Chapter 6

can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing any change in temperature. Such a
body is called a thermal energy reservoir,

A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source, and one that absorbs energy in
the form of heat is called a sink (Fig. 6–7). Thermal energy reservoirs are often referred to as heat
reservoirs

work can be converted to heat directly and completely, but converting heat to work requires the use
of some special devices. These devices are called heat engines.

KELVIN PLANK It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net amount of work

The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.

he efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance (COP), d

The performance of air conditioners and heat pumps is often expressed in terms of the energy
efficiency ratio (EER) or seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER). EER ; 3.412 COPR

CLAUTIUS is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other
than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings

The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities. They include friction,
unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite temperature difference,
electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions

Another example of irreversibility is the unrestrained expansion of a gas

A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of the
system during the process.

The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal and two adiabatic—and
it can be executed either in a closed or a steady.

Carnot principle

The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the same two reservoirs. 2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines
operating between the same two reservoirs are the same.

The thermal efficiency of actual heat engines can be maximized by supplying heat to the engine at
the highest possible temperature (limited by material strength) and rejecting heat from the engine
at the lowest possible temperature

Chapter 7

Inequality the cyclic integral of dQ/T is always less than or equal to zero.
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness. As a system
becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become less predictable and the entropy
increases.

the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero since there is no
uncertainty about the state of the molecules at that instant (Fig. 7–21). This statement is known as
the third law of thermodynamics.

The first law of thermodynamics is essentially an expression of the conservation of energy principle,
also called the energy balance

heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat without mixing. Heat
exchangers are widely used in various industries, and they come in various designs

Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant pressure drop in the
fluid. S

some work is required to push the mass into or out of the control volume. This work is known as the
flow work, or flow energy
Therefore, the expansion and compression work is often called moving boundary work, or simply
boundary work (
specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
by one degree

A substance whose specific volume (or density) is constant is called an incompressible substance. T

A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance.

subcooled liquid, meaning that it is not about to vaporize.

A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a saturated liquid.

A vapor that is about to condense is called a saturated vapor.

The use of the second law of thermodynamics is not limited to identifying the direction of processes.
The second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity.

This point is called the critical point, and it is defined as the point at which the saturated liquid and
saturated vapor states are identical.

Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a substance is called an
equation of state.

This deviation from ideal-gas behavior at a given temperature and pressure can accurately be
accounted for by the introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility factor Z
Gases behave differently at a given temperature and pressure, but they behave very much the same
at temperatures and pressures normalized with respect to their critical temperatures and pressures.
Z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same reduced pressure and temperature. This
is called the principle of corresponding.

e a property to enable us to determine the useful work potential of a given amount of energy at
some specified state. This property is exergy, which is also called the availability or available energy.
A system is said to be in the dead state when it is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the
environment it is in

surroundings are everything outside the system boundaries. The immediate surroundings refer to
the portion of the surroundings that is affected by the process, and environment refers to the region
beyond the immediate surrounding

t a system delivers the maximum possible work as it undergoes a reversible process from the
specified initial state to the state of its environment, that is, the dead state. This represents the
useful work potential of the system at the specified state