Activity 1

Introductory Concepts in
Thermodynamics

1. Use your web browser and look for definitions of the term
thermodynamics
• Compile at least five (5) resources and come up with your own definition
of the term thermodynamics

- The word thermodynamics comes from the Greek word thermos which means heat

and dynamis which means power.

- thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another and from one
form to another.

- Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat
and other forms of energy.

-  Thermodynamics is a science which studies the changes in temperature, pressure, and

volume on physical systems on the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion
of their particles through observation and statistics.

- Thermodynamics deals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the inter-
conversion of heat and other forms of energy. 
https://www.universalclass.com/articles/science/what-is-thermodynamics.htm
https://www.britannica.com/science/thermodynamics
https://www.livescience.com/50776-thermodynamics.html#:~:text=Thermodynamics%20is
%20the%20branch%20of,and%20other%20forms%20of%20energy.&text=Thermal%20energy
%20is%20the%20energy,of%20the%20Texas%20Education%20Agency.
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/keph204.pdf

Own Definition:
Thermodynamics shows the bond or connection between the heat and to another forms of
energy; which it studies the changes of the temperature, pressure and volume on physical system
that undergo in a thermodynamic process.

2. What other terms are related to the definition of thermodynamics?

• Make a glossary of terms related to thermodynamics (A to Z)
• Provide citations/references

Absolute entropy
is entropy calculated relative to the absolute reference point determined by the third law of
thermodynamics.

Absolute pressure
is the actual pressure at a given position and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure). Throughout this text, the pressure P will denote absolute pressure unless
specified otherwise.

Bar
 is the unit of pressure equal to 105 Pascal.

Barometer
 is a device that measures the atmospheric pressure; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often
referred to as the barometric pressure.

Calorie
(cal) is the amount of energy in the metric system needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water
at 15 °C by 1°C.

Combustion
is a chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of energy is released.

Dalton's law of additive pressure

The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures each gas would exert if it
existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume. 

Dimensions
are any physical characterizations of a quantity.
Entropy
(from a classical thermodynamics point of view) is a property designated S and is defined as dS
=(dQ/T)int rev. 

Energy
the capacity for doing work. It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal,
electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. 

Fahrenheit scale
(named after the German instrument maker G. Fahrenheit, 1686-1736) is the temperature scale in
the English system. On the Fahrenheit scale, the ice and steam points are assigned 32 and 212 °F.

First law of thermodynamics

is simply a statement of the conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that total energy is a
thermodynamic property. Joule's experiments indicate the following: For all adiabatic processes
between two specified states of a closed system, the net work done is the same regardless of the
nature of the closed system and the details of the process. 

Gravitational acceleration
g is 9.807 m/s2 at sea level and varies by less than 1 percent up to 30,000 m. Therefore, g can be
assumed to be constant at 9.81 m/s2.

Gibbs phase rule

provides the number of independent variables associated with a multicomponent, multiphase
system.

Heat
is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

Heat transfer
is the area under the process curve on a T-S diagram during an internally reversible process. The
area has no meaning for irreversible processes. 

Ideal gas
is a gas that obeys the ideal-gas equation of state. 

Incomplete combustion
is a combustion process in which the combustion products contain any unburned fuel or
components such as C, H2, CO, or OH.

Joule
(J) is a unit of energy and has the unit "newton-meter (N·m).
Joule-Thomson coefficient
JT  is a measure of the change in temperature with pressure during a constant-enthalpy process.

Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics

is expressed as follows: It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat
from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work. This statement can also be expressed
as no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a power plant to operate,
the working fluid must exchange heat with the environment as well as the furnace.

Kelvin scale
is the thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI and is named after Lord Kelvin (1824-1907).
The temperature unit on this scale is the Kelvin, which is designated by K (not °K; the degree
symbol was officially dropped from Kelvin in 1967). The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale
is 0 K.

Latent energy
is the internal energy associated with the phase of a system.

Latent heat
is the amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change process.

Macroscopic
forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference
frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.

Manometer
is a device based on the principle that an elevation change of Δ z of a fluid corresponds to a
pressure change of ΔP/ ρg, which suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure pressure
differences. The manometer is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure
differences.

Natural gas
 is produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in natural gas. It is composed mainly of methane,
but it also contains small amounts of ethane, propane, hydrogen, helium, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen sulphate, and water vapour. It is stored either in the gas phase at pressures of
150 to 250 atm as CNG (compressed natural gas) or in the liquid phase at 162° C as LNG
(liquefied natural gas).

Newton (N)
in SI, is the force unit defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1
m/s2.
Osmotic pressure
is the pressure difference across a semi permeable membrane that separates fresh water from the
saline water under equilibrium conditions.

Otto cycle
is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. It is named after Nikolaus A. Otto,
who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by
Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862. The ideal Otto cycle, which closely resembles the actual
operating conditions, utilizes the air-standard assumptions. It consists of four internally
reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression

2-3 Constant volume heat addition

3-4 Isentropic expansion

4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

Pascal's law
allows us to "jump" from one fluid column to the next in manometers without worrying about
pressure change as long as we don't jump over a different fluid, and the fluid is at rest.

Pascal's principle
after Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), states that the consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining
constant in the horizontal direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount.

Quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium, process

is a process which proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times. A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow
process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the
system do not change any faster than those at other parts.

Radiation
is the transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or photons).

Raoult's law
applies to a gas-liquid mixture when a gas is highly soluble in a liquid (such as ammonia in
water) and relates the mole fractions of the species of a two-phase mixture in the liquid and gas
phases in an approximate manner.

Specific gravity, or relative density

is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a
specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which the density is 1000 kg/m3). 
Specific heat
is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree. In general, this energy will depend on how the process is executed.

Thermodynamics
can be defined as the science of energy. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power),
which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the same name is
broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including power
production, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter.

Thermal energy
is the sensible and latent forms of internal energy.

Units
are the arbitrary magnitudes assigned to the dimensions.

Universal gas constant

Ru is the same for all substances and its value is 8.314 kJ/kmol·K and 1.986 Btu/lbmol·R. 

Vapour
implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation.

Velocity of sound (or the sonic velocity)

is the velocity at which an infinitesimally small pressure wave travels through a medium.

Waste heat
is energy that must be dissipated to the atmosphere from a process such as the heat transferred
from condensing steam in the condenser of a steam power plant.

Weight
is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from Newton's
second law.

Xerox Machine
is the example of machine that can also transfer heat to another object.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading
even if they are not in contact.
https://sites.ualberta.ca/dept/chemeng/users/madhavan/Glossary
 https://www.britannica.com/science/energy

3. What scientific concepts are connected with thermodynamics?

• Make a list of this concepts
• Classify these concepts as to pre requisite concepts or application of
thermodynamics concepts
• Provide a detailed discussion on this concept and its connection to
thermodynamics
• Cite references

Application of Thermodynamics Concepts:

Laws of Thermodynamics

 Zeroeth Law of Thermodynamics - Two systems each in thermal equilibrium with a

third system are in thermal equilibrium to each other.
(Thermal Equilibrium)
 First Law of Thermodynamics - The change in the energy of a system is the amount of
energy added to the system minus the energy spent doing work. (Internal Energy)
 Second Law of Thermodynamics - It is impossible for a process to have as its sole result
the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter one.
(Entropy)
 Third Law of Thermodynamics - It is impossible to reduce any system to absolute zero
in a finite series of operations. This means that a perfectly efficient heat engine cannot be
created.
(Absolute Zero of Entropy)

Heat Transfer
Broadly speaking, the heat of a material is understood as a representation of the energy contained
within the particles of that material. This is known as the kinetic theory of gases, though the
concept applies in varying degrees to solids and liquids as well. The heat from the motion of
these particles can transfer into nearby particles, and therefore into other parts of the material or
other materials, through a variety of means:

Thermal Contact is when two substances can affect each other's temperature.
Thermal Equilibrium is when two substances in thermal contact no longer transfer heat.
 Thermal Expansion takes place when a substance expands in volume as it gains heat.
Thermal contraction also exists.
Conduction is when heat flows through a heated solid.
Convection is when heated particles transfer heat to another substance, such as cooking
something in boiling water.
Radiation is when heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves, such as from the
sun.
Insulation is when a low-conducting material is used to prevent heat transfer.

Thermodynamic Processes
A system undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some sort of energetic change
within the system, generally associated with changes in pressure, volume, internal energy (i.e.
temperature), or any sort of heat transfer.

There are several specific types of thermodynamic processes that have special properties:

 Adiabatic process - a process with no heat transfer into or out of the system.
 Isochoric process - a process with no change in volume, in which case the system does
no work.
 Isobaric process - a process with no change in pressure.
 Isothermal process - a process with no change in temperature.

Closed and Open Systems

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.  The mass or
region outside the system is called the surroundings.
Boundary: the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings. The
boundaries of a system can be fixed or movable. Mathematically, the boundary has zero
thickness, no mass, and no volume.

Closed system or control mass: consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its
boundary. But, energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary, and the volume of a
closed system does not have to be fixed.

Open system or control volume: is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a
device that involves mass flow such as a compressor. Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.

Isolated system: A closed system that does not communicate with the surroundings by any
means.

Rigid system: A closed system that communicates with the surroundings by heat only.

Heat Capacity
The heat capacity, C, of an object is the ratio of change in heat (energy change, ΔQ, where the
Greek symbol Delta, Δ, denotes a change in the quantity) to change in temperature (ΔT).
C = Δ Q / Δ T
The heat capacity of a substance indicates the ease with which a substance heat up. A good
thermal conductor would have a low heat capacity, indicating that a small amount of energy
causes a large temperature change. A good thermal insulator would have a large heat capacity,
indicating that much energy transfer is needed for a temperature change.
Ideal Gas Equations
There are various ideal gas equations which relate temperature (T1), pressure (P1), and volume
(V1). These values after a thermodynamic change are indicated by (T2), (P2), and (V2). For a
given amount of a substance, n (measured in moles), the following relationships hold:
Boyle's Law ( T is constant):
P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2
Charles/Gay-Lussac Law (P is constant):
V1/T1 = V2/T2
Ideal Gas Law:
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 = nR
R is the ideal gas constant, R = 8.3145 J/mol*K. For a given amount of matter, therefore, nR is
constant, which gives the Ideal Gas Law.

States of Matter
A state of matter is a description of the type of physical structure that a material substance
manifests, with properties that describe how the material holds together (or doesn't). There are
five states of matter, though only the first three of them are usually included in the way we think
about states of matter:

 gas
 liquid
 solid
 plasma
 superfluid (such as a Bose-Einstein Condensate)

Many substances can transition between the gas, liquid, and solid phases of matter, while only a
few rare substances are known to be able to enter a superfluid state. Plasma is a distinct state of
matter, such as lightning 

 condensation - gas to liquid

 freezing - liquid to solid
 melting - solid to liquid
 sublimation - solid to gas
 vaporization - liquid or solid to gas

Pre-Requisite Concepts of Thermodynamics:

 Cryophysics / Cryogenics / Low Temperature Physics - the study of physical

properties in low temperature situations, far below temperatures experienced on even the
coldest regions of the Earth. An example of this is the study of superfluids.
 Fluid Dynamics / Fluid Mechanics - the study of the physical properties of "fluids,"
specifically defined in this case to be liquids and gases.
 High Pressure Physics - the study of physics in extremely high-pressure systems,
generally related to fluid dynamics.
 Meteorology / Weather Physics - the physics of the weather, pressure systems in the
atmosphere, etc.
 Plasma Physics - the study of matter in the plasma state.

https://www.thoughtco.com/thermodynamics-overview-2699427
https://www.sfu.ca/~mbahrami/ENSC%20388/Notes/Intro%20and%20Basic
%20Concepts.pdf

4. Is there a need to establish measurements and system of measurement in

the concept of thermodynamics?
• Make a justification on your answer
• Compile the different units of measurement related to thermodynamics
concepts
• Cite references

Yes, we need to establish measurements and system of measurements in the concept of

thermodynamics, because how we can identify the energy transformations, changes and its
relation to matter if we don’t establish measurements. This can be achieved through the
application of the governing conservation equations and systems of measurements.
In thermodynamics we are focuses largely on how a heat transfer to another forms of
energy, wherein to be able to quantify the heat and energy that are been transferred, we must use
the equations and the systems for the measurements and also to make a description about the
changes within the physical system based on the results of the measurements.

There are two widely used systems of units: the

International System and the English System.

The base units in the S.I. system are meters (m)

for length, second (s) for time, and kilogram
(kg) for mass. The force unit is derived using
Unit S.I. English Newton's 2nd Law:
Length meter (m) foot (ft)
     F = ma = 1 kg (1 m/s2) = 1 kg m/s2 = 1 N
Time second (s) second (s)
kilogram The base units in the English system are foot
Mass slug (slug)   (ft) for length, second (s) for time, and pound-
(kg)
force (lbf) for force. The mass unit is derived
Force newton (N) pound (lb)
using Newton's 2nd Law:
blue = derived units
     m = F/a = 1 lb/(ft/s2) = 1 lb s2/ft
         = 1 slug = 32.174 lbm

The table to the left compares the two systems.

All the units in thermodynamics can be derived
from these base units. Details of the
thermodynamic units will be introduced in the
following sections.
    
Pressure
   
 The absolute pressure (P) is the force acting on
unit area.

In the SI system, the unit for pressure is Pa,

Definition of Pressure Pascal. In the English system, it is psi.

        Pa = N/m
      psi = lbf/in2

Since Pa is a small unit in the SI system, other

units are also used in thermodynamics, such as:

      1 bar = 105Pa

      1 kPa = 103 Pa
      1 MPa = 106 Pa
      1 atm = 101325 Pa
 
The air surrounding the earth can be treated as
a homogeneous gas, called atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure (Pa) is the pressure due to
the force by the atmosphere mass. Standard
  atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa.

Atmosphere
    
Barometer is a device used to measure the
atmospheric pressure.

     Pa = ρ g h
  where
     ρ = The density of the working liquid, kg/m3
     g = The acceleration of gravity, 9.8 m/s2
     h = The height of the working liquid in the
Barometer tube, m
  
 Gage pressure (Pg) is the difference between the
absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure
if the difference is positive. If the difference is
negative, it is called vacuum pressure (Pv).

     Pg = P - Pa (P > Pa)

     Pv = Pa- P (P < Pa)

Gage Pressure and Vacuum Pressure Absolute pressure is used in thermodynamic

relations and tables.
   
U-Tube Manometer is used to measure pressure
difference. One end of it is open to the
atmosphere and the other end is connected to
the equipment whose pressure is needed to be
measured.

At the right side,

      P1 = Pgas + ρgas g h1

U-Tube Manometer
Usually, the second term on the right hand of
the previous equation is negligible since the
  density of the work fluid is much larger than
the density of the gas.

      P1 = Pgas

At the left side,

      P1 = Pa + ρworking fluid g h1

Combine the two equations above, the pressure

in the gas tank can be determined as

         Pgas = Pa + ρworking fluid g h1

    
Temperature and the Zeroth Law
   
 The measurement of the degree of hotness or
coolness is temperature.

If two bodies at different temperatures are

brought together, the hot body will warm up the
cold one. At the same time, the cold body will
cool down the hot one. This process will end
when the two bodies have the same
temperatures. At that point, the two bodies are
  said to have reached thermal equilibrium.

The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics states:

The Zeroth Law Two bodies each in thermal

equilibrium with a third body will be
in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics is a basis
for the validity of temperature measurement.
    
Temperature Scales
   
To establish a temperature scale, two fixed,
  easy duplicated points are used. The
  intermediate points are obtained by dividing the
distance between into equal subdivisions of the
 
scale length.

Temperature Scale Fixed Point 1 Fixed Point 2

Boiling Point of Water
Fahrenheit Scale (oF) Freezing Point of Water = 32.0
= 212.0
Boiling Point of Water =
Celsius Scale (oC) Freezing Point of Water = 0.0
100.0
Thermodynamic
The pressure of an ideal gas is The Triple Point of Water =
Temperature Scale
zero =  0.0 273.16
(K)
  The relations between the above temperature
scales are:

      T (K) = T(oC) + 273.15

      T (oF) = 1.8T(oC) + 32.0
      T (oF) = 1.8 (T(K)-273.15) + 32.0

The thermodynamic temperature scale in the

 English system is the Rankine scale. The
temperature unit on this scale is the rankine,
which is designated by R. The thermodynamic
temperature scale in S.I. system (K) and
English system (R) are related by

      T(R) = 1.8 T(K)

    
Thermometers
   
  Thermometers measure temperature, by using
materials that change in some way when they
are heated or cooled. In a mercury or alcohol
thermometer the liquid expands as it is heated
and contracts when it is cooled, so the length of
the liquid column becomes longer or shorter
depending on the temperature. Modern
thermometers are calibrated in standard
temperature units such as Fahrenheit or Celsius.
Thermometers Three practical points for using thermometer
are:
 
 The thermometer should be isolated to
everything except the body which
temperature is measured. The general
method is to immerse the thermometer
in a hole in a solid body, or directly in a
fluid body.
 When thermal equilibrium is reached,
the thermometer can indicate its own
temperature as well as the body
measured. The thermometer should be
small relative to the body so that it only
has a small effect upon the body.
Digital Thermometer  The thermometer must not be subject to
effects such as pressure changes, which
might change the volume independently
of temperature.

Digital thermometers almost replace the

mercury ones in nowadays because they are
more accuracy and more easy to use.
Thermodynamic constants
Avogadro's number NA = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1

Boltzmann's constant kB = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K

Ideal-gas constant R = kBNA = 8.314 J/mol K

Absolute zero 0 K = 0 R = −273.15 °C= −459.67

°F

Common units and conversion factors

Magnitude Definition Units Other Units and Multiples

1 cm = 10-2 m

Length P = 2(l + w) m 1 ft = 0.3048 m

1 in = 2.54 × 10-2 m

1 g = 10-3 kg
Mass Mass = volume × density kg
1 lb = 0.4536 kg

1 min = 60 s
Time [Time = Distance ÷ Speed] s
1 hr = 3600 s

Volume (length)3 m3 1 cm3 = 10-6 m3

 Magnitude Definition Units Other Units and Multiples

1 L = 10-3 m3

N = kg m s-
Force (mass)×(acceleration) 2
1 lbf = 4.4482 N

1 Pa = 10-3 kJ/m3
(force)/(area)
Pressure Pa = N m-2 1 bar = 105 Pa
= (energy)/(volume)
1 psi = 0.06895 bar

(force)×(length) 1 kJ = 103 J
J = kg m2 s-
Energy 2
= (mass)×(velocity)2 1 Btu = 1.055 kJ

1 kJ/kg=2.3237 kJ/kg
Specific energy (energy)/(mass) J/kg
1 Btu/lbm=2.3237 kJ/kg

1 Btu/s = 1.055 kW
Power (energy)/(time) W = J/s
1 hp = 735.49 W

https://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1959675&seqNum=4
https://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/ebook.cgi?
doc=&topic=th&chap_sec=01.2&page=theory

Reflection Paper

Write a 100-word reflection paper regarding the activity and the subject matter.
Focus on how can thermodynamics be useful for you as

a.) A BSE Science Student

- Upon listening to our topic entitle “thermodynamics”, at first glance I can say that this
subject will be difficult, because I am expecting that it needs some sort of measurements and
calculations to be done and so I am very worried because I am not good at computing or
anything related to mathematics. But then, I found out that even if it is a difficult subject, it has
also significant impact to my studies.
As a BSE science student, it is my obligation to study thermodynamics, because it is part
of my learning, wherein this subject improves my knowledge throughout my learning process.
On this way I will be somehow prepared to my next study and make a step up.

b.) A Future Science Teacher

- when I listening to our topic entitle “thermodynamics”. My first impression was the
subject will be difficult for me, because I am expecting that it needs some sort of measurements
and calculations to be done and so I am very worried because I am not good at computing or
anything related to mathematics. But then, I found out that even if it is so difficult subject, it has
also a very important role when it comes to my future career someday and that is to be a science
teacher.
As a future science teacher, it is my duty to study thermodynamics and take it seriously,
because someday I will be going to teach this to my future students. Which is also essential for
them to know this knowledge and for them to be prepared on their next study. That’s why
studying this subject gives me more knowledge to share with my students someday.

c.) A Person
- When I listen to the topic entitle “thermodynamics”. My first thought that comes to my
mind was the subject will be difficult, for sure, because I am expecting that it needs a lot of
measurements and calculations to be done and so I am very worried because I am not good at
computing or anything related to mathematics. But then, I found out that even if it is a difficult
subject, it is also essential to know about thermodynamics, because it can guide you about the
things related to thermodynamics.
As a person it is essential to know about thermodynamics, because it is somehow
can help me with my daily living by guiding me on the things that are related to
thermodynamics, wherein it is better to know different knowledge than, nothing.
 Remarks:

• Make two file formats for your output

• Format 1: activity 1_Introductory concepts in thermodynamics and save
as pdf file
• Format 2: same file name but in power point presentation form
• Prepare for an output presentation on the next teleconference
schedule
• Drag and drop you file output on your respective google folders