations
Figure 4.26: Riemann Invariants
Consider a stream line in a supersonic flow as in Fig. 4.26. We can have one coordinate s axis
aligned along the streamline and the other n normal to it. Now consider the Mach lines at a point P
. There are two of them- the one to the left of the streamline is a characteristic and the one to
the right is called a characteristic. Note that each of these is inclined at an angle to the
streamline. It can be shown that along a characteristic,

i.e., a constant
(4.50)
Similarly along a characteristic we have,

i.e, a constant
(4.51)
Equations 4.50 and 4.51 are the Compatibility Relations. Essentially, they say that and are
invariant in and directions respectively. These are known as Riemann Invariants and are in a
simple form because of the simple situation we have considered. In complex situations, Riemann
Invariants could even be differential equations.
Computing with Method of Characteristics
Working with the Method of Characteristics is made easy if we formulate the problem in terms of
and . Once we determine these two at any point in the flow, other quantities of interest such as
Mach Number, Flow Velocity and Pressure can be determined using isentropic relations, the energy
equation etc. Accordingly consider a curve AB in the flow along which and are known. This
curve is known as a Starting Curve. The working for the method should be clear from Fig. 4.27.
Now we have,

Solving for
C
and
C
,we have

Or,
(4.52)
Figure 4.27: Computing using Method of Characteristics
Now that we know the flow at C it is possible to continue and calculate the flow downstream.
In practice, a number of points on the starting curve are considered. Mach Lines are drawn from
each of them. Then we march downstream calculating the flow at every point we arrive at. In this
process, we create a net or a grid of points as shown in Fig. 4.28.
Figure 4.28: The Method of Characteristics Procedure
One should be aware of the accuracy of the procedure. Note that we approximate the
characteristics by straight lines. For example consider Fig. 4.29. We have treated the
characteristic at 4 or 2 to be a straight line. This is true only if Mach Number is constant between
4 and 7 or between 2 and 7. If the Mach Number varies between these points then we have curves
which intersect at 7' instead of 7. Therefore what we calculate as properties for point 7 are
actually those at point 7'. However it is easy to realise that error due to this approximation may be
minimised by bringing 2 and 4 closer. In other words we need to have a large number of points on
the Starting Curve.
Figure 4.29: Accuracy of the Procedure
The procedure needs to be modified near a solid boundary and a free boundary. At a solid boundary
one knows the flow inclination i.e., , while at a free boundary one knows . These will be clear
in the worked example given below.
Flow through a Diverging Duct
Consider a flow at Mach 1.605 entering a two-dimensional diverging duct whose sides make an
angle of 6
0
with the centreline, ie., a 12
0
divergence. It is required to calculate the flow in the
duct. See Fig. 4.30
Figure 4.30: Flow through a Diverging Duct
Let us have four points on the starting line - a,b,c and d. At each of these points Mach Number is
the same, 1.605or . The flow will be horizontal on the centreline and will be aligned with
the wall at the two side boundaries. Accordingly, will be 6
0
,2
0
,-2
0
and -6
0
at a,b,c and d
respectively. First let us tabulate the known values.

Point M Q R

a 1.605 15 6 21 9
b 1.605 15 2 17 13
c 1.605 15 -2 13 17
d 1.605 15 -6 9 21
Interior Point
Consider e . We have

From Tables this refers to a Mach Number of 1.672.
Boundary Point
Consider the boundary point h

Mach Number corresponding to =19
0
is 1.741.

Cancellation of Waves
In a manner to similar to Bausemann's biplane we need to cancel waves (as well as shock waves).
This happens in situations such as a supersonic nozzle where we need a test section flow free of
all waves. But we should not forget that the very waves expand the flow to the desired conditions.
It becomes necessary to cancel all these waves. The principle behind the cancellation is the same
as we have seen before.
Figure 4.31: Reflection and cancellation of Waves
Consider the wave reflection from a wall as shown in Fig.4.31. By suitably turning the wall the wave
can be cancelled. This also applies to a series of waves.
Design of a Supersonic Nozzle
Supersonic nozzle is he basic element of any supersonic wind tunnel and is the one that
accelerates the flow at rest in the reservoir to the required Mach Number M
T
at the test section. It
is a converging-diverging nozzle as shown in Fig.4.32. As discussed before the converging section
of the nozzle is provided to obtain sonic conditions at the throat. The section of this section is
somewhat arbitrary.
Figure 4.32: Design of a Supersonic Nozzle, only upper half shown
The design of a supersonic nozzle means the design of the diverging section. The conditions at the
throat are sonic, i.e., while at the section we need a Mach Number, or a value of
. It is required that the flow be turned through an angle equal to . In theory it is possible to
effect this in one "go" meaning turn the flow once through . But this may not be an efficient
design. A sudden turn could result in separation of flow. Further, it is required that the flow
entering the test section be uniform, implying the absence of waves. This is where one needs to
take care.
The flow expansion in the diverging section is carried out in two stages - (a) Expansion Section and
(b) Cancellation Section. In the Expansion Section flow is expanded up to a . In the
subsequent Straightening Section, is reduced progressively to cancel the waves. When complete
on the walls and at the centreline. Each of these operations could be carried
out in a number of steps, uniform or otherwise.
Fig.4.32 is self explanatory.
Depending upon the application it may be necessary to minimise the length of the nozzle. Then it is
usual to keep the Expansion Section of zero length and have a Prandtl-Meyer expansion at the
corner as shown in Fig. 4.33.
Figure 4.33: Design of a Minimum Length Supersonic Nozzle, only upper half shown
Return to Table of Contents.
Auld & Srinivas, 2006

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