LEARNING UNIT

Selected Topics of Physics

Stage 2. Heath
Base presentation of Stage 2 of Selected
Topics of Physics
● In order to cover the basic contents of the Selected Topics of Physics
learning unit, this presentation has been prepared, which we hope will
be useful to the student so that they can use it and enrich it with
additional material of their choice. that comes from reliable sources.
● We reiterate, it is a support material that, together with the
instructional guide and the textbook, will serve as a fundamental
resource because, based on them, you will address the academic
period January- June 2022.
CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE

One way to start the study of heat is by defining some concepts such as
temperature.
However, this is associated with other previous concepts such as thermal
equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium:
It is the state that is reached when macroscopic variables such as pressure, volume
and temperature do not vary over time.
Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they reach the same temperature.
It is also an initial way of defining what temperature is.
Temperature is the variable that determines the state of thermal equilibrium of the
systems.
CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE
The previous definition defines temperature from a macroscopic point of view, that is,
at the level of concrete, visible, palpable objects or substances.
Can we define temperature from a molecular point of view? That's how it is:
Microscopic definition of temperature.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a
substance.
The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy and vice versa.
Temperature Measurement
Thermometric properties. They are those properties of substances that present variation in their
magnitude when the temperature changes, for example the pressure of a gas that increases when
the temperature changes. Another thermometric property is volume. Bodies expand when the
temperature increases. And we can mention others such as electrical resistance or color.

The thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature. This works based on some
thermometric property such as thermal expansion. A very common one is the mercury
thermometer. Currently there are ways to measure temperature based on infrared radiation that
any body emits.
 Temperature Scales
We will see the basic scales to measure temperature:
• Celsius scale. It is the most widely accepted in the world.
Proposed by the Swedish Anders Celsius in 1742. In short, it is
based on the melting and boiling points of water under normal
conditions.
• Fahrenheit scale. It was one of the first proposed scales. It is
due to the German physicist Gabriel D. Fahrenheit in 1714. His
reference points are: the temperature of a mixture of water,
ice and salt, and the average temperature of the human
body.
• Kelvin scale. It is an absolute scale since it measures
temperature based on what it physically represents, that is, the
average molecular kinetic energy of substances. Its lower limit
is the absolute zero of temperatures. (0 K)
Conversion of Temperature Scales
To convert a temperature of one scale to another
we have the following expressions:
• From Celsius to Fahrenheit:
°F = (°Cx1.8) + 32

• From Fahrenheit to Celsius:

°C = (°F - 32)/1.8

• From Celsius to Kelvin

K = °C + 273

• From Kelvin to Celsius:

°C = K - 273
Thermal Expansion
Changes in the dimensions and volumes of materials are common thermal effects.

Thermal expansion is the result of a change in the average distance between the
atoms of a substance.

To characterize the expansion of a material, the

linear expansion coefficient (α) is used, if it is an
elongated solid, or the volumetric expansion
coefficient (β) if it is a solid by volume or a liquid.
Example:
An aluminum rod measures 89.75 cm when the temperature is 25 ° C. What will be
its length if the rod is heated at 500 ° C?
Solution: Knowing the increase in length of
Based on the data we have, the increase in the aluminum rod, the length is
Data:
the length of the rod is calculated first, obtained at 500 ° C as follows:
L0 = 89.75 cm solving for the linear expansion formula. The
coefficient of expansion (α) is consulted in
T0 = 25 °C
table 2.4 of the book.
Tf = 500 °C
α = 24x10-6 °C-1

L=?
Concept of Heat
HEATH: Energy that transfers when there is a temperature difference.

UNITS OF HEAT
CALORIE: Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water in 1 °
C.
KILOCALORIE: Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of
water in 1 °C.
B.T.U. Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water in 1°F.
Since heat is a form of energy, the SI unit of energy is the joule, therefore, that will be
the heat unit that we will preferably use.
Specific Heat

SPECIFIC HEAT: Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a

substance in 1º C

Ejemplos de calores específicos:

In this formula:
Aluminium: 920 J/kg ºC
Q = Heat by change of
Ice: 2100 J/kg ºC temperature, sensitive heat.
Iron: 460 J/kg ºC m = mass of the substance
Water: 4186 J/kg ºC C = Specific heat
Water steam: 2009 J/kg ºC
ΔT = Change of temperature
Specific Heat

The specific heat of a material explains why some of them

get hotter than others, even though both have received
the same amount of heat.

In the figure, you have the same mass of water and

glycerin in two different containers. Both receive the same
amount of heat in the same time interval. Which one gets
hotter?

The answer is: the one with the lowest specific heat, as it
will need less heat per unit mass and for each degree of
temperature change. In this case it will be glycerin since its
specific heat is 2,420 J/kg°C, while water is 4,186 J/kg°C.
CHANGES OF PHASE AND LATENT HEAT
Matter presents in one of these three phases

SOLID PHASE: The molecules of the substance are held

together by attractive forces or bonds.

LIQUID PHASE:The molecules of the substance have

relative freedom of movement and assume the
shape of the container.

GASEOUS PHASE: The molecules have enough

energy to separate.
 HEAT AND CHANGE OF PHASE

• FUSION: It is the passage from the solid phase to the liquid phase at a
certain temperature.

• FREEZING OR SOLIDIFICATION: It is the passage from the liquid phase to

the solid phase at a certain temperature.

• MELTING OR FREEZING POINT: It is the temperature at which a substance

passes from the solid phase to the liquid phase or vice versa.

In the link you will find a simulation of the phase changes of a substance
from the solid to the gaseous state.
• BOILING: It is the passage from the liquid phase to the gas phase at a certain
temperature.

• CONDENSATION: It is the passage from the gas phase to the liquid phase at a
certain temperature.

• BOILING POINT OR CONDENSATION: It is the temperature at which a substance

passes from the liquid phase to the gas phase or vice versa.
LATENT HEAT OF PHASE CHANGE

For a substance to change phase, it requires:

1. That it is at its melting temperature or at its boiling point.
2. An amount of extra heat called latent heat
Latent heat of fusion: It is the amount of heat necessary for 1 kg of substance in the
solid phase to pass into the liquid phase. During the process, the temperature
remains constant.

Latent heat of vaporization: It is the amount of heat necessary for a 1 kg of

substance in the liquid phase to pass into the gaseous phase. During the process,
the temperature remains constant.
Graph of temperature vs heat
Example:
How much heat is required to transform 2.9 kg of ice, which is at a temperature of -15 ° C,
into water at 15 ° C?

Solution:
Locate the process described in the graph of temperature vs heat, from -15 ° C to 15 ° C.
We note that three heat calculations are required:
1. Sensitive heat to raise ice temperature from -15 °C to 0 °C.
2. Latent heat of fusion to convert ice at 0 °C into water at 0 °C and
3. Sensible heat to raise the water temperature from 0 °C to 15 °C.
Necessary data:
Cice=2093J/kg°C
Cice=4186J/kg°C
Lf water=333,000 J/kg
m = 2.9 kg
T0 = -15°C
Tf water= 0°C

15°C
T= 15°C

-15°C
continua...
1. Calor sensible

2. Calor latente de fusión

3. Calor sensible

4. Calor total. Suma

de todos los
calores
Mechanism of transmission of heat

We have seen that heat is a procedure for transferring energy

between systems, but how is this transfer done?
Heat transmission between systems can be done in three different
ways:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
HEAT TRANSMISSION BY CONDUCTION
• Transmission by conduction occurs when energy propagates due to collisions between the
particles, so that in each collision the particles give up part of their kinetic energy to the
particles with which they interact, all without there being net transport of matter.
• This type of transmission is the one that takes place when a metal bar is heated at one end: at
that point the metal particles begin to move faster, collide with neighboring particles and the
energy is transmitted until reaching the other end, which increases its temperature. This type of
transmission is characteristic of solids, since liquids conduct very poorly and gases practically
do not conduct.
• Within solids there are very good conductors, such as metals, and bad conductors, such as
wood or paper.
• Important: In conduction, energy is transported due to collisions between particles, without
there being a net displacement of matter.
HEAT TRANSMISSION BY CONVECTION
Transmission by convection is typical of fluids (liquids and gases). In it there is a transport of energy
associated with the displacement of masses of fluid within the fluid itself, due to the differences in density
caused by the different temperatures of some areas.

• The atmosphere or the oceans have dynamics due to this form of heat transmission.

• Important: In convection, energy spreads due to the difference in density between hot and cold fluids.
In it there is transport of matter.
HEAT TRANSMISSION BY RADIATION
• The two previous means of transmission require a material medium,
however we continuously receive energy from the Sun through the
cosmic vacuum, so there must be a third form of heat transmission:
it is radiation transmission. All bodies radiate energy, the more
when the their temperature is higher.
• Depending on the temperature, the radiation emitted may or may
not be visible. Thus, at low temperatures it is not visible, while
increasing this the object begins to glow from red to white. This
phenomenon makes possible to determine the temperature of a
body.
• Important: Radiation is the propagation of energy through
electromagnetic waves that all bodies emit due to having a
temperature above absolute zero. In it energy is transported
without matter transport.
THERMODYNAMICS

• Thermodynamics refers to the study of the

transformation of heat into other types of energy, as
well as the study of the transformation of other types
of energy into heat.
• In thermodynamics we speak of systems.
• A system is defined as a portion of matter enclosed
between limits that can be real or imaginary.
• The internal energy (U) of a system is the sum of all
the kinetic and potential energies that its atoms and
molecules have.
Laws of Thermodynamics
1st Law: What happens to a system when heat flows into it?
• can cause a change in internal energy
• can supply enough power to do work
Summarizing:
Q = ΔU + W
Q = heat added to the system
ΔU = Change in the internal energy
W = work performed by the system

In other words: "the heat added to a system is equal to the change in the internal energy
of the system plus the work done."
The 1st law of thermodynamics is a variant of the law of conservation of energy, energy is
neither created nor destroyed, it only changes shape.
Laws of Thermodynamics

2nd law: The first law of thermodynamics does not establish any restriction to
changes in energy due to heat flow, that is what the second law deals with, which
can be presented in several ways:
• Heat flows spontaneously from high-temperature bodies to low-temperature
bodies and is not the opposite direction.
• Heat energy cannot be completely transformed into mechanical work or vice
versa.
• It is impossible to build a machine that operates in perpetual motion.