A Design Approach for Complex Stiffeners

A. T. Sarawit
1
, T. Pekz
2
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a design approach for laterally braced cold-fored steel fle!"ral
ebers with edge stiffened flanges other then siple lips. The design ethod for fle!"ral
ebers gi#en by Schafer and Pekz $1%%%& is "sed here for designing these cople! stiffeners.
The ethod integrates distortional b"ckling into the "nified effecti#e width approach c"rrently
"sed in ost cold-fored steel design specifications. A finite eleent ethod was first "sed to
in#estigate the post-b"ckling beha#ior and carry o"t initial geoetric iperfection sensiti#ity
st"dies for #ario"s types of stiffeners. Then paraetric st"dies were carried o"t for different
types of stiffeners to copare the oent capacity deterined by the finite eleent ethod,
A'S' $1%%(& and the proposed design approach for fle!"ral ebers gi#en by Schafer and Pekz
$1%%%&.
INTRODUCTION
The following is a s"ary of the design proced"res for fle!"ral ebers gi#en by
Schafer and Pekz $1%%%&. The design proced"res are based on the need for the integration of the
distortional ode into the design proced"re. Two beha#ioral phenoena "st be considered.
)irst, the distortional ode has less post-b"ckling capacity than the local ode. Second, the
distortional ode has the ability to control fail"re e#en when it occ"rs at a higher critical stress
than the local ode. A design ethod incorporating these phenoena is needed to pro#ide an
integrated approach to strength prediction in#ol#ing local and distortional b"ckling. )or
consistency with the e!isting cold-for steel design specifications an effecti#e width approach
was "ndertaken. *ffecti#e section properties are based on effecti#e widths, b.
w b =
$+&
1
,rad"ate -esearch Assistant, School of .i#il and *n#ironental *ngineering, .ornell /ni#ersity, 'thaca, 01
1234+, /.S.A.
2
Professor, School of .i#il and *n#ironental *ngineering, .ornell /ni#ersity, 'thaca, 01 1234+, /.S.A.
1
where
w
is the act"al eleent width and post-b"ckling red"ction factor, , is
( ) = 1 0 22 .
for 5 +.(67 otherwise 8 1. $+&
where
cr y
f f =
$+&
'n order to properly integrate distortional b"ckling, red"ced post-b"ckling capacity in the
distortional ode and the ability of the distortional ode to control the fail"re echanis e#en
when at a higher b"ckling stress than the local ode "st be incorporated. Therefore, the critical
b"ckling stress of the eleent was defined by coparing the local b"ckling stress and
distortional b"ckling stress to deterine the go#erning ode as follows9
( ) ( ) ( )
[ ]
f f R f
cr cr
local
d cr
dist
= in ,
.
$+&
R
d
d
=
+
+

in ,
.
. 1
116
1
+ 7

where ( )
d y cr
dist
f f =
.
$+&
Rd reflects the red"ced strength in echaniss associated with distortional fail"res. )or Rd : 1
this ethod pro#ides an additional red"ction on the post-b"ckling capacity. )"rther, the ethod
allows the distortional ode to control sit"ations where the distortional b"ckling stress is greater
than the local b"ckling stress. Th"s, Rd pro#ides a fraework for sol#ing the proble of
predicting the fail"re ode and red"cing the post-b"ckling capacity in the distortional ode.
Schafer and Pekz $1%%%& de#eloped the e!pression for Rd based on post-b"ckling capacity as
shown in )ig"re 7 $a& and fro the e!periental res"lts of ;ancock et al. $1%%2&. <ith fcr of the
eleent known the effecti#e width of each eleent ay readily be deterined and the effecti#e
section properties generated.
IMPERECTION SENSITI!IT" STUD"
To in#estigate the post-b"ckling beha#ior and de#elop the e!pression for Rd the a"thors
analyzed an isolated flange-stiffener odel as shown in )ig"re 7 $a& rather then "sing the f"ll
section. Two types of iperfections, local and distortional ode, are s"perposed to gi#e the
initial geoetric iperfections. The agnit"de of the iperfection is selected based on the
statistical s"ary pro#ided in Schafer and Pekz $1%%3&. Then the "ltiate strength of these
isolated flanges is fo"nd for different agnit"des of iperfection. Two a!i" iperfection
2
agnit"des, one at 24= and the other at 64= probability of e!ceedance, are "sed. The percent
differences in the strength are "sed to eas"re the iperfection sensiti#ity.
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
= 1++
. = 24 . = 64 2
1
. = 24 . = 64

imp u imp u
imp u imp u
f f
f f
$+&
The error bars in )ig"re 7 $a& show the range of strengths predicted for iperfections
#arying o#er the central 4+= portion of e!pected iperfection agnit"des. The greater the error
bars, the greater the iperfection sensiti#ity. A conto"r plot of this iperfection sensiti#ity
statistic is shown in )ig"re 7 $b&. Stocky ebers tending to fail"re in the distortional ode
ha#e the highest sensiti#ity.
The design approach gi#en by Schafer and Pekz $1%%%& was de#eloped based on siple
lips edge stiffeners. Therefore, before adopting this approach for other types of stiffeners
#erification on the red"ction factor for distortional stress, Rd is needed. This is done by creating a
post-b"ckling capacity graph and iperfection sensiti#ity conto"r plot on the types of stiffeners
in interest for coparison with the original )ig"re 7 $a& and 7 $b&. 'n this research 2 types of
cople! stiffeners shown in )ig"re 2 $a&, 4 $a&, ( $a& and 6 $a& are st"died.
)inite *leent >odel
'n order to st"dy the post-b"ckling beha#ior of cople! stiffened eleents nonlinear
finite eleent analyses are perfored "sing A?A@/S. To st"dy only the cople! stiffened
eleent beha#ior an idealization of the bo"ndary conditions at the webAflange B"nction are ade
by restraining all degrees of freedo e!cept for the translation along the length. -oller s"pports
are "sed at both ends and to a#oid localized fail"re at the ends the "nifor load has been
distrib"ted to the first row of eleents. ?o"ndary conditions are shown in )ig"re 2. The aterial
odel "sed is elastic-plastic with strain hardening and fy 8 726 >Pa. -esid"al stress is also
incl"ded with a 7+= yield stress thro"gho"t the thickness in the longit"dinal direction. The
resid"al stresses are ass"ed tension on the o"tside and copression on the inside of the section.
'nitial geoetric iperfection is introd"ced by s"periposing the eigenodes for the
local and distortional b"ckling shown in )ig"re 1. The agnit"de of the iperfection is selected
based on the statistical s"ary pro#ided in Schafer and Pekz $1%%3&. The length of the odel
is selected by "sing the length that wo"ld gi#e the least b"ckling strength in the distortional
ode, which is obtained, by "sing the )inite Strip >ethod ./)S>. Table 1 s"arizes the
7
geoetry of the ebers. An in#estigation of the post-b"ckling beha#ior and an iperfection
sensiti#ity st"dy has been perfored for each type of stiffener. )ig"res 2, 4, ( and 6 show the
res"lts. )or each type of stiffener a total of 22 odels were in#estigated.
't can be seen that the post-b"ckling capacity graphs and iperfection sensiti#ity conto"r
plots are siilar to those obtained by siple lips edge stiffened flanges. Therefore, the red"ction
factor for distortional stress, Rd is e!pected to be siilar to Schafer and Pekz $1%%%&.
PARAMETRIC STUDIES
Two C-section paraetric st"dies were carried o"t for different types of stiffeners to
copare the oent capacity as deterined by the finite eleent ethod, A'S' $1%%(& and the
proposed design approach for fle!"ral ebers gi#en by Schafer and Pekz $1%%%&. The first
paraeter st"dy consists of different C-section geoetry with all cross sections ha#ing the sae
thickness while the second paraetric st"dy "ses one standard C-section with #ariation in
thickness. The cross sections selected for both these paraeter st"dies are intend to co#er a wide
range of slenderness.
Paraetric St"dy '
The paraetric st"dy was carried o"t by changing different widths of the web, flanges
and stiffeners for fi#e types of stiffeners siple lips, inside angled, o"tside angled, inside
hooked, and o"tside hooked stiffeners. All cross sections ha#e the sae thickness. )ig"re 3 $b&-
$f& and Table 2 s"arize the geoetry of the ebers. Docal and distortional b"ckling stresses
obtained by the finite strip ethod are "sed for the proposed design approach for fle!"ral
ebers gi#en by Schafer and Pekz $1%%%&.
)inite *leent >odel
The finite eleent odel "sed for this paraetric st"dy is shown in )ig"re % $a&. The
webAflange B"nction is restrained only for the translation degree of freedo perpendic"lar to the
length to brace the eber laterally. -oller s"pports are "sed at both ends. To a#oid localized
fail"re at the ends the constant oent is odeled by nodal loads distrib"ted to the first row of
eleents. The aterial odel "sed is elastic-plastic with strain hardening and fy 8 724 >Pa.
-esid"al stress thro"gho"t the thickness in the longit"dinal direction is ass"ed to be 7+= of the
2
yield stress in the flange and 2+= of the yield stress in the web. The resid"al stresses are also
ass"ed to be tension on the o"tside and copression on the inside of the section.
'nitial geoetric iperfections are introd"ced by s"periposing the eigenodes for the
local and distortional b"ckling shown in )ig"re % $b& and $c&. Two different iperfection
agnit"des of 64= and 24= probability of e!ceedance, based on the statistical s"ary
pro#ided in Schafer and Pekz $1%%3&, are "sed for each odel. The length of the odel is
selected by "sing three half-wa#e lengths of the distortional ode that gi#es the least b"ckling
strength. The wa#elengths are obtained "sing the )inite Strip >ethod. )ig"res 1+ $a&, 11 $a& and
12 $a& s"arize the res"lts for the different approaches.
Paraetric St"dy ''
The second paraetric st"dy was carried o"t by odifying the stiffeners of a standard
cross section 12CS7.24, which has a depth of 12 inches, flange width of 7.24 inches and with a
sloping edge stiffener. The sloping stiffener was odified into siple lips, inside angled and
o"tside angled stiffeners. )ig"re 3 $a&E$d& s"arize the geoetry of the ebers. This was
done for different thicknesses9 +.174, +.1+4, +.+%+, +.+64 and +.+(+ inches. The finite eleent
ass"ptions are the sae as in the first paraeter st"dy e!cept for the yield stress and the lateral
bracing conditions. This st"dy "ses a 44 ksi yield stress and instead of f"lly bracing along the
length as in the first paraeter st"dy, only fo"r brace points are "sed. ?race points incl"ded one
at each end and additional ones at one-third of the length, which is the sae length as the half-
wa#e lengths of the distortional ode which gi#es the least b"ckling strength. )or these cross
sections and bracing lengths, f"ll foration of the distortional ode is still possible witho"t
ca"sing a lateral-torsional fail"re. )ig"res 1+ $b&, 11 $b& and 12 $b& s"arize the res"lts for the
different approaches.
SUMMAR" AND CONC#USIONS
-es"lts fro the in#estigation of the post-b"ckling beha#ior and iperfection sensiti#ity
st"dies on different types of stiffeners s"ggest that the red"ction factor for distortional stress, Rd
gi#en by to Schafer and Pekz $1%%%& ay still be "sed for stiffeners other then siple lips.
-es"lts fro the first and second paraetric st"dies re#ealed that the A'S' $1%%(&
approach gi#es "nconser#ati#e oent capacity while the proposed design approach for fle!"ral
4
ebers gi#en by Schafer and Pekz $1%%%& gi#es a ore conser#ati#e res"lt closer to the finite
eleent res"lts. There are no physical test res"lts for these kinds of cople! stiffeners. Tests for
ebers with cross sections s"ch as in )ig"re 3 are needed to #erify this approach. )"rtherore,
st"dy of section optiization with cople! stiffeners sho"ld be cond"cted.
AC$NO%#ED&EMENT
The sponsorship of the Aerican 'ron and Steel 'nstit"te and the help of F.D Gohnson, .hair of
the A'S' S"bcoittee in charge of this proBect, Fr. ;elen .hen of the A'S' and Fr. ?. <.
Schafer are gratef"lly acknowledged.
REERENCES
Aerican 'ron and Steel 'nstit"te, $1%%(&. A'S' Specification for the Fesign of .old-)ored
Steel Str"ct"ral >ebers. American Iron and Steel Institute <ashington, F...
Pekz, T., $1%36&. Development of a Unified Approach to the Design of Cold-Formed Steel
embers. Aerican 'ron and Steel 'nstit"te -esearch -eport .) 36-1.
Schafer, ?.<., $1%%6&. H.old-)ored Steel ?eha#ior and Fesign9 Analytical and 0"erical
>odeling of *leents and >ebers with Dongit"dinal Stiffeners.I Ph.F. Fissertation,
.ornell /ni#ersity, 'thaca, 0ew 1ork
Schafer, ?.<., and Pekz, T.P., $1%%%&. HDaterally ?raced .old-)ored Steel )le!"ral >ebers
with *dge Stiffened )langes.I !ournal of Structural "ngineering# 124$2&
Schafer, ?.<., H./)S>, .ornell /ni#ersity )inite Strip >ethod /serJs >an"al #1.+dI .ornell
/ni#ersity, 'thaca, 0ew 1ork
Table 1 S"ary of 'solated )lange-Stiffener >odels ,eoetryK
(
? F a
24 (.24 +, 7.124, (.24
12.4 +, (.24, 12.4
4+ (.24 +, 7.124, (.24
12.4 +, (.24, 12.4
24 +, 12.4, 24
64 (.24 +, 7.124, (.24
12.4 +, (.24, 12.4
24 +, 12.4, 24
76.4 +, 13.64, 76.4
1++ (.24 +, 7.124, (.24
12.4 +, (.24, 12.4
24 +, 12.4, 24
76.4 +, 13.64, 76.4
4+ +, 24, 4+
KThickness 8 1 in all cases
Table 2 S"ary of C-section >odels ,eoetryK
>odel ; ? d a
1 4+ 24 (.24 7.124
2 4+ 24 (.24 (.24
7 1++ 24 (.24 7.124
2 1++ 24 (.24 (.24
4 1++ 4+ (.24 7.124
( 1++ 4+ (.24 (.24
6 1++ 4+ 12.4 (.24
3 1++ 4+ 12.4 12.4
% 14+ 24 (.24 7.124
1+ 14+ 24 (.24 (.24
11 14+ 4+ (.24 7.124
12 14+ 4+ (.24 (.24
17 14+ 4+ 12.4 (.24
12 14+ 4+ 12.4 12.4
K Thickness 8 1 in all cases
Table 7 S"ary of C-section >oent .apacity for Paraetric St"dy '
6
>odel
Siple lips 'nside Angled L"tside Angled 'nside ;ooked L"tside ;ooked
>64=
$0-&
>24=
$0-&
>64=
$0-&
>24=
$0-&
>64=
$0-&
>24=
$0-&
>64=
$0-&
>24=
$0-&
>64=
$0-&
>24=
$0-&
3
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
1 613 (17 1.+26 1.+26 6+% 4%( 1.+44 1.+44 6+2 4%2 1.+(2 1.+46 61+ 4%( 1.+4( 1.+4( 61+ (76 1.+22 1.+12
2 646 (%1 +.%(+ +.%(3 644 (74 1.+72 1.+72 62+ (42 1.+71 +.%36 62( (7+ 1.+47 1.+47 622 (16 1.+3+ 1.+77
7 1((4 1441 1.+(+ +.%36 1(26 1416 1.+31 +.%3% 16+3 1472 1.+44 +.%71 1(1( 14+7 1.+%3 +.%%4 1(27 1427 1.+31 +.%42
2 1327 1(4+ 1.++3 +.%4( 1647 1443 1.+37 1.+12 16(2 1437 1.+61 +.%+6 1622 1432 1.+3+ +.%33 1(62 147( 1.12+ +.%41
4 1(32 1(4+ 1.166 1.+42 144( 147( 1.722 1.+%2 1%22 16+3 1.123 +.%+( 1417 123+ 1.7(1 1.112 12%3 1233 1.7(4 1.+%4
( 2162 1324 1.+%6 +.%%1 1372 14(% 1.2(4 1.+(6 2+14 1632 1.172 +.33( 16+7 1(+2 1.2%( 1.+(6 1622 1((3 1.2(7 +.%3+
6 22%2 1%%2 1.+72 1.+7( 27(+ 2++2 1.+%3 1.+22 2761 2++3 1.+%2 +.%32 27(2 2+43 1.+3( 1.+12 27(2 2++7 1.+%% +.%37
3 227+ 2227 +.%1( +.%(1 226+ 2+4% 1.11+ 1.+(2 2274 2+4( 1.12+ +.%22 2247 2112 1.111 1.+26 2277 2+3+ 1.124 +.%24
% 261% 2422 1.1+1 +.362 24%4 22+2 1.1(2 +.%16 2(+2 223( 1.121 +.337 2(27 2222 1.126 +.%11 2(22 2236 1.172 +.366
1+ 2%1( 26%2 1.+2+ +.374 234+ 2(%7 1.+%6 +.3(7 26+2 2422 1.14% +.362 23(% 262( 1.+3% +.36+ 267( 2431 1.12( +.3(3
11 26(( 261% 1.1+4 1.++4 26+% 2(33 1.136 +.%32 7114 2%26 1.+46 +.347 2736 27(% 1.72+ 1.1+4 227+ 27(1 1.77+ 1.+6%
12 71(+ 2314 1.1(3 1.+76 2((( 2242 1.727 1.1+( 2223 221( 1.242 1.172 2422 2761 1.764 1.127 27+3 2241 1.26( 1.123
17 767( 774( +.%37 +.%23 734( 7421 1.+23 +.%2+ 7666 74(6 1.+47 +.%+3 7%2% 743( 1.+23 +.%+1 7%7% 747% 1.+74 +.3%1
12 76(( 74+3 +.%1% +.%43 217+ 7(%( 1.+22 +.%12 7%(2 7433 1.+3+ +.361 2163 76+3 1.+24 +.%11 2+21 7426 1.+3( +.362
A#g. 1.+22 +.%62 A#g. 1.17( 1.++2 A#g. 1.116 +.%76 A#g. 1.144 1.+11 A#g. 1.1(% +.%63
>64=, >24= E /ltiate oent capacity by finite eleent ethod for iperfection agnit"des 64= and 24= probability of e!ceedance
>4+= 8 $>24=M >64=&A2
>A'S', >P-L - 0oinal >oent capacity by A'S' and proposed design approach for fle!"ral ebers gi#en by Schafer and Pekz $1%%%&
Table 2 S"ary of C-section >oent .apacity for Paraetric St"dy ''
Thickness
Siple lips Siple lips 'nside Angled L"tside Angled
>64=
$kip-in.&
>24=
$kip-in.&
>64=
$kip-in.&
>24=
$kip-in.&
>64=
$kip-in.&
>24=
$kip-in.&
>64=
$kip-in.&
>24=
$kip-in.&
+.174 27( 763 1.14+ +.%34 277 211 1.177 1.+2+ 22+ 7(3 1.271 1.+7% 22+ 76( 1.21% +.%%4
+.1+4 2(2 2(6 1.226 1.+2% 237 2(2 1.24+ 1.111 2(% 26+ 1.233 1.+42 246 2(2 1.77( 1.+23
+.+%+ 1%2 134 1.7%6 1.1(7 221 212 1.26( 1.121 217 2+6 1.764 1.16+ 1%2 133 1.413 1.17%
+.+64 121 174 1.2+2 1.213 16+ 162 1.1%2 1.+33 12% 124 1.224 1.167 121 174 1.427 1.1%1
+.+(+ %2 %1 1.242 1.2%4 122 113 1.217 1.12% 112 1++ 1.7(( 1.1(4 %6 %4 1.4+4 1.217
A#g. 1.77+ 1.122 A#g. 1.217 1.+%2 A#g. 1.776 1.12+ A#g. 1.22+ 1.116
)ig"re 1 'solated )lange-Stiffener $a& Docal ?"ckling $b& Fistortional ?"ckling $c& ,eoetric 'perfection
%
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>
4+=
A'S'
>
>
4+=
P-L
>
>

1

4

2

7

2

(

-oller S"pport
FL) 2,7 restrained

-oller S"pport
FL) 2,7 restrained

)i!ed, FL) 2-( restrained

A?A@/S S%-4
Shell *leent

FL)

)ig"re 2 'solated )lange-Stiffener ?o"ndary .onditions
+ +.4 1 1.4 2 2.4
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
1.2
1.(
1.3
2
14=
14=
1+=
1+=
4=
4=
+=
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
MEDIUM
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
+ 1 2 7
<interNs ."r#e
Docal ?"ckling )ail"res
Fistortional ?"ckling )ail"res
error bars indicate the range of strengths
obser#ed between iperfection agnit"des of
24 and 64 = probability of e!ceedance









)ig"re 7 Siple Dips Stiffener $a& Post-?"ckling .apacity $b& 'perfection Sensiti#ity
error bars indicate the range of strenghts
obser#ed between iperfection agnit"des of
24 and 64 = probability of e!ceedance
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2 7
<interNs ."r#e
Fistortional ?"ckling )ail"re
Docal ?"ckling )ail"re







)ig"re 2 'nside Angled Stiffener $a& Post-?"ckling .apacity $b& 'perfection Sensiti#ity
1+
y
u
f
f
( )
( )
. dist cr
local cr
f
f
( )
mechanism cr y
f f
( )
mechanism cr y
f f
y
u
f
f
( )
( )
. dist cr
local cr
f
f
( )
mechanism cr y
f f ( )
mechanism cr y
f f
$a& $b&
$a& $b&
?
d
a
error bars indicate the range of strenghts
obser#ed between iperfection agnit"des of
24 and 64 = probability of e!ceedance
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2 7
<interNs ."r#e
Fistortional ?"ckling )ail"re
Docal ?"ckling )ail"re
)ig"re 4 L"tside Angled Stiffener $a& Post-?"ckling .apacity $b& 'perfection Sensiti#ity
error bars indicate the range of strenghts
obser#ed between iperfection agnit"des of
24 and 64 = probability of e!ceedance
+.++
+.2+
+.2+
+.(+
+.3+
1.++
1.2+
+ 1 2 7
<interNs ."r#e
Fistortional ?"ckling )ail"re
Docal ?"ckling )ail"re
)ig"re ( 'nside ;ooked Stiffener $a& Post-?"ckling .apacity $b& 'perfection Sensiti#ity
error bars indicate the range of strenghts
obser#ed between iperfection agnit"des of
24 and 64 = probability of e!ceedance
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2 7
<interNs ."r#e
Fistortional ?"ckling )ail"re
Docal ?"ckling )ail"re
)ig"re 6 L"tside ;ooked Stiffener $a& Post-?"ckling .apacity $b& 'perfection Sensiti#ity
11
y
u
f
f
( )
( )
. dist cr
local cr
f
f
( )
mechanism cr y
f f ( )
mechanism cr y
f f
y
u
f
f
( )
( )
. dist cr
local cr
f
f
( )
mechanism cr y
f f ( )
mechanism cr y
f f
y
u
f
f
( )
( )
. dist cr
local cr
f
f
( )
mechanism cr y
f f ( )
mechanism cr y
f f
$a& $b&
$a& $b&
$a& $b&
?
d
a
?
d
2
a
2
a
2
a
2
a
d
?
)ig"re 3 C-section with $a& Sloping Dips Stiffener 4+-degree respect to the flange $b& Siple Dips Stiffener
$c& 'nside Angled Stiffener $d& L"tside Angled Stiffener $e& 'nside ;ooked Stiffener $f& L"tside ;ooked Stiffener
$a&

$b&

$c&

$d&

-oller S"pport

-oller S"pport

Dateral ?racing

)ig"re % $a& ?o"ndary .onditions $b& Docal ?"ckling $c& Fistortional ?"ckling $d& 'nitial ,eoetric 'perfection
12
$a&
$b&
$b&
$d&
;
?
dMa
?
dMa
;
?
dMa
?
dMa
;
?
d
?
d
a
a
;
?
d
?
d
a
a
;
?
d
?
d
2
a
2
a
2
a
2
a
;
?
d
?
d 2
a
2
a
2
a
2
a
$a& $b& $c&
$d& $e& $f&
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2
<interNs ."r#e
Siple Dips
'nside Angled
L"tside Angled
'nside ;ooked
L"tside ;ooked
error bars indicate the range of strenghts
obser#ed between iperfection agnit"des of
24 and 64 = probability of e!ceedance
error bars indicate the range of strenghts
obser#ed between iperfection agnit"des of
24 and 64 = probability of e!ceedance
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2
<interNs ."r#e
Sloping Dips
Siple Dips
L"tside Angled
'nside Angled
)ig"re 1+ Post-?"ckling .apacity by )inite *leent >ethod $a& Paraetric St"dy ' $b& Paraetric St"dy ''
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2
<interNs ."r#e
Siple Dips
'nside Angled
L"tside Angled
'nside ;ooked
L"tside ;ooked
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2
<interNs ."r#e
Sloping Dips
Siple Dips
L"tside Angled
'nside Angled
)ig"re 11 Post-?"ckling .apacity by A'S' >ethod $a& Paraetric St"dy ' $b& Paraetric St"dy ''
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2
<interNs ."r#e
Siple Dips
'nside Angled
L"tside Angled
'nside ;ooked
L"tside ;ooked
+
+.2
+.2
+.(
+.3
1
1.2
+ 1 2
<interNs ."r#e
Sloping Dips
Siple Dips
L"tside Angled
'nside Angled
)ig"re 12 Post-?"ckling .apacity by Propose >ethod $a& Paraetric St"dy ' $b& Paraetric St"dy ''
17
y
u

( )
mechanism cr y

y
u

( )
mechanism cr y

$a& $b&
$a& $b&
y
u

( )
mechanism cr y

y
u

( )
mechanism cr y

y
u

( )
mechanism cr y

y
u

( )
mechanism cr y

$a& $b&
y
u

( )
mechanism cr y

y
u

( )
mechanism cr y