Isaac Newton

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Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton (age 46).
Born
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Died
20 1arc, 122632 (aged 84)
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Kensington- 1iddlese5-/ngland- Great 6ritain
Resting place
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Residence
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Nationality
/nglis, (later 6ritis,)
Fields

o 8,ysics
o Nat(ral p,ilosop,y

o 1at,e"atics
o 7strono"y

o 7lc,e"y
o 9,ristian t,eology
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o /cono"ics
Institutions
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Alma mater
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Academic advisors
Isaac 6arrow
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Notable students
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Known for
Newtonian "ec,anics
:ni;ersal gra;itation
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o 4ptics
o 6ino"ial series

o Principia
o Newton's "et,od
Influences
'o,annes Kepler
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8olis, 6ret,ren
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<o#ert 6oyle
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Influenced
Nicolas @atio de !(illier
'o,n Keill
Aoltaire
Signature
2
Isaac Newton
(History of life)
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), English natural philosopher, generally regarded as
the most original and infuential theorist in the history of science. In addition to his
invention of the infnitesimal calculus and a new theory of light and color, Newton
transformed the structure of physical science with his three laws of motion and the
law of universal gravitation. As the keystone of the scientifc revolution of the 17th
century, Newton's work combined the contributions of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo,
Descartes, and others into a new and powerful synthesis. Three centuries later the
resulting structure - classical mechanics - continues to be a useful but no less
elegant monument to his genius.
Life & Character - Isaac Newton was born prematurely on Christmas day 1642 (4
January 1643, New Style) in Woolsthorpe, a hamlet near Grantham in Lincolnshire.
The posthumous son of an illiterate yeoman (also named Isaac), the fatherless
infant was small enough at birth to ft 'into a quartpot.' When he was barely three
years old Newton's mother, Hanna (Ayscough), placed her frst born with his
grandmother in order to remarry and raise a second family with Barnabas Smith, a
wealthy rector from nearby North Witham. Much has been made of Newton's
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posthumous birth, his prolonged separation from his mother, and his unrivaled
hatred of his stepfather. Until Hanna returned to Woolsthorpe in 1653 after the
death of her second husband, Newton was denied his mother's attention, a possible
clue to his complex character. Newton's childhood was anything but happy, and
throughout his life he verged on emotional collapse, occasionally falling into violent
and vindictive attacks against friend and foe alike.
With his mother's return to Woolsthorpe in 1653, Newton was taken from school to
fulfll his birthright as a farmer. Happily, he failed in this calling, and returned to
King's School at Grantham to prepare for entrance to Trinity College, Cambridge.
Numerous anecdotes survive from this period about Newton's absent-mindedness as
a fedging farmer and his lackluster performance as a student. But the turning
point in Newton's life came in June 1661 when he left Woolsthorpe for Cambridge
University. Here Newton entered a new world, one he could eventually call his own.
Although Cambridge was an outstanding center of learning, the spirit of the
scientifc revolution had yet to penetrate its ancient and somewhat ossifed
curriculum. Little is known of Newton's formal studies as an undergraduate, but he
likely received large doses of Aristotle as well as other classical authors. And by all
appearances his academic performance was undistinguished. In 1664 Isaac Barrow,
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, examined Newton's
understanding of Euclid and found it sorely lacking. We now know that during his
undergraduate years Newton was deeply engrossed in private study, that he
privately mastered the works of Ren Descartes, Pierre Gassendi, Thomas Hobbes,
and other major fgures of the scientifc revolution. A series of extant notebooks
shows that by 1664 Newton had begun to master Descartes' Gomtrie and other
forms of mathematics far in advance of Euclid's Elements. Barrow, himself a gifted
mathematician, had yet to appreciate Newton's genius.
In 1665 Newton took his bachelor's degree at Cambridge without honors or
distinction. Since the university was closed for the next two years because of plague,
Newton returned to Woolsthorpe in midyear. There, in the following 18 months, he
made a series of original contributions to science. As he later recalled, 'All this was
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in the two plague years of 1665 and 1666, for in those days I was in my prime of age
for invention, and minded mathematics and philosophy more than at any time
since.' In mathematics Newton conceived his 'method of fuxions' (infnitesimal
calculus), laid the foundations for his theory of light and color, and achieved
signifcant insight into the problem of planetary motion, insights that eventually led
to the publication of his Principia (1687).
In April 1667, Newton returned to Cambridge and, against stif odds, was elected a
minor fellow at Trinity. Success followed good fortune. In the next year he became a
senior fellow upon taking his master of arts degree, and in 1669, before he had
reached his 27th birthday, he succeeded Isaac Barrow as Lucasian Professor of
Mathematics. The duties of this appointment ofered Newton the opportunity to
organize the results of his earlier optical researches, and in 1672, shortly after his
election to the Royal Society, he communicated his frst public paper, a brilliant but
no less controversial study on the nature of color.
In the frst of a series of bitter disputes, Newton locked horns with the society's
celebrated curator of experiments, the bright but brittle Robert Hooke. The ensuing
controversy, which continued until 1678, established a pattern in Newton's behavior.
After an initial skirmish, he quietly retreated. Nonetheless, in 1675 Newton
ventured another yet another paper, which again drew lightning, this time charged
with claims that he had plagiarized from Hooke. The charges were entirely
ungrounded. Twice burned, Newton withdrew.
In 1678, Newton sufered a serious emotional breakdown, and in the following year
his mother died. Newton's response was to cut of contact with others and engross
himself in alchemical research. These studies, once an embarrassment to Newton
scholars, were not misguided musings but rigorous investigations into the hidden
forces of nature. Newton's alchemical studies opened theoretical avenues not found
in the mechanical philosophy, the world view that sustained his early work. While
the mechanical philosophy reduced all phenomena to the impact of matter in
motion, the alchemical tradition upheld the possibility of attraction and repulsion at
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the particulate level. Newton's later insights in celestial mechanics can be traced in
part to his alchemical interests. By combining action-at-a-distance and
mathematics, Newton transformed the mechanical philosophy by adding a
mysterious but no less measurable quantity, gravitational force.
In 1666, as tradition has it, Newton observed the fall of an apple in his garden at
Woolsthorpe, later recalling, 'In the same year I began to think of gravity extending
to the orb of the Moon.' Newton's memory was not accurate. In fact, all evidence
suggests that the concept of universal gravitation did not spring full-blown from
Newton's head in 1666 but was nearly 20 years in gestation. Ironically, Robert
Hooke helped give it life. In November 1679, Hooke initiated an exchange of letters
that bore on the question of planetary motion. Although Newton hastily broke of
the correspondence, Hooke's letters provided a conceptual link between central
attraction and a force falling of with the square of distance. Sometime in early
1680, Newton appears to have quietly drawn his own conclusions.
Meanwhile, in the cofeehouses of London, Hooke, Edmund Halley, and Christopher
Wren struggled unsuccessfully with the problem of planetary motion. Finally, in
August 1684, Halley paid a legendary visit to Newton in Cambridge, hoping for an
answer to his riddle: What type of curve does a planet describe in its orbit around
the sun, assuming an inverse square law of attraction? When Halley posed the
question, Newton's ready response was 'an ellipse.' When asked how he knew it was
an ellipse Newton replied that he had already calculated it. Although Newton had
privately answered one of the riddles of the universe--and he alone possessed the
mathematical ability to do so--he had characteristically misplaced the calculation.
After further discussion he promised to send Halley a fresh calculation forthwith. In
partial fulfllment of his promise Newton produced his De Motu of 1684. From that
seed, after nearly two years of intense labor, the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica appeared. Arguably, it is the most important book published in the
history of science. But if the Principia was Newton's brainchild, Hooke and Halley
were nothing less than midwives.
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Although the Principia was well received, its future was cast in doubt before it
appeared. Here again Hooke was center stage, this time claiming (not without
justifcation) that his letters of 1679-1680 earned him a role in Newton's discovery.
But to no efect. Newton was so furious with Hooke that he threatened to suppress
Book III of the Principia altogether, fnally denouncing science as 'an impertinently
litigious lady.' Newton calmed down and fnally consented to publication. But
instead of acknowledging Hooke's contribution Newton systematically deleted every
possible mention of Hooke's name. Newton's hatred for Hooke was consumptive.
Indeed, Newton later withheld publication of his Opticks (1704) and virtually
withdrew from the Royal Society until Hooke's death in 1703.
After publishing the Principia, Newton became more involved in public afairs. In
1689 he was elected to represent Cambridge in Parliament, and during his stay in
London he became acquainted with John Locke, the famous philosopher, and
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, a brilliant young mathematician who became an intimate
friend. In 1693, however, Newton sufered a severe nervous disorder, not unlike his
breakdown of 1677-1678. The cause is open to interpretation: overwork; the stress of
controversy; the unexplained loss of friendship with Fatio; or perhaps chronic
mercury poisoning, the result of nearly three decades of alchemical research. Each
factor may have played a role. We only know Locke and Samuel Pepys received
strange and seemingly deranged letters that prompted concern for Newton's
'discomposure in head, or mind, or both.' Whatever the cause, shortly after his
recovery Newton sought a new position in London. In 1696, with the help of Charles
Montague, a fellow of Trinity and later earl of Halifax, Newton was appointed
Warden and then Master of the Mint. His new position proved 'most proper,' and he
left Cambridge for London without regret.
During his London years Newton enjoyed power and worldly success. His position at
the Mint assured a comfortable social and economic status, and he was an active
and able administrator. After the death of Hooke in 1703, Newton was elected
president of the Royal Society and was annually reelected until his death. In 1704
7
he published his second major work, the Opticks, based largely on work completed
decades before. He was knighted in 1705.
Although his creative years had passed, Newton continued to exercise a profound
infuence on the development of science. In efect, the Royal Society was Newton's
instrument, and he played it to his personal advantage. His tenure as president has
been described as tyrannical and autocratic, and his control over the lives and
careers of younger disciples was all but absolute. Newton could not abide
contradiction or controversy - his quarrels with Hooke provide singular examples.
But in later disputes, as president of the Royal Society, Newton marshaled all the
forces at his command. For example, he published Flamsteed's astronomical
observations - the labor of a lifetime - without the author's permission; and in his
priority dispute with Leibniz concerning the calculus, Newton enlisted younger men
to fght his war of words, while behind the lines he secretly directed charge and
countercharge. In the end, the actions of the Society were little more than
extensions of Newton's will, and until his death he dominated the landscape of
science without rival. He died in London on March 20, 1727 (March 31, New Style).
Scientifc Achievements
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Mathematics - The origin of Newton's interest in mathematics can be traced to
his undergraduate days at Cambridge. Here Newton became acquainted with a
number of contemporary works, including an edition of Descartes Gomtrie, John
Wallis' Arithmetica infnitorum, and other works by prominent mathematicians. But
between 1664 and his return to Cambridge after the plague, Newton made
fundamental contributions to analytic geometry, algebra, and calculus. Specifcally,
he discovered the binomial theorem, new methods for expansion of infnite series,
and his 'direct and inverse method of fuxions.' As the term implies, fuxional
calculus is a method for treating changing or fowing quantities. Hence, a 'fuxion'
represents the rate of change of a 'fuent'--a continuously changing or fowing
quantity, such as distance, area, or length. In essence, fuxions were the frst words
in a new language of physics.
Newton's creative years in mathematics extended from 1664 to roughly the spring of
1696. Although his predecessors had anticipated various elements of the calculus,
Newton generalized and integrated these insights while developing new and more
rigorous methods. The essential elements of his thought were presented in three
tracts, the frst appearing in a privately circulated treatise, De analysi (On
Analysis),which went unpublished until 1711. In 1671, Newton developed a more
complete account of his method of infnitesimals, which appeared nine years after
his death as Methodus fuxionum et serierum infnitarum (The Method of Fluxions
and Infnite Series, 1736). In addition to these works, Newton wrote four smaller
tracts, two of which were appended to his Opticks of 1704.
Newton and ei!ni". Next to its brilliance, the most characteristic feature of
Newton's mathematical career was delayed publication. Newton's priority dispute
with Leibniz is a celebrated but unhappy example. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
Newton's most capable adversary, began publishing papers on calculus in 1684,
almost 20 years after Newton's discoveries commenced. The result of this temporal
discrepancy was a bitter dispute that raged for nearly two decades. The ordeal
began with rumors that Leibniz had borrowed ideas from Newton and rushed them
into print. It ended with charges of dishonesty and outright plagiarism. The
Newton-Leibniz priority dispute--which eventually extended into philosophical
areas concerning the nature of God and the universe--ultimately turned on the
ambiguity of priority. It is now generally agreed that Newton and Leibniz each
developed the calculus independently, and hence they are considered co-discoverers.
#
But while Newton was the frst to conceive and develop his method of fuxions,
Leibniz was the frst to publish his independent results.
$%tics& Newton's optical research, like his mathematical investigations, began
during his undergraduate years at Cambridge. But unlike his mathematical work,
Newton's studies in optics quickly became public. Shortly after his election to the
Royal Society in 1671, Newton published his frst paper in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society. This paper, and others that followed, drew on his
undergraduate researches as well as his Lucasian lectures at Cambridge.
In 1665-1666, Newton performed a number of experiments on the composition of
light. Guided initially by the writings of Kepler and Descartes, Newton's main
discovery was that visible (white) light is heterogeneous--that is, white light is
composed of colors that can be considered primary. Through a brilliant series of
experiments, Newton demonstrated that prisms separate rather than modify white
light. Contrary to the theories of Aristotle and other ancients, Newton held that
white light is secondary and heterogeneous, while the separate colors are primary
and homogeneous. Of perhaps equal importance, Newton also demonstrated that
the colors of the spectrum, once thought to be qualities, correspond to an observed
and quantifable 'degree of Refrangibility.'
'he (r)cial *+%eriment. Newton's most famous experiment, the
experimentum crucis, demonstrated his theory of the composition of light. Briefy, in
a dark room Newton allowed a narrow beam of sunlight to pass from a small hole in
a window shutter through a prism, thus breaking the white light into an oblong
spectrum on a board. Then, through a small aperture in the board, Newton selected
a given color (for example, red) to pass through yet another aperture to a second
prism, through which it was refracted onto a second board. What began as ordinary
white light was thus dispersed through two prisms.
Newton's 'crucial experiment' demonstrated that a selected color leaving the frst
prism could not be separated further by the second prism. The selected beam
remained the same color, and its angle of refraction was constant throughout.
Newton concluded that white light is a 'Heterogeneous mixture of diferently
refrangible Rays' and that colors of the spectrum cannot themselves be individually
modifed, but are 'Original and connate properties.'
1,
Newton probably conducted a number of his prism experiments at Cambridge before
the plague forced him to return to Woolsthorpe. His Lucasian lectures, later
published in part as Optical Lectures (1728), supplement other researches published
in the Society's Transactions dating from February 1672.
'he $%tic-s. The Opticks of 1704, which frst appeared in English, is Newton's
most comprehensive and readily accessible work on light and color. In Newton's
words, the purpose of the Opticks was 'not to explain the Properties of Light by
Hypotheses, but to propose and prove them by Reason and Experiments.' Divided
into three books, the Opticks moves from defnitions, axioms, propositions, and
theorems to proof by experiment. A subtle blend of mathematical reasoning and
careful observation, the Opticks became the model for experimental physics in the
18th century.
'he (or%)sc)lar 'heory. But the Opticks contained more than
experimental results. During the 17th century it was widely held that light, like
sound, consisted of a wave or undulatory motion, and Newton's major critics in the
feld of optics--Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens--were articulate spokesmen
for this theory. But Newton disagreed. Although his views evolved over time,
Newton's theory of light was essentially corpuscular, or particulate. In efect, since
light (unlike sound) travels in straight lines and casts a sharp shadow, Newton
suggested that light was composed of discrete particles moving in straight lines in
the manner of inertial bodies. Further, since experiment had shown that the
properties of the separate colors of light were constant and unchanging, so too,
Newton reasoned, was the stuf of light itself-- particles.
At various points in his career Newton in efect combined the particle and wave
theories of light. In his earliest dispute with Hooke and again in his Opticks of 1717,
Newton considered the possibility of an ethereal substance--an all-pervasive elastic
material more subtle than air--that would provide a medium for the propagation of
waves or vibrations. From the outset Newton rejected the basic wave models of
Hooke and Huygens, perhaps because they overlooked the subtlety of periodicity.
The question of periodicity arose with the phenomenon known as 'Newton's rings.'
In book II of the Opticks, Newton describes a series of experiments concerning the
colors of thin flms. His most remarkable observation was that light passing through
a convex lens pressed against a fat glass plate produces concentric colored rings
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(Newton's rings) with alternating dark rings. Newton attempted to explain this
phenomenon by employing the particle theory in conjunction with his hypothesis of
'fts of easy transmission [refraction] and refection.' After making careful
measurements, Newton found that the thickness of the flm of air between the lens
(of a given curvature) and the glass corresponded to the spacing of the rings. If dark
rings occurred at thicknesses of 0, 2, 4, 6... , then the colored rings corresponded to
an odd number progression, 1, 3, 5, 7, .... Although Newton did not speculate on the
cause of this periodicity, his initial association of 'Newton's rings' with vibrations in
a medium suggests his willingness to modify but not abandon the particle theory.
The Opticks was Newton's most widely read work. Following the frst edition, Latin
versions appeared in 1706 and 1719, and second and third English editions in 1717
and 1721. Perhaps the most provocative part of the Opticks is the section known as
the 'Queries,' which Newton placed at the end of the book. Here he posed questions
and ventured opinions on the nature of light, matter, and the forces of nature.
Mechanics. Newton's research in dynamics falls into three major periods: the
plague years 1664-1666, the investigations of 1679-1680, following Hooke's
correspondence, and the period 1684-1687, following Halley's visit to Cambridge.
The gradual evolution of Newton's thought over these two decades illustrates the
complexity of his achievement as well as the prolonged character of scientifc
'discovery.'
While the myth of Newton and the apple maybe true, the traditional account of
Newton and gravity is not. To be sure, Newton's early thoughts on gravity began in
Woolsthorpe, but at the time of his famous 'moon test' Newton had yet to arrive at
the concept of gravitational attraction. Early manuscripts suggest that in the mid-
1660's, Newton did not think in terms of the moon's central attraction toward the
earth but rather of the moon's centrifugal tendency to recede. Under the infuence of
the mechanical philosophy, Newton had yet to consider the possibility of action- at-
a-distance; nor was he aware of Kepler's frst two planetary hypotheses. For
historical, philosophical, and mathematical reasons, Newton assumed the moon's
centrifugal 'endeavour' to be equal and opposite to some unknown mechanical
constraint. For the same reasons, he also assumed a circular orbit and an inverse
square relation. The latter was derived from Kepler's third hypothesis (the square of
a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the
sun), the formula for centrifugal force (the centrifugal force on a revolving body is
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proportional to the square of its velocity and inversely proportional to the radius of
its orbit), and the assumption of circular orbits.
The next step was to test the inverse square relation against empirical data. To do
this Newton, in efect, compared the restraint on the moon's 'endeavour' to recede
with the observed rate of acceleration of falling objects on earth. The problem was to
obtain accurate data. Assuming Galileo's estimate that the moon is 60 earth radii
from the earth, the restraint on the moon should have been 1/3600 (1/60
2
) of the
gravitational acceleration on earth. But Newton's estimate of the size of the earth
was too low, and his calculation showed the efect on the moon to be about 1/4000 of
that on earth. As Newton later described it, the moon test answered 'pretty nearly.'
But the fgures for the moon were not exact, and Newton abandoned the problem.
In late 1679 and early 1680 an exchange of letters with Hooke renewed Newton's
interest. In November 1679, nearly 15 years after the moon test, Hooke wrote
Newton concerning a hypothesis presented in his Attempt to Prove the Motion of the
Earth (1674). Here Hooke proposed that planetary orbits result from a tangential
motion and 'an attractive motion towards the centrall body.' In later letters Hooke
further specifed a central attracting force that fell of with the square of distance.
As a result of this exchange Newton rejected his earlier notion of centrifugal
tendencies in favor of central attraction. Hooke's letters provided crucial insight.
But in retrospect, if Hooke's intuitive power seems unparalleled, it never
approached Newton's mathematical power in principle or in practice.
When Halley visited Cambridge in 1684, Newton had already demonstrated the
relation between an inverse square attraction and elliptical orbits. To Halley's 'joy
and amazement,' Newton apparently succeeded where he and others failed. With
this, Halley's role shifted, and he proceeded to guide Newton toward publication.
Halley personally fnanced the Principia and saw it through the press to publication
in July 1687.
'he .rinci%ia. Newton's masterpiece is divided into three books. Book I of the
Principia begins with eight defnitions and three axioms, the latter now known as
Newton's laws of motion. No discussion of Newton would be complete without them:
(1) Every body continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it (inertia). (2) The
change in motion is proportional to the motive force impressed and is made in the
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direction of the straight line in which that force is impressed (F = ma). (3) To every
action there is always an opposed and equal reaction. Following these axioms,
Newton proceeds step by step with propositions, theoreSms, and problems.
In Book II of the Principia, Newton treats the Motion of bodies through resisting
mediums as well as the motion of fuids themselves. Since Book II was not part of
Newton's initial outline, it has traditionally seemed somewhat out of place.
Nonetheless, it is noteworthy that near the end of Book II (Section IX) Newton
demonstrates that the vortices invoked by Descartes to explain planetary motion
could not be self-sustaining; nor was the vortex theory consistent with Kepler's
three planetary rules. The purpose of Book II then becomes clear. After discrediting
Descartes' system, Newton concludes: 'How these motions are performed in free
space without vortices, may be understood by the frst book; and I shall now more
fully treat of it in the following book.'
In Book III, subtitled the System of the World, Newton extended his three laws of
motion to the frame of the world, fnally demonstrating 'that there is a power of
gravity tending to all bodies, proportional to the several quantities of matter which
they contain.' Newton's law of universal gravitation states that F = G Mm/R
2
; that
is, that all matter is mutually attracted with a force (F) proportional to the product
of their masses (Mm) and inversely proportional to the square of distance (R2)
between them. G is a constant whose value depends on the units used for mass and
distance. To demonstrate the power of his theory, Newton used gravitational
attraction to explain the motion of the planets and their moons, the precession of
equinoxes, the action of the tides, and the motion of comets. In sum, Newton's
universe united heaven and earth with a single set of laws. It became the physical
and intellectual foundation of the modern world view.
Perhaps the most powerful and infuential scientifc treatise ever published, the
Principia appeared in two further editions during Newton's lifetime, in 1713 and
1726.
Other Researches. Throughout his career Newton conducted research in theology
and history with the same passion that he pursued alchemy and science. Although
some historians have neglected Newton's nonscientifc writings, there is little doubt
of his devotion to these subjects, as his manuscripts amply attest. Newton's writings
on theological and biblical subjects alone amount to about 1.3 million words, the
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equivalent of 20 of today's standard length books. Although these writings say little
about Newtonian science, they tell us a good deal about Isaac Newton.
Newton's fnal gesture before death was to refuse the sacrament, a decision of some
consequence in the 18th century. Although Newton was dutifully raised in the
Protestant tradition his mature views on theology were neither Protestant,
traditional, nor orthodox. In the privacy of his thoughts and writings, Newton
rejected a host of doctrines he considered mystical, irrational, or superstitious. In a
word, he was a Unitarian.
Newton's research outside of science--in theology, prophecy, and history--was a quest
for coherence and unity. His passion was to unite knowledge and belief, to reconcile
the Book of Nature with the Book of Scripture. But for all the elegance of his
thought and the boldness of his quest, the riddle of Isaac Newton remained. In the
end, Newton is as much an enigma to us as he was, no doubt, to himself.
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The contribution
It is all about Newton's achievements including his theory of universal gravitation,
his famous laws of motion, his study of light, and his studies on calculus.
Sir Isaac Newton : Contributions One of the most important scientists of all time,
Isaac Newton, made many discoveries and theories that have changed the world. His
studies in physics have infuenced modern physics greatly with his laws of motion,
his study of light, and his law of gravitational motion. Newton also created one of
the most important scientifc books of all time, the Principia, widely regarded as one
of the most infuential works on physics of all times. Newton has been one of the
most infuential and important people throughout history with his theories and his
studies.
Isaac Newton, one of the greatest English scientists and mathematicians, was born
in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire. He was born on December 25 1642, and was born
"posthumously and prematurely and barely hung onto life" and "had an ill-starred
youth"(Asimov103). Isaac Newton grew up from a family of farmers and he became
very prosperous because of it. He never knew his father, who was also named Isaac
Newton, who died in October 1642, three months before his son was born. Although
Newton's father owned a great deal of property and animals which made him a
wealthy man, he was uneducated and could not sign his own name (Connor). His
mother, marrying again three years later, left the child with his grandparents.
Isaac Newton's life can be split up into 3 diferent periods. The frst period is his
boyhood days from 1643 up to his appointment to a chair in 1669. The second period
from 1669 to 1687 was where he did most of his work and was a professor at
Cambridge. The third period was when Newton was a government ofcial and had
little interest in mathematical interest. (Connor). At school, Newton was interested
in constructing mechanical devices. He showed no signs of unusual brightness. "He
was slow in his studies until his late teens. He was even taken out of his studies in
the late 1650s" (Asimov 103). His uncle who attended Cambridge College detected a
scholar in Newton, and he urged him to go to Cambridge. In 1660, Isaac attended
Cambridge, and in 1665 he graduated. Newton had to leave Cambridge because of
the plague, and it was during this time that Newton developed most of his
signifcant discoveries. Because Newton was very reclusive, Newton did not,
however, publish his results. (Weisstein).
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Newton's four greatest achievements was the study of light, the invention of the
binomial theorem, the discovery of calculus, and the theory of universal gravitation.
Newton's prism experiments made him famous. "Newton, at 27 became professor of
mathematics at Cambridge. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1672, where he
reported his experiments on light and color to the Society" (Asimov 103). Newton
rarely went to bed till two or three o' clock, sometimes not till fve or six. He used to
employ six weeks in his laboratory till he fnished his experiments. But Newton's
fame also brought him some enemies. Hooke was Newton's main rival. He started
this rivalry when Newton reached the Royal Society (Asimov, 106). Hooke accused
Newton of stealing the idea of the inverse square law. "Hooke, a member of the
Royal Society, was a prolifc man when it came to scientifc inventions and theories"
(Muir 115). He attacked Newton for stealing his ideas and maintained a lifelong
enmity, clearly founded on jealousy. Newton was one of the most well known
scientists in his time, "as Newtonian science became increasingly accepted on the
Continent"(Muir117).
Newton was "at the height of his creative power, he singled out 1665-1666 (spent
largely in Lincolnshire because of plague in Cambridge) as the prime of my age for
invention." During those couple of years, he prepared Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) also known
as the Principia which has one of the biggest impacts on today's Physics (Hull). It is
perhaps the "most powerful and infuential scientifc treatise known to man"
("Newton"). In his book he covered his discovery of calculus, theories for light and
color, and planetary motion ("Newton"). Book I begins with eight defnitions and
three axioms. These are later called Newton's Laws of Motion ("Newton"). In Book
II, Newton treats the motion of bodies through restating mediums as well as the
motion of fuids. He discredited Descartes system of planetary laws, saying that the
vertices of Descartes could not be self-sustaining. Book II was not originally part of
the original outline ("Newton"). Newton's Book III, also called "System of the World,"
stated the famous law of Universal gravitation. Newton used gravitational
attraction to explain the motion of the planets and their moons. Newton's laws
became the physical and intellectual foundation of the modern world view
("Newton").
17
The Principia is widely regarded as the most "important and infuential works on
physics of all time" with many of those theories infuencing modern physics today
(Weisstein).
Newton's three laws of motion are described in Newton's frst book of Principia.
Newton's frst law is applications for modern physics. Newton's First Law of Motion
states that "a body remains at rest and a body in motion remains in motion at a
constant velocity as long as outside forces are not involved." This law is also known
as the Principle of Inertia. Newton's second law "defnes a force in terms of mass
and acceleration and this was the frst clear distinction between the mass of the
body and its weight." Newton's third law states that "for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction." This law is used today in modern rockets and is his
most famous out of his laws. Newton was able to fnd out how the gravitational force
between the earth and moon could be calculated with his three laws. (Asimov, 108).
Newton's three laws can be characterized as the foundation of the theory of motion.
These laws have revolutionized modern physics and are one of the most renowned
theories in physics.
One of Newton's greatest achievements was his theories of light. Newton's most
famous experiments, experimentum crucis, demonstrated his theory of the
composition of light. Newton let light pass through a prism and what was one beam
of light, 3 came out of the prism ("Newton") Newton investigated further and
discovered that light was made up of seven colors which bend and refract at
diferent angles (Muir, 107). Newton thought that light rays moved in straight lines
rather than a wavelike motion. His study in light greatly infuenced the refracting
telescopes making them stronger and clearer (Asimov, 107). Newton's study of light
was the beginning of optics and the study of light (Muir, 107). Newton was greatly
renowned for his study in light which he published his studies in his second book
$%ti-s&
According to a well-known story, many people believed that Newton saw a apple fall
in his orchard and developed a theory that the same force governed the motion of
the Moon and the apple. (Hull). Newton theorized that the rate of fall was
proportional to the strength of the gravitational force and that this force fell of
according to the square of the distance to Earth. "A law of attraction held between
any two bodies in the universe, so that his equation became the law of universal
gravitation. It explained all of Kepler's Laws and explained planetary motion as it is
18
today" (Asimov, 109). The Law of Universal Gravitation not only altered men's mind
about divine bodies, but changed men's minds about human minds (Muir, 112).
Newton's achievement in the law of universal gravitation is well known, and has
revolutionized modern physics.
Newton is also given credit to have huge achievements in mathematics as well as
physics. Newton invented the binomial theorem and calculus while he was studying
the infnite series. Newton and Leibniz developed the calculus independently and at
about the same time. This sparked a rivalry between them on who developed the
theory frst. Newton is given credit to have discovered it. But at the same time
Leibniz published his work before Newton, so Leibniz should have gotten credit for
it (Muir, 107). Newton's research in mathematics has made him not only one of the
greatest scientists of all time, but has also made him one of the greatest
mathematicians.
Throughout history, there has been no other more infuential scientist than Isaac
Newton. Newton's study in physics and mathematics put him with many of the
greatest scientists. His three laws of motion, his study of the nature of light, and his
law of universal gravitation are some of his greatest works. Newton has been
thought of for the last 300 years, the founding exemplar of modern physical science.
So it is therefore no exaggeration to see that Newton was and still is the single most
important contributor to the development of modern science.
Newton's
Discoveries in
Theoretical Physics
1#
.rinci%ia Mathematica
Newton/s Ma0n)m $%)s 1'he .rinci%ia
Sir Isaac Newton contributed to many branches of human thought, among which
physics and mathematics were the felds in which he contributed substantially.
In 1687, the sum total of his discoveries in mechanics were published in the
legendary book Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica
(atin for Mathematical .rinci%les of Nat)ral .hiloso%hy)&
In this !oo-2 (fondly referred to as the .rinci%ia !y scientists)2 he synthesi"ed
what was -nown2 into a lo0ically whole and consistent theoretical framewor-2
thro)0h his laws of motion and theory of 0ra3itation& (reatin0 the 0reat
0enerali"ations which !ind all the loose threads of cl)es into a coherent
whole2 is an art that has !een mastered !y only a few till date& 4ir Isaac
Newton was one of them&
'he 0reatest of Newton/s disco3eries came when he e+%erienced %ristine
solit)de2 in which he co)ld meditate on his 3a0)e ideas and assimilate them
to0ether into a lo0ically coherent whole& 'he %rinci%le that 0)ided Newton/s
disco3eries was sim%licity& i-e Newton2 another theoretical %hysics 0iant2
5l!ert *instein was also 0)ided !y sim%licity and ele0ance in his thin-in0
a!o)t %hysical laws& $ne of Newton/s 6)otes2 %recisely %ro3es the %oint7
"Truth is ever to be found in the simplicity, and not in the multiplicity and confusion
of things."
The Laws of Motion
2,
Newton/s second law of motion de8nes a /9orce/
Newton/s laws of motion de8ned the conce%t of inertia and
force& 'hey are stated as follows:
*Every object stays in its state of rest or uniform motion, unless disturbed by
an external force. (Law of Inertia)
*The force acting on a body is defned as the rate of change of its linear
momentum, with time. (Force Law)
*Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. (Action-Reaction Law)
These laws defne the efect that the absence or presence of a force has on
objects. This troika of axioms defned the framework of mechanics, through
which the dynamics of forces and their efects can be analyzed. With these
laws, physics made the transition from an empirical feld to a science with
sound theoretical foundations.
21
;isco3ery of the aw of <ra3itation
A falling apple supposedly made Newton think
about the 'Gravity' of the situation!
While the three laws of motion defne a type of
mechanics, Newton's law of gravitation defnes
the universal force of gravity, whose implications
can be studied in the mechanical framework that
he created through the laws of motion. The
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that:
"Every particle of matter attracts every other
particle with a force along the straight line joining them and is directly proportional
to their masses, while inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them."
22
'he aw of <ra3itation
Using this law and making
extrapolations based on it,
Newton derived Kepler's
empirical laws of planetary
motion, which naturally emerged
from his gravitational theory.
Many people may have observed
apples and all kinds of other
things falling down, before
Newton, but none of them
followed the broad generalization
that it represented. Even moon
falls towards the Earth and
Earth towards the Sun, in the
same way! That is what Newton fgured out. For the frst time, man could
understand the motion of planets and satellites and give it a rational explanation.
Newton validated Kepler's laws and the heliocentric model of the solar system
A paradigm shift brought about by Newton's law of gravitation was the concept of
action at a distance. A gravitational force acts between two particles even though
they are not in contact with each other. That is, it manifests as an action at a
distance. This concept proved to be the undoing of Newton's theory later and which
was overthrown by Einstein's theory of General Relativity.
23
Even though now superseded by general relativity, Newton's idea of gravitation
serves well in understanding the motion of planets and stars to incredible accuracy
;isco3eries in $%tics
Opticks
Inquiry into the nature of light - Opticks
Newton was fascinated with the feld of
optics and not surprisingly, made some
major discoveries. His prime focus was
unraveling the nature of light and its
properties. Using prisms and lenses, he
studied the refraction and difraction of
light. The description of these experiments
and his discoveries detailing light
associated phenomena were published in
1706, through the book - Opticks. What the
principia did for mechanics, this book did
for the feld of optics, fundamentally
revolutionizing it. Here are some of his
most important fndings.
He discovered white light to be composed of component color wavelengths. He =
demonstrated this with the use of a prism which dispersed a beam of white light
into wavelengths of diferent hues. It's the same efect which leads to the formation
of rainbows in the sky. Through this fnding, he overturned the prevalent notion
since Aristotelian times which stated that light was inherently white and colorless.
One of the fundamental problems which Newton explored was - 'How do various =
colors arise?'. His experiments revealed that color arose from refection and
transmission of light and primarily from selective absorption of light by materials.
From observation of the diferent angles at which individual wavelengths of light
24
dispersed from a prism, he concluded that color arises from a fundamental property
of light itself, though revealed only through interaction with matter.
A major discovery was the fact that most colors are created from overlapping of =
certain color components. He also stated the fact which most neuroscientists will
agree with today, that human perception of color is essentially a mental
phenomenon or subjective experience.
He predicted the dispersion and aberration of light in telescopes and suggested =
remedies to correct the same. In the process, he invented a new kind of telescope.
Newton promoted the concept of a universal ether through which light propagates.
This was later proved wrong by experimental tests of the special theory of relativity.
Newton showed white light to be made of
component colors
= He also put forward the theory that light is made up of corpuscles, which was
later proved wrong by Huygens' wave theory of light. However, the idea got a sort of
new life when Einstein introduced light to be made of photons which are energy
25
corpuscles. However, photons are far diferent from the corpuscles that Newton
imagined. Nevertheless, he provided the impetus to new lines of thought.
Newton's Law of !ooling
Among his other stellar discoveries, Newton also came up with an empirical theory
explaining the rate at which your hot cup of cofee cools. The law discovered by him
states that the rate of cooling in a body is directly proportional to temperature
diference between the body and its surroundings. Mathematically, it can be stated
as follows:
dT/dt = - K (T - Ts)
where, T is temperature of the body, K is a constant, dT/dt is a time derivative
representing change of temperature and Ts is the temperature of surroundings.
(The derivative is 'negative' as the body is cooling).
Newton's Discoveries in Mathematics
"inomial Theorem
Under the tutelage of Isaac Barrow at Cambridge, Newton's mathematical genius
fowered. His frst original contribution to mathematics was the advancement of
binomial theorem. Through the usage of algebra of fnite quantities in an infnite
series, he included negative and fractional exponents in the binomial theorem.
!alculus
Isolated during the plague years (1665-1666) at Woolsthorpe Manor, Newton came
up with his greatest breakthroughs in physics and mathematics. Through invention
of Infnitesimal Calculus, (credit for which also belongs to Leibniz), Newton
provided a mathematical framework which enabled the study of continuous changes.
26
He called it the Science of Fluxions. The invention of calculus ranks right up there
with invention of fre or the building of the frst steam engine. His approach to
calculus was geometrical, in contrast to Leibniz, who was inclined more towards the
analytical side.
Newton#$aphson Method
He also made contributions to numerical analysis in the form of the Newton-
Raphson method. In the book, De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum
infnitas (Latin for On analysis by infnite series), published in 1771, Newton
described this iterative method of approximation to calculate roots of real-valued
functions. The method is described by the following formula.
xn+1 = xn - f(xn) / f'(xn)
where xn+1 is the root calculated from the n+1th iteration, xn is approximate root
from the previous iteration, f(xn) is the function to be solved and f'(xn) is the
derivative of the function.
Newton's Inventions
Newton wasn't just an abstract theoretician, but also a practical experimenter, as
his research in optics reveals. Here are some of his widely and lesser known
inventions, besides his lofty theoretical physics triumphs.
$e%ecting Telescope
27
Newton's Refecting Telescope
During his investigation in
optics, Newton also developed
an alternative telescope
design, which side-stepped
some of the inherent faws of
the prevalent refraction-based
design. What is now known as
the Newtonian telescope is
designed with a paraboloid
mirror at the base which
refects the incoming light
onto a slanted fat secondary
mirror. This fat mirror
ultimately refects the collected light to an eyepiece for observation. Besides solving
the problem of chromatic aberration - the bane of refracting telescopes, it is also
comparatively cheaper to build.
CatDoors
The invention of the pet door, now a common feature in many American or European
homes is often attributed to Newton, who supposedly came up with the idea, to
allow his pet cats to travel in and out without disturbing him. Though this claim
stays unsubstantiated and the sources are largely anecdotal, it makes for an
interesting addition to Newton's repertoire of inventions.
These were the most important of Newton's discoveries in theoretical physics that
led to a radical change in our world view. One has to only ask two questions - why
and how to begin the adventure which is pursuit of truth. This journey not only
gives you proverbial intellectual high, but also connects you more deeply with
nature. Those of you who enjoy this kind of a pursuit, may understand the way of
thinking that led to some of the greatest of his discoveries. Remember, it all began
with a 'Why?'. I leave you with a gem of a thought, from the man himself.
28
&amous Isaac Newton 'uotes
5lmost all of )s are familiar with Newton/s laws of motion and his third law2
!)t there is yet another side of this in>)ential scientist2 which only a few
%eo%le are aware of& He was a !rilliant orator2 and the traces of this are seen
in his 6)otes and sayin0s that ha3e !een com%iled !elow&
'o e3ery action there is always o%%osed an e6)al reaction&
(Newton/s 3rd aw)
If I ha3e e3er made any 3al)a!le disco3eries2 it has !een owin0
more to %atient attention than to any other talent&
5 man may ima0ine thin0s that are false2 !)t he can only
)nderstand thin0s that are tr)e2 for if the thin0s !e false2 the
a%%rehension of them is not )nderstandin0&
*rrors are not in the art2 !)t in the arti8cers&
'o myself I am only a child %layin0 on the !each2 while 3ast
oceans of tr)th lie )ndisco3ered !efore me&
'he seed of a tree has the nat)re of a !ranch or twi0 or !)d& It is
a %art of the tree2 !)t if se%arated and set in the earth to !e
!etter no)rished2 the em!ryo or yo)n0 tree contained in it ta-es
root and 0rows into a new tree&
I can calc)late the motion of hea3enly !odies2 !)t not the
madness of %eo%le&
'his most !ea)tif)l system ('he ?ni3erse) co)ld only %roceed
2#
from the dominion of an intelli0ent and %owerf)l @ein0&
.hiloso%hy is s)ch an im%ertinently liti0io)s lady that a man has
as 0ood !e en0a0ed in law s)its as ha3e to do with her& (In a
letter to *dm)nd Halley)
If I ha3e done the %)!lic any ser3ice2 it is d)e to my %atient
tho)0ht&

5!o)t the 'ime of the *nd2 a !ody of men will !e raised )% who
will t)rn their attention to the .ro%hecies2 and insist )%on their
literal inter%retation2 in the midst of m)ch clamor and o%%osition&
Ae are to admit no more ca)ses of nat)ral thin0s than s)ch as
are !oth tr)e and s)Bcient to e+%lain their a%%earances&
I -ee% the s)!Cect of my in6)iry constantly !efore me2 and wait till
the 8rst dawnin0 o%ens 0rad)ally2 !y little and little2 into a f)ll
and clear li0ht&
'o me there has ne3er !een a hi0her so)rce of earthly honor or
distinction than that connected with ad3ances in science&
'act is the art of ma-in0 a %oint witho)t ma-in0 an enemy&
It is the wei0ht2 not n)m!ers of e+%eriments that is to !e
re0arded&
If I ha3e seen f)rther2 it is !y standin0 )%on the sho)lders of
0iants& (etter to Do!ert Hoo-e)
No 0reat disco3ery was e3er made witho)t a !old 0)ess&
3,
Newton on <od and Deli0ion
When famous people comment on topics like God and religion, the chances of their
comments stirring a controversy are quite high. That, perhaps, is the reason why
most of them avoid saying anything that can be classifed as controversial. Sir Isaac
Newton was an exception to this though. A prominent scholar of theology, Newton
had a lot to say about religion and God.
Atheism is so senseless and odious to mankind that it never had many professors.
Idolatry is a more dangerous crime because it is apt by the authority of Kings and
under very specious pretenses to insinuate itself into mankind.
The most beautiful system of the Sun, Planets and Comets could only proceed from
the counsel and dominion of an intelligent being. All variety of created objects which
represent order and Life in the Universe could happen only by the willful reasoning
of its original Creator, whom I call the Lord God.
Religion is partly fundamental and immutable, partly circumstantial and mutable.
He who thinks half-heartedly will not believe in God; but he who really thinks has
to believe in God.
These quotes don't just inspire you, but also trigger a thought process in your mind.
If it was not for Newton's critical thinking, the laws of gravity would have eluded
mankind for a few more years. We ought to learn something from the achievements
of this great person.
31
NAME: Maricar Q. Asis
NICKNAME: Rahky
AGE: 19
BIRTHDAY: January 25, 1995
BIRTHPLACE: P-3 Brgy. Tulay Na Lupa, Labo C, N
NAME OF FATHER: Mario D. Asis
NAME OF MOTHER: Erlinda Q. Asis
SPECIAL SKILLS: Dancing
HABBIT: listening music, playing guitar, cp, watching t.v, reading books
32
DEDICATION :
EIt is easy to for0i3e than to
for0et
$e%ection(
This research paper ma)e me happy because
it helps me to learn about the life of Isaac
Newton* his contribution* his discoveries
which is very useful in our times* her
+uotation that ma)e me inspired and adhere
him* and also with the help of this research
paper I can discuss the life events of Isaac
Newton
Than) you to my professor &w Llobore for
giving me this )ind of tas) it serve as my
33
prior )nowledge and when I was in feld of
teaching process I can teach this to my
students

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