UNIT-I

Q.1 Define following terms System, Boundary, Surrounding, Control Volume, Universe
System
A system is a region containing energy and/or matter that is separated
from its surroundings by arbitrarily imposed walls or boundaries.

Boundary:
The Surface (real or imaginary) which separates any matter from the
Surroundings ia called boundary

Surrounding (Environment):
Everything external to the system is the surroundings but which may
interact and influence system behavior.

Control Volume:
A control volume is a fixed region in space chosen for the thermodynamic study of mass and
energy balances for flowing systems. The boundary of the control volume may be a real or
imaginary. The control  surface is the boundary of the control volume.

Universe
System + surrounding is called universe

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Q.2 Explain various types of Systems with example

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 Q.3 What do you understand by macroscopic and microscopic view points?
Macroscopic approach

 In this approach a certain quantity of matter is considered without taking into account the events
occurring at molecular level. In other words this approach to thermodynamics is concerned with
gross or overall behavior. This is known as classical thermodynamics.
 The analysis of macroscopic system requires simple mathematical formula.
 The value of the properties of the system are their average values. For examples consider a
sample of gas in a closed container. The pressure of the gas is the average value of the pressure
exerted by millions of individual molecules.
 In order to describe a system only a few properties are needed.

Microscopic Approach:
 The approach considers that the system is made up of a very large number of discrete particles
known as molecules. These molecules have different velocities are energies. The values of these
energies are constantly changing with time. This approach to thermodynamics, which is
concerned  directly with the structure of the matter, is known as statistical thermodynamics.
 The behavior of the system is found by using statistical methods, as the number of molecules is
very large. So advanced statistical and mathematical methods are needed to explain the changes
in the system.
 The properties like velocity, momentum, impulse, kinetic energy and instruments cannot easily
measure force of impact etc. that describe the molecule.
 Large numbers of variables are needed to describe a system. So the approach is complicated.

Q.4 what is thermodynamics equilibrium

The system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if the conditions for following three equilibrium is
satisfied:
1) Mechanical equilibrium
2) Chemical equilibrium
3) Thermal equilibrium
1) Mechanical equilibrium: When there are no unbalanced forces within the system and
between the system and the surrounding, the system is said to be under mechanical equilibrium.
The system is also said to be in mechanical equilibrium when the pressure throughout the system
and between the system and surrounding is same.
Example:- of mechanical equilibrium is a person pressing a spring to a defined point

2) Chemical equilibrium: The system is said to be in chemical equilibrium when there are no
chemical reactions going on within the system or there is no transfer of matter from one part of
the system to other due to diffusion. Two systems are said to be in chemical equilibrium with
each other when their chemical potentials are same.
Example:-air and fuel mixture

3) Thermal equilibrium :- The system is said to be in thermal equilibrium. When the

temperature of the system is uniform and not changing throughout the system and also in the
surroundings, the system is said to be thermal equilibrium.
Example:- Deep ocean water is typically in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings,
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Q.5 What do you mean by equality of temperature or thermal equilibrium
Any two bodies are said to have ‘equality of temperature’ when no change in any observable property
occurs when they are brought in for thermal communication. The equality of temperature is also termed
'thermal equilibrium'

Q.6 Define following terms State, path, Process and thermodynamics cycle
1 State: When all the properties of system have a definite value, then the system is in a definite
state. Whenever there is change in anyone of the property, then the system is said to have a
change of state.

2 Path: If all the change of states of system are plotted and all the points are conned, then the
line joining the change of states of the system is called the path.

3 Process: When the path connecting the change of states of the system is specified, then this
path is called Process. Example: constant pressure process, constant volume process etc.

4 Thermodynamic Cycle:  When a system goes through different change of states and return
backs to the original state, i.e., all the properties are identical to the original state, then the system
is said have gone through a thermodynamic cycle.

Q.7 what is intensive and extensive property with example

Intensive properties do not depend on system size, i.e independent of the amount of substance
for example Pressure; Volume; Temperature; Entropy; Enthalpy; Internal energy and
density
Extensive properties are linearly dependent on the amount of substance. Example-: mass,
volume,

Q.8 Define Thermodynamic cycle

When a system goes through different change of states and return backs to the original state, i.e.,
all the properties are identical to the original state, then the system is said have gone through a
thermodynamic cycle. ..

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Q. 9 What is the difference between exact and inexact differential in thermodynamics
Exact differential represent, the given function is independent of path. The properties such as
temperature, pressure, density, mass, volume, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy are exact
differential. They depends upon their initial an final state and therefore they are also called state
or point function.

Example:- In figure 1, There are two points S 1 and S2. These points represents the initial and
final state. From the figure 1, you we can not calculate the work done because there is no path.
There could be any path from state S1 to S2.

Inexact differential represents the given function is dependent on path and hence called path
function. Examples heat and work
Example:- In figure 2,3,4 The shaded area under the curve is work done. As we can see, For the
same initial and final states, different path can have different shaded area and hence different
work done. Therefore quantities like heat and work is a Path function since it depends upon path
and it is inexact differential

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 Q. 10 what is Quasi static Process
In thermodynamics, a quasi-static process is a thermodynamic process that happens slowly
enough for the system to remain in internal equilibrium. An example of this is quasi-static
compression, where the volume of a system changes at a slow rate enough to allow
the pressure to remain uniform and constant throughout the system.

Q.11 Explain Reversible Processes and irreversible process

A process is said to be reversible if both the system and the surroundings can be restored to their
respective initial states, by reversing the direction of the process. A reversible process is a
process that can be reversed without leaving a trace on the surroundings…..Example:- pendulum

The processes that are not reversible are called Irreversible processes
Q.12 what are the main Causes of Irreversibility
Four most common causes of irreversibility are
1. Friction,
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2. Unrestrained expansion of a fluid,
3. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, and
4. Mixing of two different substances.
These factors are present in real, irreversible processes and prevent these processes from being
reversible.

Q.13 Define Energy in State and in Transition

The time it takes to transition from one state to another state via the transition state is determined
by the height of the energy barrier between these energy states

or

Q.14 What is work transfer and list various types or forms of work transfer in
thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, work transfer is considered as occurring between system and
surroundings. Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect on the things external to
system can be reduced to the raising of a weight. The weight may not actually be raised, but the
net effect exernal to the system would be the raising of a weight
Various modes of work transfer.
1. p-dv work or displacement work:

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2. Electrical work of a capacitor: (1/2)CV2 where C is the capacitance and V is the voltage.

3. Electrical work for a resistor : i2 R t where i is the current through the resistor, R is the resistance and t
is the time of operation.

4. Shaft work: (2 πN T t)/(60) where N is the shaft speed (in revolutions per minute) and T is the torque.
Also t is the time of operation.

5. Gravitational work: m. g. h where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height
by which the mass is raised or lowered.

6. Surface tension work: (surface tension) x (increase in area of the film)

Q.15what is the principles of thermometry in thermodynamics

The liquid thermometers are based on the principal of thermal expansion. When a substance
gets hotter, it expands to a greater volume. Nearly all substances exhibit this behavior of thermal
expansion. It is the basis of the design and operation of thermometers.

Q.16 What is the difference between heat and work?

Heat and work are two different ways of transferring energy from one system to another. The
the distinction between Heat and Work is important in the field of thermodynamics. Heat is the
transfer of thermal energy between systems, while work is the transfer of mechanical
energy between two systems.

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Figure shows a constant volume gas thermometer. It consists of a glass bulb with capillary tube having a
definite mass of gas. A mercury filled U-shaped transparent flexible rubber pipe is connected to the
capillary tube. The pressure on the gas (P gas) is due to the ‘L’ difference in height of mercury column in
U-tube together with atmospheric pressure acting on the open end of the flexible pipe i.e. P gas = ρ.g.L +
patm. The open end of the flexible pipe can be raised or lowered to keep the volume of the gas constant.

Let the gas bulb be placed in the system where the temperature ‘T’ is to be measured as shown in Fig. 1
(b). Depending on the system temperature, the gas in the gas bulb will expand and this results in increase
in gas volume and change in mercury level in the right limb of U-tube from reference mark ‘A’ to ‘A 1’.
Now, let the mercury column be so adjusted by raising the open end of the flexible pipe that the level of
mercury stands at the reference mark ‘A’ as shown in Fig 1 (c). Thus the volume of gas in the gas bulb is
maintained constant. At this point, let the pressure of the gas be P which is calculated based on new
Q.17 Explain
in details
construction
and working of
Constant
Volume Gas
thermometer
or ideal gas
temperat
ure scale
difference in height of mercury column ‘L1’ of U-tube.

Let a similar measurement of pressure be made when the gas bulb is placed in the location where the
triple point of water (Tt.p. = 273.16 K) is maintained. For triple point, let the pressure of the gas be P t.p..

Since for an ideal gas T varies as p, we have

                 
or

     
By using the above relation, the unknown temperature T of a system could be determined from pressure
measurement, P. The temperature so measured is referred to as the ideal-gas temperature.

On this scale, when the gas bulb is placed in the system having steam point, the steam point is
experimentally found to be 100.0 °C. Thus, there is an essential agreement between the old and new
temperature scales.

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Q. 18 show values for freezing point of water, boiling point of water and absolute
temperature for four
temperature scales used day to day (i.e Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin and Rankine)

Reference
Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin Rankine
point
Ice point 0 32 273 492
Steam
100 212 373 672
point
Absolute
-273 - 460 0 0
Zero

Q.19 what is Path and Point functions

Path function depends on history of the system (or path by which system arrived at a given
state).
Examples for path functions are work and heat
Point function does not depend on the history (or path) of the system. It only depends on the
state of the system.
Examples of point functions are: Temperature, pressure, density, mass, volume, enthalpy,
entropy, internal energy etc.

Q. 20 difference between Path and Point function.

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Q.21 Define Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Q. 22 Explain Principles of Thermometry

Any property of a material which changes with temperature can be used to indicate or
measure temperature.  For example, the expansion of solids, liquids and gases are all used
to make thermometers. 
Other examples are
An electrical resistance thermometer, in which the resistance of a length of wire changes with
temperature; 
a thermocouple thermometer, in which junctions between two wires of different metals generate
a voltage when the junctions are at a different temperature; a pyrometer in which high
temperatures are judged by comparing the colour of a hot object with a reference colour scale.

Q. 23 What is meant by thermometry?

Thermometry is the process of measuring temperature. Temperature is basically a measure of the
amount of kinetic energy, particles possess
Q. 24 What do you mean by equality of temperature or thermal equilibrium
Any two bodies are said to have ‘equality of temperature’ when no change in any observable
property occurs when they are brought in for thermal communication. The equality of
temperature is also termed 'thermal equilibrium'
Q.25 Represent sigh conventions for heat and work
Sign Convention of Work

 Work done by the system on the surroundings is considered as positive work.

 Work done on the system by the surroundings is taken as negative work.

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Sign Convention of Heat

 Heat given into a system is positive

 Heat coming out of the system is negative

Fig. 2.8 Sign convention of heat

Q. 26 What is meant by source and sink in thermodynamics

Source is a reservoir from which you can transfer as much heat to the engine without
changing source's temperature & Sinkis also a reservoir to which you can transfer as much heat from
the engine without changing sink'stemperature.

Q.27 What is the concept of continuum?

The concept of continuum is used in macroscopic approach of thermodynamics and not in microscopic

approach

The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous distribution of matter where the
properties of the matter are considered as continuous

Example:- density of any liquid

But in microscopic, our attention is focused on single molecule and the changes that occur at molecular
level is considered. But in macroscopic it is not the same. The molecules within a specific volume
considered are assumed to have same behaviour and the analysis is carried out assuming the same
behaviour throughout the volume. Here comes the need for continuum

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Example.
Suppose you have a class of 5 students whose average score is 10 out of 20. But in that class, 2 students got
20/20 and the remaining 3 got less marks. If the average concept is applied here, It becomes wrong in the case
of the 2 students and right for the other 3 students

Q. 27 Explain International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)

The International Temperature Scale of 1990 supersedes the International Practical Temperature
Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68), 1948 (ITPS-48), and 1927 (ITS-27).
The ITS-90 is similar to its predecessors except that it is more refined with updated values of
fixed temperatures, has an extended range, and conforms more closely to the thermodynamic
temperature scale.
On this scale, the unit of thermodynamic temperature T is again the kelvin (K), defined as the
fraction 1/ 273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water, which is sole
defining fixed point of both the ITS-90 and the Kelvin scale and is the most important
thermometric fixed point used in the calibration of thermometers to ITS-90. The unit of Celsius
temperature is the degree Celsius (°C).
The ice point remains the same at 0°C ( 273.15K) in both ITS-90 and ITPS-68, but the steam
point is 99.975 °C in ITS-90 whereas it was 100.000°C in IPTS-68.
The change is due to precise measurements made by gas thermometry by paying particular
attention to the effect of sorption (the impurities in a gas absorbed by the walls of the bulb at the
reference temperature being desorbed at higher temperatures, causing the measured gas pressure
to increase).

UNIT-II
Q.1 Explain Joule's Experiment of First law of Thermodynamics

Consider a closed insulated adiabatic container with a know mas of water, having thermometer and paddle
wheel with other connection are as shown in figure. Let certain amount of work W 1-2 is done on the system
with paddle wheel by lowering the weight W. The system was initially at a temperature t 1 after work transwer
let the temperature rise to t2. The process is shown in figure below.

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 Let the insulation is removed and allowed the system to return to its original temperature t 2 by rejecting heat
to the surrounding as shown in the figure below hence that completes a cycle

There fore it has been found that

W1-2  Q2-1
W1-2 =J Q2-1
Where ‘J’is Joules constant or joules equivalent
if the system had more number of work and heat interactions, then
(W1 + W2 + W3) = J (Q1 + Q2+ Q3)
Q. 2 Describe first law of Thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing cycle
It states that the amount of heat Q supplied to the system is equal to the amount of work W done by the
system on its surroundings

Q. 3 Describe first law of Thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing change of state
It states that the change in the internal energy ΔU of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat Q supplied
to the system, minus the amount of work W done by the system on its surroundings.
Q - W= U

Q.4 List and explains Corollaries of first law of thermodynamics:

Corollary 1: (First Law for process).
Change in internal energy (ΔU) is equal to the difference between heat supplied and work done.
ΔU = dQ - dW
Where ΔU is called as total internal energy that includes
a) Internal energy,
b) Kinetic energy,
c) Potential energy,
d) Electrical energy,
e) Magnetic energy,
f) Chemical energy, etc.

Corollary 2: (Isolated System).

The internal energy of a isolated system remains constant as heat and work interactions are absent

i.e ΔU = constant Isolated

d Q = 0,
d W = 0.
System

Q.5 What is Perpetual Motion Machine of the First kind (PMM1)

A machine which can supply mechanical work continuously without consuming of any input energy, Thus
this machine is called Perpetual Motion Machine of the First kind (PMM1)
Or
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 A machine which produces more output energy (i.e work W) than the supplied in put energy (i.e heat Q) ?
W>Q

PROPERTIES OF PERFECT GASES

Q.6 Define the equation of state
Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a substance is called an equation
of state
Example :- PV=mRT
Q.7 What is universal gas constant (Ru)
For any ideal gas, the product of molecular weight (M) and its characteristic gas constant (R) is called the
UGC
Symbol for UGC is Ru
RU for any gas is constant and is equal to 8.314 KJ/Kmol oK
Ru = MR
Ru for oxygen= 32 x 0.25984 = 8.314 KJ/Kmol oK
Ru for helium = 4.003 x 7.0771 = 8.314 KJ/Kmol oK
Ru for air = 28.97 x 0.287 = 8.314 KJ/Kmol oK

Q.8 What is specific heat and what are the types of specific heat?
The specific heat is defined as the amount heat (Joules) required raising the temperature of a 1 Kg of a
substance by one (1oc) degree Celsius
We have two kinds of specific heats:
1. Specific heat at constant volume Cv and
2. Specific heat at constant pressure Cp.

Q.9 List all non flow processes in first law of thermodynamics

OR
List the applications of first law of thermodynamics
(1). Constant volume process – Isochoric  process…..…V (Volume)=C
(2). Constant pressure process – Isobaric process…..…..P (Pressure) =C
(3)  Constant temperature process -  Isothermal process..T (Temperature)=C, P1V1=P2V2=….PV
(4). Reversible adiabatic process – Isentropic process…..S (Entropy) = C, P1V1= P2V2=C… PV
(5)). Polytropic process….real process, nothing constant… PV= P1V1n= P2V2n = C……. PVn

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Q.10 Derive equations for Heat, work done and internal energy for all non flow processes
in first law of
thermodynamics

(1). Constant volume process – Isocharic  process

V = C,           dV = 0
dQ  = dU+PdV
dQ  = dU+PdV  but dV = 0
dQ = dU
Integrating we get
Q12 = (U2-U1)
   we know that for constant volume process
Q12 = m Cv (T2-T1)                         
Cv  - specific heat at constant volume = 0.718 KJ / Kg.K for air.
  Q12 =(U2-U1)   =  mCv(T2-T1)
For constant volume process Work done  = 0, Heat transfer  =  change in internal energy.

(2). Constant pressure process – Isobaric process

P=C
We know that
dQ  = dU+PdV
Integrating we get
Q12 = U2 –U1 + P [ V2 – V1] / 1000
      =  [U2 + P2 V2  / 1000 ]  - [ U1 + P1 V1 / 1000 ]        
Q12  = H2 – H1
H = U + PV / 1000
Enthalpy  = Internal energy  + Flow energy
But we know that for a constant pressure process 
Q12  = m Cp (T2-T1) 
Cp is specific heat at constant pressure. Cp =1.005 KJ/Kg.K for air
Q12 = H2 – H1  = m Cp (T2-T1)
W = P (V2 –V1) / 1000
 [U2 – U1] = m Cv(T2-T1)
For constant pressure process heat transfer = change in enthalpy.
From constant pressure process
Q12 = U2 –U1 + P [V2 – V1]
 m Cp (T2-T1) =   m Cv(T2-T1) + m R(T2 –T1) 
Cp  = Cv + R
Cp - Cv = R

(3)  Constant temperature process-  Isothermal process (PV=C)

dT = 0 , T2  = T1           
we know that
P1V1/T1  = P2V2/T2
P1V1   = P2V2   [ since  T2=T1]
PV = C
Hence isothermal process is also called as Hyperbolic process.
We know that
dQ  = dU+PdV
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 dQ  = m Cv dT2+PdV
dQ =PdV  [ since dT = 0]
Heat transfer  = Work done
Work done = 1∫2   P dV
PV = C, P = C / V
Substituting and integrating we get
W = P1V1 loge(V2/V1)
Q12 = W = P1V1 loge(V2/V1)

(4). Reversible adiabatic process – Isentropic process

dQ = 0 ,  PVγ  = C
We know that
dQ  = dU+PdV
dU = -PdV  [ since dQ = 0 ]
change in internal energy  =    -work done
change in internal energy  [ U2 – U1] = m Cv(T2-T1)
Workdone = 1∫2   P dV
We know that  PVγ  = C
P  =  C / Vγ
            Substituting and integrating we get
W = P1V1 – P2V2 / [γ – 1 ]

(5). Polytropic process

PVn  =C

We know that                                                        

dQ  = dU+PdV

Integrating we get

Q12 =  (U2-U1)  +   P1V1 – P2V2 / [n – 1 ]

=  m Cv(T2-T1) + mR(T1-T2)/ [n – 1 ]

            =  m Cv(T2-T1) - mR(T2-T1)/ [n – 1 ]

            = m Cv(T2-T1) – m Cv (γ  – 1) (T2-T1)/ [n – 1]

            =  [ n- γ  / n – 1] m Cv(T2-T1)

  Q12     = [ n- γ  / n – 1] ∆U

  W  =  P1V1 – P2V2 / [n – 1 ] and [ U2 – U1]  =  m Cv(T2-T1)

Q. 11 Define Ideal gas.

It is defined as a gas having no intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion between the molecules at all
temperature and pressures. Also these gases should follow all the gas laws at all ranges of pressures and
temperatures.

Q.12 what is Compressibility factor?

The gas equation for an ideal gas is given by PV=MRT i.e
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 PV/mRT = 1……it is for ideal gas
For real gas PV/RT  1 …is not equal to 1, But for real gas, (PV/mRT) = Z
Where Z is called the compressibility factor (Z). Compressibility factor (Z) = PV/mRT

Q.13 Explain the construction and use of generalized compressibility chart.

The general compressibility chart is plotted with Z versus Pr (reduced Pressure) for various values of Tr
(reduced temperature). This chart will gives the correction factor for the real gases which deviates from the
ideal gas behavior, the deviation of real gas is found only for low temperature systems. Ex- refrigerator gas i.e
NH3 and for high pressure systems such as gas turbine Ex- natural gas which contains 90%methane + butane
+ ethane +propane

Q.14 What are reduced properties? Give them.

In thermodynamics we use three 3 types reduced properties, reduced pressure, reduced Temperature and
reduced Specific volume
a) Define what is reduced pressure
It is the ratio of actual pressure P divided by its critical pressure Pc

b) Define what is reduced Temperature:-

It is the ratio of actual its actual temperature, divided by its critical temperature Tc

c) Define what is reduced Specific volume

The reduced specific volume of a fluid is computed from the following equation

Q.15 what is the Vander Waals equation of state? What are its limitations?
Vander waals modified the Ideal Gas Equation, PV = RT. By incorporating the size effect and inter molecular
attraction effect of the real gases. 

Where a and b are called van der Waals constants and which have different values for each gas. where
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 a/v2 accounts for the intermolecular forces, and
b accounts for the volume occupied by the gas molecules
Limitations of  Vander waal’s equation
1. At very high pressure and low temperatures near the critical points, the equation becomes inaccurate.
2. The values of a and b which are constants in the equation are not independent of temperature
3. The critical constants as calculated by van der waal’s equation do not agree well with the experimental values
4. Law of corresponding state is followed only approximately

Q.16 what is the throttling process?

A throttling process that process during which there is a significant reduction in pressure when any fluid or
gas flows through the throttling valve

During throttling process:

1. Work Transfer (W=0)……… no work is done by or on the system
2. Heat Transfer (Q=0)………. no heat transfer (adiabatic) from or into the system
3. Isenthalpic Process ( H=Constant)……. enthalpy of the gas remains constant
4. Irreversible Process

Q.17 Draw different throttle vale for throttling process

Q. 18 What is free expansion process or Joules expansion or irreversible process

In a free expansion, gas is allowed to expand into a vacuum. In this process there is
No heat transfer Q = O,
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 No work transfer W=O and
No change in internal energy ▲E = O, so temperature before & after expansion is constant, i. e T1=T2

For real gases

Unlike ideal gases, the temperature of a real gas will change during a free expansion; it is found that almost
all gases cool during a free expansion at all temperatures, cooling is due to the conversion of internal kinetic
energy to internal potential energy,
But helium, at temperatures above about 40 K, and
Hydrogen, at temperatures above about 200 K.
The gas heats up during free expansion because of conversion of P.E to K.E

Numerical on compressibility factor by using compressibility chart

Q.1 5Kg of methane is enclosed in a rigid container at a pressure of 90bar and a temperature of 250K.
Find the volume
of the container using compressibility chart, critical temperature and pressure of methane are Tc
=191.1 K, Pc = 4.64
MPa, Molecular weight of methane= 16.04 Kg/Kmol and R = 0.5182 kPa·m3/kg·K,

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Z=0.7
1

Q.2 Determine the specific volume of refrigerant-134a at 1 MPa and 50oC, using generalized
compressibility chart.
Compare the values obtained to the actual value of 0.021796 m3/kg and determine the error
involved. Take Pc=
4.059MPa and Tc = 374.2K, R= 0.0815 KPa-m3/Kg K
Solution
Given
P1 = 1 MPa = 1000KPa, R= 0.0815 KPa-m3/Kg K = 0.0815KJ/Kg K, T1 = 50*273 = 323 K,
V=?
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 Specific volume of refrigerant-134a under the ideal gas assumption is
PV = RT
1000x Videal = 0.0815 x 323 and Videal = 0.026325 m3/Kg
To calculate compressibility factor (Z) from the chart we first need to calculate reduced pressure and
reduced temperature

V = Z Videal = 0.84 x 0.026325 = 0.022113

Q.1 Define enthalpy

Enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal energy of a system plus the product of the pressure and
volume of the system.
Mathematically
h = u + pv

Q.2 Explain what do you mean by steady flow and unsteady flow with an examples
Steady flow
1. Steady flow process is a process where the fluid properties (P,V and T) can change from point to point in
the control volume but remains the same at any fixed point during the whole process.

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2. No properties within the control volume changes with time. Thus, the fluid properties at an inlet or exit
will remain the same during the whole process..

3. The heat and work interactions between a steady-flow system and its surroundings do not change with
time.

Examples:- Nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors and other devices undergo a Steady flow
Go through with this link
 http://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/eBook.cgi?doc=&topic=th&chap_sec=04.1&page=theory

Unsteady flow
Unsteady-flow processes is that process where all the fundamental fluid properties such as
pressure,
volume and temperatures varying with respect to time at any fixed point during the whole
process in
a control volume.

Example: - filling or discharging a gas tank (i.e Gas cylinder, inflating balloon), JCB trolleys

Go through with this link

http://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/ebook.cgi?doc=&topic=th&chap_sec=04.5&page=theory

Q.3 Derive steady flow energy equation (SFEE)

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Q. 4 what are the assumptions made for steady flow process
(i) The mass flow through the system remains constant.
(ii) Fluid is uniform in composition.
(iii) The only interaction between the system and surroundings are work and heat.
(iv) The state of fluid at any point remains constant with time.
(v) In the analysis only potential, kinetic and flow energies are considered

Q. 5 what are the ApplicationS of steady flow energy equation:

There are many practical example of devices through which steady flow process occurs. We can
apply the steady flow energy equation for the following devices
Boiler:
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We have steady flow energy equation as follows

Nozzle and diffusers:

Nozzle :  A flow passage of reducing cross-sectional area to increase velocity by reducing
pressure
Diffusers: A flow passage of increasing cross-sectional area to reduce velocity by increasing
pressure
Examples: Jet engines, rockets, spacecraft, garden hoses.

We have steady flow energy equation as follows

In the case of nozzles,  V2 > V1    so    h1 > h2

In the case of diffusers, V2 < V1    so    h1 < h2
Turbines:  
A device to produce shaft work from a flow of gas through a set of blades attached to a freely
rotating shaft
Uses: Turbine engines, power generation
We have steady flow energy equation as follows

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Compressors, Pumps and Fans:
Compressor: A device where shaft work input is used to raise the pressure of a gas passing
through it
Pump: Similar to a compressor but handles liquids.
Fan: This moves air usually with slight pressure rise.
We have steady flow energy equation as follows

NOTE: For Reciprocating compressor Q  0

Heat Exchangers:
Uses:  Condenser, evaporator

Unit-III

Second Law of Thermodynamics:-

Q. 6 demonstrate with the examples the limitations of first law of thermodynamics

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 1. Consider heating of a room by passage of electric current through an electric resistor.
Transferring of
heat from room will not cause electrical energy to be generated through the wire.

2. Consider a paddle-wheel mechanism operated by fall of mass. Potential energy of mass

decreases
and internal energy of the fluid increases. Reverse process does not happen, although this
would
not violate first law.

3. Water flows down hill where by potential energy is converted into K.E. Reverse of this
process does
not occur in nature.

4. Fuel level in fuel tank goes down since the fuel is used as a car drives up a hill, but while
going
down the hill, the fuel level in the fuel tank cannot be restored to its original level.

Q.7 Define Thermal Reservoir

Or
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A thermal reservoir is system which can supply or absorb large amounts of heat and always
remains at constant temperature.

Example
 Large land masses
 Earth's atmosphere
 Large bodies of water: oceans, lakes, or rivers

Q. 8 Explain Heat engine, Heat pump and Refrigerator

Heat engine Heat pump

Refrigerator
A heat engine is a device
which continuously
converts heat supplied
into work. Ex- Internal
combustion engine, steam
engine, steam or gas
turbine
Heat pump heats the
room during winter
seasons by absorbing
heat from the atmosphere
which is at low
temperature and throws it
to the room which is at
high temperature and
which is to be heated
A refrigerator is a
reversed heat engine.
Heat is transferred from
the lower temperature
level to higher
temperature by applying
external work to maintain
the temperature below
atmospheric temperature

T1
T1
Atmosphere
Source T1
Space to be
heated Q
Q1 1

Q R W
H.E W 1

H. Q2
P W T2
Q2 Space to be
Q2
T2 cooled T2
Sink T2 Space to be cooled

Atmosphere
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Q.9 Define Clausius Statement of IInd Law of Thermodynamics
It is impossible to construct a refrigerator which operating in a cycle will produces no
effect other
than the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body.

T1

Atmosphere

Q1

T2
Space to be cooled

Q. 10 Define Kelvin-planks Statement of IInd Law of Thermodynamics

“It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a complete cycle if it exchanges heat
only with bodies at a single fixed temperature." 

T1

Source

Q
1
W=
H. Q1
E Q2
=0
Q.11 Demonstrate violation of Kelvin–Planck statement also violates the Clausius
statement,
OR
Prove that the Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius expressions of the second law are
equivalent.

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Consider the heat-engine-refrigerator combination shown in Fig. A, operating between the same
two reservoirs. The heat engine is assumed to have, in violation of the Kelvin–Planck statement,
a thermal efficiency of100 percent, and therefore it converts all the heat QH it receives to work
W. This work is now supplied to a refrigerator that removes heat in the amount of QL from the
low-Temperature reservoir and rejects heat in the amount of QL + QH to the high-temperature
reservoir. During this process, the high temperature reservoir receives a net amount of heat QL
(the difference between QL+ QH and QH). Thus, the combination of these two devices can be
viewed as are refrigerator, as shown in Fig. B, that transfers heat in an amount of QL from a
cooler body to a warmer one without requiring any input from outside. This is clearly a violation
of the Clausius statement. Therefore, a violation of the Kelvin–Planck statement results in the
violation of the Clausius statement

Q.12 Explain Reversible Processes and irreversible process

A process is said to be reversible if both the system and the surroundings can be restored to their
respective initial states, by reversing the direction of the process. A reversible process is a
process that can be reversed without leaving a trace on the surroundings
Example:-

The processes that are not reversible are called Irreversible processes

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 Q.13 what are the main Causes of Irreversibility
Four most common causes of irreversibility are
5. Friction,
6. Unrestrained expansion of a fluid,
7. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, and
8. Mixing of two different substances.
These factors are present in real, irreversible processes and prevent these processes from being
reversible.

Q.14 Define perpetual motion machine PMM-2

Thermodynamic Cycle
Q. 15 How does a Carnot cycle work or Carnot engine work
I. A reversible isothermal gas expansion process. In this process, the ideal gas in the system
absorbs qin amount heat from a heat source at a high temperature T h, expands and does work on
surroundings.
II. A reversible adiabatic gas expansion process. In this process, the system is thermally insulated.
The gas continues to expand and do work on surroundings, which causes the system to cool to a
lower temperature, Tl.
III. A reversible isothermal gas compression process. In this process, surroundings do work to the
gas at Tl, and causes a loss of heat, qout.
IV. A reversible adiabatic gas compression process. In this process, the system is thermally
insulated. Surroundings continue to do work to the gas, which causes the temperature to rise
back to Th.

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Q. 16 Define Carnot’s Theorem
For two given heat reservoirs no engine can have thermal efficiency higher than that of Carnot
engine

Q. 17 Elaborate Carnot's principle

The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the same two reservoirs.

ηth, irrev < ηth, rev 

The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines
operating between the same two reservoirs are the same.
(ηth, rev)A= (ηth, rev)B
Q. 18 Explain corollary to carnot theorem

The thermal efficiency of carnot engine depends only on the temperature levels and not depends
on the working fluid

Q. 19 Evaluate Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

To define a temperature scale that does not depend on the thermometric property of a substance
(Hg), Carnot principle can be used since the Carnot engine efficiency does not depend on the
working fluid. It depends on the temperatures of the reservoirs between which it operates

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 Q1/Q2 = T1/T2
Consider the operation of three reversible engines 1, 2 and 3. The engine 1 absorbs energy Q 1 as heat
from the reservoir at T1, does work W1 and rejects energy Q2 as heat to the reservoir at T2.
 Let the engine 2 absorb energy Q 2 as heat from the reservoir at T2 and does work W2 and rejects
energy Q3 as heat to the reservoir at T3.
 
The third reversible engine 3, absorbs energy Q1as heat from the reservoir at T1, does work W3 and
rejects energy Q3 as heat to the reservoir at T3.
1 = W1 / Q1 = 1- Q2/Q1 = f(T1,T2)
 or, Q1/Q2 = F(T1,T2)

2 = W2 / Q2 = 1- Q3/Q2 = f(T2,T3)

or, Q 2/ Q 3 = F(T2,T3)

3 = 1- Q3/Q1 = f(T1,T3)

Q 1/ Q 3 = F(T1,T3)

Then, Q1/Q2 = (Q1/Q3)/(Q2/Q3)

Q1/Q2 = T1/T2 and Q2/Q3 = T2/T3 then Q1/Q3 = T1/T3

That is, the ratio of energy absorbed to the energy rejected as heat by a reversible engine is equal
to the ratio of the temperatures of the source and the sink.

UNIT-IV
Q.1 Define entropy
Entropy is a measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is
unavailable for doing useful work

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  Entropy is a measure of disorder of a system; also a degree of randomness of a system

 The higher the entropy the greater the disorder

 The entropy of an object is a measure of the amount of energy which is unavailable to

do work.

 Example:-

Units of Entropy
KJ/K (Kilo joules/degrees Kelvin).

Only entropy cannot be calculated. But change in entropy can be calculated

Q.2 Explain Clausius inequality

Clausius inequality, which states that the cyclic integral of   is always less than or
equal to zero. That is,

      
where
       Q = differential heat transfer at the system boundary during a cycle
      T = absolute temperature at the  boundary
   = integration over the entire cycle
The Clausius inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or irreversible.

Q.3 demonstrate the Clausius inequality i.e prove

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Consider
Heat engine A is an reversible heat engine and
Heat engine B is an irreversible one.

Applying the first law to both of the engines gives,

 WA,rev = QH - QA,L

WB,irr = QH - QB,L

Since a reversible engine has the highest efficiency 

a reversible heat engine produces more work than an irreversible heat engine for the
same heat input QH.

WA,rev = QH - QA,L > WB,irr = QH - QB,L

      QA,L < QB,L

Since the temperature TH is constant during the heat transfer QH, and the temperature
TL is constant during the heat transfer QA,L and QB,L,

The cyclic integral of   for both heat engines is

      

      

Comparing the above two equations with QA,L < QB,L yields,

      (1)

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A reversible heat engine holds the following relation:

      

Therefore, the cyclic integral of   for a reversible engine is zero.

      

Combining the above equation with equation (1) gives,

     

To summarize the above analysis, the Clausius inequality states

        For internally reversible cycles

     For irreversible cycles

Hence proved

Q.4 demonstrates increase of entropy principle.

It states that entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases, or
remains constant if the process is reversible
OR
It state that for any process the total change in entropy of a system together with its
enclosing adiabatic surroundings is always greater than or equal to zero

Consider a cycle as described in the diagram at the left. Peocess1-2 is an arbitrary

(reversible or irreversible) process, Process 2-1 is an internally reversible process. From
the Clausius inequality,
36
      
or

      

Where
Equality holds for internally reversible process and
Inequality holds for irreversible process

Q.5 Causes of entropy generation

Irreversibility’s such as
Friction,
Mixing,
Chemical reactions,
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference,
Unrestrained expansion,
Non quasi equilibrium compression always cause the entropy generation

Q.6 Entropy generation for closed systems.

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the sum of the net
entropy transferred through the system boundary by heat transfer and the entropy
generated within the system boundaries due to irreversibility.

   
Where
Sgen  = entropy generation due to internal irreversibility in the system during a process.
Q/T = entropy increase due to external heat interaction with the system
Rewriting the above equation gives the expression of entropy generation as

 
If the closed system undergoes an adiabatic process, then no heat transfer occurs at
the boundary. The entropy balance is reduced to
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A system and its surroundings forms an isolated system. The entropy change of an
isolated system formed by a closed system and its surroundings is

Sgen = Sisolated 

Sgen = Sisolated = Ssystem + Ssurr 

Example:-

Q.7 Entropy Generation for open systems

In open system there is a transfer of 3 quantities

Mass balance
m1 = m2 = m

Energy balance

And entropy balance

A control volume permits both energy and mass to flow through its boundaries. The
entropy balance for a control volume undergoing a process 1-2 can be expressed as

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For steady state flow

Q. 8 Reversible adiabatic work in a steady flow system

The energy balance for a steady-flow device (such as nozzle, compressor, turbine and
pump) with one inlet and one exit is:
Q - W = m (Δh + Ke + Pe)
Its differential form is:
δq - δw = dh + dke + dpe
If the device undergoes an internally reversible process then
δq = dh - vdP
Then the energy balance becomes
      dh - vdP - δwrev = dh + dke + dpe
By rearranging the above equation, the reversible
steady-flow work can be expressed as
      - δwrev = vdP + dke + dpe
Integrating it form location 1 to location 2 yields,

      

When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible

      

Q.9 concept of absolute entropy

Absolute entropy represents the entropy change of a substance taken from absolute
zero to a given temperature.

Q.10 Entropy and Disorder

Entropy of a system is a measure of degree of molecular disorder present in the
system. When heat is supplied to a system, the disorderly motion of molecules
increases, and so the entropy of the system increases. The reverse occurs when heat is
removed from the system

Q.11 Elaborate Entropy and Direction

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 Exergy
Exergy is the energy that is available to be used when the system and surroundings are
not in equilibrium, but when the system and surroundings reach equilibrium then
the exergy is zero

Q. 12 Explain Dead state of a thermodynamic system

When a system comes in equilibrium to its surroundings, which means that the
availability of the system is zero it is called in dead state. No useful work can be
obtained from a system which is in dead state.
OR
System exchanges work, heat, and mass with its surroundings during a process. If the
system reaches a state which is in equilibrium with its surroundings, then the system
can not exchanges work, heat, and mass with its surroundings. This state is called a
dead state
At the dead state:
 A system is at the same temperature and pressure of its surroundings.
 It has no kinetic or potential energy relative to its surroundings.
 It does not react with the surroundings.
 There are no unbalanced magnetic, electrical and surface tension effects between the
system and its surroundings.

Q.13 Elaborate Availability and unavailability

The maximum work output obtainable from a heat input in a cyclic heat engine is called
available energy (A.E). The minimum energy that has to be rejected to the sink is called
unavailable energy (U.E)
We know
Wmax = Q1 – Q2
Wmax = A.E, Q2 = U.E
Therefore
Q1 = A.E + U.E
U.E = Q1 - A.E
For a given T1 and T2
ᶯrev will increase with the decrease of T , the lowest practicable temperature of the
2

heat rejection is the temperature of the surrounding T0

40
Q. 14 Explain Law of degradation of energy
The available energy of a system decreases as its temperature or pressure decreases
and approaches that of the surroundings. When heat is transferred from a system, its
temperature decreases and hence the quality of its energy deteriorates. The
degradation is more for energy loss at a higher temperature than that at a lower
temperature

Q.15 Second-law efficiency

The second-law efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual thermal efficiency to the
maximum possible (reversible) thermal efficiency under the same condition (for heat
engine).

For Turbine (work-producing device)

It can be expressed as the ratio of the useful work output and the maximum possible
work output

For compressor (work-consuming device)

The ratio of the minimum work input to the actual useful work input
41
 For refrigerators or heat Pumps,
It is defined in terms of the coefficient of performance as the ratio of the actual COP to
the COP at reversible process.

Q.16 Irreversibility and Gouy-Stodola theorem

The actual work done by a system is always less than the reversible work and the
difference between the two is called irreversibility of the process

I = Wmax - W
The Gouy - stodola theorem states that the rate of loss of available energy or exergy in
a process is proportional to the rate of entropy generation, Sgen, This is know as the
Gouy-stodola theorem

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UNIT-V

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