ARVIN ENRICO SEC 5 THERMODYNAMICS

BSED II GENERAL SCIENCE MRS. AILEEN TOLENTINO

Explain
Activity 2: Discuss / Explain the following:
1. Discuss Temperature and Thermometric scale.
Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the manifestation of thermal
energy, present in all matter, which is the source of the occurrence of heat, a flow of energy
when a body is in contact with another that is colder or hotter. Temperature is measured with a
thermometer.
We could begin with a technical definition, but I would prefer to start with a question. How hot
is it? The answer to this question (or a question like this) is a measurement of temperature. The
hotter something is, the higher its temperature. Therefore I would like to propose the following
informal definition — the temperature is a measure of hotness.
There are three temperature scales in use today, Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin, and Rankine
Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for
the boiling point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts. The 18th-
century German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit originally took as the zero of his scale the
temperature of an equal ice-salt mixture and selected the values of 30 and 90 for the freezing
point of water and normal body temperature, respectively; these later were revised to 32 and 96,
but the final scale required an adjustment to 98.6 for the latter value.
Until the 1970s the Fahrenheit temperature scale was in general common use in English-
speaking countries; the Celsius, or centigrade, the scale was employed in most other countries
and for scientific purposes worldwide. Since that time, however, most English-speaking
countries have officially adopted the Celsius scale. The conversion formula for a temperature
that is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation is F = 9/5C + 32.
Celsius temperature scale also called the centigrade temperature scale, is the scale based on 0
for the freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742 by the
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it is sometimes called the centigrade scale because of the
100-degree interval between the defined points. The following formula can be used to convert a
temperature from its representation on the Fahrenheit ( F) scale to the Celsius (C) value: C =
5/9(F - 32). The Celsius scale is in general use wherever metric units have become accepted, and
it is used in scientific work everywhere.
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature measurement in the
International System (SI) of measurement. It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the triple point
(equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases) of pure water. The kelvin (symbol K
without the degree sign []) is also the fundamental unit of the Kelvin scale, an absolute
temperature scale named for the British physicist William Thomson, Baron Kelvin. Such a scale
has as it is zero points absolute zero, the theoretical temperature at which the molecules of a
substance have the lowest energy. Many physical laws and formulas can be expressed more
simply when an absolute temperature scale is used; accordingly, the Kelvin scale has been
adopted as the international standard for scientific temperature measurement. The Kelvin scale is
related to the Celsius scale. The difference between the freezing and boiling points of water is
100 degrees in each so that the kelvin has the same magnitude as the degree Celsius.
2. What is heat and what are its effects?
Heat, the energy that is transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference
in temperature. The effect of this transfer of energy usually, but not always, is an increase in the
temperature of the colder body and a decrease in the temperature of the hotter body.
Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between two substances at different temperatures.
The direction of energy flow is from the substance of higher temperature to the substance of
lower temperature. Heat is measured in units of energy, usually calories or joules. Heat and
temperature are often used interchangeably, but this is incorrect. 
Effects of heat are:
1. Raises the temperature.
2. Increases volume.
3. Changes state
4. Brings about chemical action.
5. Changes physical properties.
Effects of heat in our body are prolonged exposure to extreme heat can cause heat exhaustion,
heat cramps, heatstroke, and death, as well as exacerbate preexisting chronic conditions, such as
various respiratory, cerebral, and cardiovascular diseases.
3. Define and give example for the following: ( can be a sample problem and answer )
A. Specific heat - The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise
the temperature by one degree Celsius. The relationship between heat and temperature change is
usually expressed in the form shown below where c is the specific heat. The relationship does
not apply if a phase change is encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase
change does not change the temperature.
 Heat added = specific heat x mass x (tfinal - tinitial)
Question:
A 500-gram cube of lead is heated from 25 °C to 75 °C. How much energy was required to heat
the lead? The specific heat of lead is 0.129 J/g°C.
Solution: First, let’s the variables we know.
m = 500 grams
c = 0.129 J/g°C
ΔT = (Tfinal – Tinitial) = (75 °C – 25 °C) = 50 °C
Plug these values into the specific heat equation from above.
Q = mcΔT
Q = (500 grams)·(0.129 J/g°C)·(50 °C)
Q = 3225 J
Answer: It took 3225 Joules of energy to heat the lead cube from 25 °C to 75 °C.
B. Heat capacity - Heat capacity, the ratio of heat absorbed by a material to
the temperature change. It is usually expressed as calories per degree in terms of the actual
amount of material being considered, most commonly a mole (the molecular weight in grams).
The heat capacity in calories per gram is called specific heat. The definition of the calorie is
based on the specific heat of water, defined as one calorie per degree Celsius.

Q = mcΔT
q = heat energy m = mass c = specific heat ΔT = change in temperature
Question:
What is the heat in joules required to raise the temperature of 25 grams of water from 0 degrees
C to 100 degrees C? What is the heat in calories?
Useful information: specific heat of water = 4.18 J/g·°C
Solution:
Part I
Use the formula
q = (25 g)x(4.18 J/g·°C)[(100 C - 0 C)]
q = (25 g)x(4.18 J/g·°C)x(100 C)
q = 10450 J
Part II
4.18 J = 1 calorie
x calories = 10450 J x (1 cal/4.18 J)
x calories = 10450/4.18 caloriesx calories = 2500 calories
Answer:
10450 J or 2500 calories of heat energy are required to raise the temperature of 25 grams of
water from 0 degrees C to 100 degrees C.
C. Latent heat of fusion - The heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to melt the frozen
solvent. It can be used to determine the freezing point depression of solute.The larger the value
of heat of fusion or heat of vaporization, the stronger the intermolecular binding forces in the
solid or liquid. The amount of heat gained by a solid object to convert it into a liquid without any
further increase in the temperature is known as latent heat of fusion. As a consequence, the latent
heat of fusion depends upon the crystal form of the solid phase which should be strictly
specified. Direct measurements of moderate accuracy of the latent heat of fusion is relatively
straightforward with modern differential scanning calorimeters over a moderate range of
conditions of temperature and pressure.

Q=m×L
L = specific latent heat of fusion of substance.
The temperature of the substance changes from t1 (low temperature) to t2 (high
temperature) the heat which the material absorbs or releases is expressed as
   Q = mc Δt  
   Q = mc (t2 – t1)
The total amount of heat absorbed or  liberated by the material is
   Q = mL + mc Δt
Question:
A piece of metal at 20oC has a mass of 60g. When it is immersed in a current of steam at 100∘C,
0.5g of steam is condensed on it. Determine the specific heat of metal, given that the latent heat
of steam = 540 cal/g.
Solution:
Let c be the specific heat of the metal.
Heat gained by the metal
Q = m c Δt
Q = 60 × c × (100 – 20)
Q = 60 × c × 80 cal
The heat released by the steam
Q=m×L
Q = 0.5 × 540 cal
By the principle of mixtures,
Heat given is equal to Heat taken
0.5 × 540 = 60 × c ×80
c = 0.056 cal/g ∘C    
D. Latent heat of vaporization - Latent heat of vaporization is a physical property of a
substance. It is defined as the heat required to change one mole of liquid at its boiling point
under standard atmospheric pressure. It is expressed as kg/mol or kJ/kg. The heat of
vaporization of water is about 2,260 kJ/kg, which is equal to 40.8 kJ/mol. The input energy
required to change the state from liquid to vapor at constant temperature is called the latent heat
of vaporization. When a liquid vaporize at the normal boiling point the temperature of the liquid
will not rise beyond the temperature of the boiling point.
The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of
"heat required to convert a unit mass of a liquid into vapor without a change in temperature".

Q = m·ΔHv
q = heat energy m = mass ΔHv = heat of vaporization.

Question:
What is the heat in joules required to convert 25 grams of water into steam? What is the heat in
calories?
What you know: Heat of vaporization of water = 2257 J/g = 540 cal/g
You can solve this problem using either joules or calories for heat.
Part I:
Use the formula q = m·ΔHv in which q = heat energy, m = mass, and ΔHv = heat of
vaporization.
q = (25 g)x(2257 J/g)
q = 56425 J

Part II:
q = m·ΔHf
q = (25 g)x(540 cal/g)
q = 13500 cal
Answer
The amount of heat required to change 25 grams of water into steam is 56425 joules or 13500
calories.
A related example illustrates how to calculate the energy when water changes from solid ice into
steam.
E. Rankine Scale - The Rankine scale is an absolute scale of thermodynamic temperature named
after the Glasgow University engineer and physicist Macquorn Rankine, who proposed it in
1859. Just like the Kelvin scale, which was first proposed in 1848. Zero on the Rankine scales
is absolute zero, but a temperature difference of one Rankine degree is defined as equal to
one Fahrenheit degree, rather than the Celsius degree used on the Kelvin scale. Thus, a
temperature of 0 K (−273.15 °C; −459.67 °F) is equal to 0 °R, and a temperature of −458.67 °F
equal to 1 °R. As such, the Rankine scale is used in engineering systems where heat
computations are done using degrees Fahrenheit.
The symbol for degrees Rankine is °R (or °Ra if necessary to distinguish it from
the Rømer and Réaumur scales). By analogy with the SI unit, the kelvin, some authors term the
unit rankine, omitting the degree symbol.
Some important temperatures relating the Rankine scale to other temperature scales are shown in
the table below.’

Temperature Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit Rankine

−273.15 °
Absolute zero 0K −459.67 °F 0 °R
C

Freezing point of brine 255.37 K −17.78 °C 0 °F 459.67 °R

Freezing point of water 273.15 K 0 °C 32 °F 491.67 °R

Boiling point of water 373.1339 K 99.9839 °C 211.97102 °F 671.64102 °R

Explore
Activity 3 : Answer the following briefly.
1. Why does the food I a clay pot continue to boil for a short time even if the stove has been
turned off?
The pot is a heat conductor and once the fire is out, the clay pot is still hot. So thus fore, it boils
for a bit. Since the clay pot has a high heat capacity, the energy given to the pot continues to
slowly release even after the heat source has been removed. Thus, the food is literally still
cooking.
2. Why is water not used in the construction of liquid in glass thermometer?
The melting point of water is 0oc but when you see mercury freezing point (melting point) -
38.83oc and the boiling point of the mercury is 356.73oc. The boiling point of water is 100oc. So
based on this criteria the mercury is having the temperature reading capacity compared to water.

The color of mercury is silvery which is easy to identify and where as water is transparent and
there is a chance of reflections of various colors.

The thermal expansion of mercury is 60.4 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C). The thermal expansion of water
is from 4oC to 100oC - 4.2x10-2 the volumetric temperature expansion is non-linear respective to
the temperature. But the mercury is linear temperature expansion can be observed. This is one of
the main reasons to use of mercury in thermometers.

Water having the property of condensation but the mercury has no condensation property which
is helpful to expect the exact values compared to water.

We can measure the negative and positive temperature by using the mercury but water cannot.
Water is not helpful to measure below 0oC and above 100oC.

The most metals are solids at room temperature but the mercury is liquid form because it has
high coefficient of expansion.

The mercury does not stick to capillary wall of thermometer and which can easily measure
temperature accurately.

3. Why is the ice compartment placed at the upper portion of the refrigerator and not at
the lower portion?
Freezer is the source for the refrigerator's coldness. When the freezer is placed on top, the cold
air produced from it is denser than the warmer air in the bottom. So cold air being dense sinks
down and the warm air is forced to rise up so when the warm air rises up it and gets cold in the
freezer. Cold air being denser, settles down while warm air being comparatively lighter rises up.
Since freezer is the pace where the refrigerant glows in the tubes, the air in the freezer section is
the coolest. As this air cools there things kept in the refrigerator, it becomes warm and then rises
up again to the freezer compartment to get cooled and the cycle is repeated.
4. Cite some daily experiences that will prove that water expands on freezing.
Most liquids have a quite simple behavior when they are cooled (at a fixed pressure): they
shrink. The liquid contracts as it is cooled; because the molecules are moving slower they are
less able to overcome the attractive intermolecular forces drawing them closer to each other.
Then the freezing temperature is reached, and the substance solidifies, which causes it to contract
some more because crystalline solids are usually tightly packed.
Water is one of the few exceptions to this behavior. When liquid water is cooled, it contracts like
one would expect until a temperature of approximately 4 degrees Celsius is reached. After that, it
expands slightly until it reaches the freezing point, and then when it freezes it expands by
approximately 9%.
This unusual behavior has its origin in the structure of the water molecule. There is a strong
tendency to form a network of hydrogen bonds, where each hydrogen atom is in a line between
two oxygen atoms. This hydrogen bonding tendency gets stronger as the temperature gets lower
(because there is less thermal energy to shake the hydrogen bonds out of position). As a result,
ice is less dense than the liquid form. Water is the only known non-metallic substance
that expands when it freezes; its density decreases and it expands approximately 9% by volume.

5. Which will cause a more severe burn: steam or boiling water?

Because steam has more energy than water at same temp i.e. 100 ℃ .
Steam use latent heat of vaporisation to get vapourisze and water don't have this energy.
This latent ( hidden ) energy is the cause of more severe burns caused by steam than water.
Steam will produce more severe burns than boiling water because steam has more heat energy
than water due to its latent heat of vaporisation.

Extend/Elaborate
Activity 4: Solve the following:
1. At what temperature will the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales give the same reading?
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales have one point at which they intersect. They are equal at -40
°C and -40 °F. The simple method to find when two temperature scales are equal to each other is
to set the conversion factors for the two scales equal to each other and solve for temperature.

The formulas for converting between degree Celsius and degree Fahrenheit are:

°F = (°C * 9/5) + 32
°C = (°F - 32) * 5/9

To find the temperature when both are equal, we use an old algebra trick and just set ºF = ºC and
solve one of the equations.

°C = (°C * 9/5) + 32
°C - (°C * 9/5) = 32
-4/5 * °C = 32
°C = -32 * 5/4
°C = -40
°F = (°F * 9/5) + 32
°F - (°F * 9/5) = 32
-4/5 * °F = 32
°F = -32 * 5/4
°F = -40

So the temperature when both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are the same is -40 degrees.
2. Derive an equation for direct conversion from Fahrenheit scales to Kelvin scale.
Converting Directly to Kelvin
Learn the formula. There are two ways that you can convert from Fahrenheit to Kelvin, and the
first is a simple calculation that makes the conversion directly. The formula to use for this is K =
(y °F + 459.67) x 5/9.[1]

 For example, if you needed to convert 75 °F to Kelvin, the formula would look
like K = (75 °F + 459.67) x 5/9

Add 459.67 to your original temperature. On the Fahrenheit scale, absolute zero is -459.67 °F,
which is equivalent to 0 K.[2] Because the Kelvin scale does not contain negative numbers, you
must first add 459.67 to any Fahrenheit number when you want to make the conversion to
Kelvin.

 In the example of converting 75 °F, the answer to the first step is 75 °F + 459.67
= 534.67

Multiply the sum by 5/9 to get the temperature in Kelvin. Remember that 5/9 can also be
written as 0.55, where 5 is a repeating decimal. The answer to that product is your temperature in
Kelvin.
 In the example of 75 °F, the answer to the second step is 5/9 x 534.67 =
297.0388, where 8 is a repeating decimal
 The answer to (75 °F + 459.67) x 5/9 = 297.0388
 Therefore 75 °F = 297.0388 K

Converting Kelvin to Fahrenheit

Know the formula. To convert Kelvin to Fahrenheit instead, you simply use the same formula,
but in reverse. The formula for converting Kelvin to Fahrenheit is F = y K x 9/5 – 459.67.[4]

 For example, to convert 320 K, you'd use the equation F = 320 K x 9/5 – 459.67
Multiply your original temperature by 9/5. Remember that 9/5 can also be written as 1.8.
 In the example of 320 K, the answer to step one is 320 K x 9/5 = 576.

Subtract 459.67 from the product to get your temperature in Fahrenheit. Once you’ve
multiplied the temperature in Kelvin by 9/5, simply subtract the Fahrenheit temperature of
absolute zero (-459.67) from the product.
 In the example of 320 K, the answer to step two is 576 – 459.67 = 116.33
 The answer to 320 K x 9/5 – 459.67 = 116.33
 Therefore, 320 K = 116.33 °F

3. Make 3 sample problems with answer on conversion of temperature from one unit to
another

1. Convert 100oc to F?
Step #1: Multiply the temperature by 9.
100 x 9 = 900

Step #2: Then divide by 5.

900 ÷ 5 = 180

Step #3: Then add by 32.

180 + 32 = 212
Therefore, 100°C = 212°F

2. Convert 50oF to Kelvin?

Step #1: Convert into Celsius scale.
50 – 32 = 48
18 x 5 = 90
90 ÷ 9 = 10

So,50°F = 10°C
Step #2: Subtract the temperature by 273.
10 – 273 = –263
Therefore, 50°F = –263 K
3. Convert -228 K to Fahrenheit?
Step #1: Convert into Celsius by adding 273.
–228 + 273= 45
So, –228 K= 45°C

Step #2: Convert into Fahrenheit scale.

45 x 9 = 405
405 ÷ 5 = 81
81 + 32 = 113

Therefore, –228 K = 113°F

4. Convert 167oF to Celcius

Step #1: Subtract 32 from the temperature.
167 – 32 = 135

Step #2: Then multiply by 5.

135 x 5 =675

Step #3: Then divide by 9.

675 ÷ 9 = 75
Therefore, 167°F = 75°C

5. Convert 50 °R to degrees Celsius

50 °R = ( ( 50 - 491.67 ) × 5 / 9 ) = -245.372222 °C

6. Convert 50 °R to degrees Fahrenheit

50 °R = ( 50 - 459.67 ) = -409.67 °F

7. Convert 50 °R to kelvins

50 °R = ( 50 × 5 / 9 ) = 27.777778 K